mm 


■•  -It  jji  ;  .  , .  . 


ilHIIIiillll: 


^llllll! 


iniiHijIMHM 


i  it  1  z  I  i 


■  2^4   itii' 


®ljF  S.l.  Ml  IGtbrary 


Nortlj  (Earnlma  BUtt  (EoUcge 

QHI98 
H3B7 


>;pfet  -^ 


if 


{^ 


136722 

This  book  may  be  kept  out  TWO  WEEKS 
ONLY,  and  is  subject  to  a  fine  of  FIVE 
CENTS  a  day  thereafter.  It  is  due  on  the 
day  indicated  below: 


I9?kv'^,^Vt 


50M— May-54— Form    3 


Natural  History  of  Hawaii 


BOOK    ONE 
The  People,  The  Islands 

AND  THE 

Plant  Life  of  the  Group 


fr  J'Ui^i^U}v /Srt^^ 


Frontispiece 


"There  are  more  things  in  heaven  and  earth,  Horatio, 
Than  are  dreamt  of  in  your  philosophy."-  Shakespeare. 


Natural  History  of  Hawaii 

Being  an  Account  of  the  Hawaiian  People,  the  Geology  and  Geography 

of  the  Islands,  and  the  Native  and  Introduced  Plants 

and  Animals  of  the  Group 


BY 


WILLIAM  ALANSON  BRYAN,  B.  Sc. 

Professor  of  Zoolofjy  and  Geology  in  the  College  of  Hawaii 

Fellow  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science;  Member,  The  American 
Ornithologists  Union;  National  Geographic  Society;  American  Fisheries  Society;  Ha- 
waiian   Historical   Society;    Hawaiian    Entomological    Society;    Amer- 
ican   Museums    Association;    National    Audubon    Society; 
Seven  Years  Curator  of  Ornithology  in  the 
Bishop  Museum,  etc. 


Illustrated  with  one  luiiulred  and  seventeen  full  paize  plates  from  four  hundred 
and   forty-one    photographs   elucidating   the   ethnology  of  the    native 
people,  the  geology  and  topography  of  the  islands  and  figur- 
ing more  than  one  thousand  of  the  conuuon  or  inter- 
esting species  of   plants  and  animals  to  be 
found  in  the  native  and  introduced 
fauna  and  flora  of  Hawaii. 


Honolulu.  Hawaii 

The  Hawaiian  (jazcltc  Co.,  Ltd. 

1915 


For  Distributors  see  Index 

Copyriclit,  1915,  By  William  Alasson  Bkvan 
Ht>N<)LrLU 

(Pate  Severn 


TO  THE  MEMORY  OF 

R.  G.  B. 

THIS  VOLUME  IS  DEDICATED 


PREFACE. 


In  the  preparation  of  the  following"  pages  it  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author 
to  bring  together  into  one  volume  the  more  important  and  interesting  facts  about 
the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  their  primitive  inhal)itants,  as  well  as  infonuation 
concerning  the  native  and  introduced  plants  and  animals  of  the  group. 

It  is  believed  that  those  who  read  this  volume — be  they  travelers,  residents 
or  students — will  find,  in  its  brief  account  of  nature  in  Hawaii,  not  only  much 
that  will  prove  interesting  and  entertaining,  but  that  which  will  foster  and 
stimulate  an  interest  in  the  things  of  nature  for  which  these  mid-ocean  islands 
are  far-famed. 

It  is  asserted  that,  in  childhood,  every  person  is  interested  in  some  of  the 
many  fields  of  natural  history.  It  would  be  strange,  indeed,  if  Hawaii,  with 
its  wonderful  natural  environment  and  remarkable  tropical  plants  and  interesting 
animals,  did  not  rekindle  in  the  minds  of  the  old  and  encourage  in  the  hearts 
of  the  young  a  desire  to  know  more  about  things  Hawaiian.  As  a  result  of 
the  natural  longing  for  information,  there  has  existed  for  years  a  pressing  de- 
mand in  Hawaii,  from  teachers,  travelers  and  students,  for  a  hand-book  that 
would  supply  the  names  for,  as  well  as  the  facts  relative  to,  familiar  objects. 

To  supply  a  guide  that  would  provide  reliable  and  readable  information, 
in  a  form  that  would  be  welcomed  by  the  general  reading  public,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  that  would  meet  the  requirements  of  the  homes,  the  schools,  and  the 
libraries  of  Hawaii  and  the  mainland,  as  a  convenient  reference  book,  has  been 
the  author's  endeavor.  While  the  volume  lays  no  claim  to  being  an  exhaustive 
monograph  of  the  vast  subject  of  which  it  treats,  the  material  used  has  been 
patiently  gathered  from  every  possible  source  and  carefully  selected,  sifted 
and  verified  in  the  field  and  study,  by  the  author,  during  many  years'  resi- 
dence in  the  islands  as  an  enthusiastic  naturalist,  museum  curator  and  college 
professor.  For  these  reasons  it  is  believed  that  specialists  willi  technical  in- 
formation at  hand,  no  less  than  those  who  pride  themselves  on  their  general 
knowledge  of  things  Hawaiian,  will  find  the  volume  a  handy  'first  aid'  and  re- 
liable and  convenient  reference  work. 

The  carrying  out  of  the  three-fold  object  of  in-eparing  a  readable  account 
of  Hawaii,  a  text-book  or  supplementary  readei'  on  the  natural  history  of  the 
islands,  and  a  convi-nicnt  rcfcfcnce  book  for  those  who  i-(M|iiii-('  a  iiiori'  Icclniical 
or  detailed  handling  of  the  material  iiicln(hMl  tlian  is  custoiuai-y  in  a  l)ook 
frankly  popular  in  nature,  presents  certain  difficulties  that  seem  to  have  been 
met  by  the  selection,  classification,  and  arrangement  of  the  text  and  the  illustra- 
tions. 

The  casual  reader  will  find  the  body  of  the  text  shorn  of  the  technical 
verbiage  and  scientific  names  that  so  often  distract,  annoy  and  fatigue  the  lay- 
man.     Where  such  terms  have  been  indispensal)l('  tli(\v  have  been  defined  in  the 


136722 


10  NATUKAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

text,  the  footnotes,  or  in  the  index  and  glossary.  Those  who  prefer  their  reading 
should  rest  on  the  firmer  ground  that  definite  nomenclature  is  supposed  to  im- 
part, will  find  the  necessary  technical  names  of  orders,  families,  genera  and 
species,  referred  to  in  the  text  given  in  the  footnotes,  or  in  the  cross-references 
in  the  index.  The  systematist  and  specialist  will  not  expect  the  degree  of  com- 
pleteness in  this  regard  that  Avould  characterize  a  manual  dealing  with  any  one 
of  the  subjects  herein  treated.  However,  the  scientific  worker  will  find  in  the 
index  and  glossary,  not  only  the  scientific  names  most  frequently  in  use  for 
common  objects  in  the  more  important  contributions  to  the  literature  of  his 
subject  in  the  islands,  but  often  the  latest  word  on  the  nomenclature  of  the 
species  in  question. 

The  index  and  glossary  is  made  a  special  feature  of  the  book.  It  has  been 
carefully  prepared  and  numerous  cross-references  to  the  various  English,  Ha- 
waiian and  Latin  names  that  are  current  with  the  people,  or  are  written  into  the 
literature  of  the  islands  will  aid  the  student  in  working  out  synonyms.  The 
author  has  endeavored  to  make  the  possession  of  a  little  information,  concerning 
the  natural  history  of  Hawaii,  of  use  to  the  would-be  student.  To  aid  the  lay- 
man, two  generous  open  doors  have  been  provided :  one  through  the  index,  the 
other  through  the  table  of  contents.  By  the  use  of  these  doors  the  inquirer,  in 
possession  of  any  one  of  the  -many  common  names,  the  name  of  the  great  division 
to  which  the  plant  or  animal  belongs,  or  even  knowing  something  of  its  habits 
or  habitat,  will,  in  most  cases,  find  their  knowledge  sufficient  to  guide  the  way 
to  such  definite  information  as  may  be  contained  within  the  body  of  the  book. 

]\Iuch  in  the  form  of  notes,  comments  and  observation  that  seemed  too 
specific,  local,  critical,  fragmentary  or  prosaic  to  fit  well  into  the  plan  of  the 
body  of  the  text,  has  been  reserved  for  the  combined  index,  glossar}^  and  com- 
pendium at  the  end  of  the  volume,  and  there  appears  in  alphabetical  order  without 
reference  to  the  text.  The  index  therefore  should  be  in  constant  use  by  the 
reader  and  student. 

Because  of  obvious  limitations,  and  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  objects 
sought,  the  author  has  made  no  rigid  attempt  to  follow  out  a  system 
of  arrangement  in  this  volume  such  as  an  ethnologist,  a  geologist,  a  botanist 
or  a  zoologist  would  choose  were  they  treating  their  special  subject 
separately  and  in  fuller  detail.  Strictly  rigorous  adherence  to  the  various 
chapter  headings  has  often  been  next  to  impossible.  A  given  subject  is  often 
presented  in  preceding  and  succeeding  chapters;  or  it  may  occur  in  dift'erent 
parts  of  the  book.  The  natural  desire  is  that  books,  in  any  way  scientific  in 
character,  should  follow  some  generally  accepted  system  or  arrangement.  Such 
systems  usually  start  with  the  lower,  older,  simpler  or  more  generalized  form 
and  proceed  gradually  to  the  consideration  of  the  more  recent,  higher  or  com- 
plex. Occasionall.v,  however,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  the  system  is  reversed 
and  a  different  order  of  arrangement  may  be  followed.  In  the  following  pages 
the  arrangement  of  the  material  has  been  based  largely  on  a  certain  association 
of  ideas  and  objects;  but  the  sequence  of  the  chapters  has  been  controlled,  to  a 


PREFACE.  11 

certain  degree,  by  expedienc}'  or  caprice.  Even  in  the  arrangement  of  the  five 
main  sections  into  which  the  book  is  divided,  it  has  seemed  expedient  to  place 
that  part  first  which,  in  a  rigid  natural  order,  would  logically  have  been  placed 
near  the  last.  Nevertheless  it  will  require  no  great  intelligence  on  the  part 
of  the  reader  to  trace  out  for  himself  the  historical  sequence  of  nature  in  Hawaii. 
No  doubt  the  first  great  event  would  be  the  formation  of  the  islands,  followed  by 
their  occupation  by  plants  and  animals.  These  events  in  the  natural  order,  and 
according  to  system,  would  doubtless  long  precede  the  peopling  of  the  islands 
by  the  Hawaiian  race,  or  the  introduction,  by  them  or  any  other  race,  of  the 
various  foreign  plants  and  animals  found  in  the  group. 

The  intiinate  relation  which  existed  between  the  splendid  native  Hawaiian 
people  and  their  isolated  environment  is  a  subject  of  the  greatest  interest  and 
entitles  the  human  inhabitants  to  first  consideration  in  the  present  treatment  of 
this  subject.  The  character  and  natural  history  of  the  race  and  the  use 
made  by  the  people  in  their  economy,  arts  and  practices,  of  the  various  ma- 
terials furnished  them  by  nature,  unites  them  most  closely  with  their  environ- 
ment ;  and  in  a  natural  history,  such  as  this,  calls  for  an  acquaintance  with  the 
Hawaiian  race,  as  a  native  people  and  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try, before  we  consider  the  environment  which  they  had  so  thoroughly  explored 
and  mastered  long  before  their  contact  with  Europeans. 

It  is  confidently  believed  that  the  all  too  brief  account  of  the  ancient  Ha- 
waiian people  is  one  that  will  instill  a  just  pride  of  ancestry  into  the  hearts 
of  those  readers  whose  forebears  were  of  the  native  Hawaiian  race.  Not  so 
many  hundred  years  ago,  the  ancestors  of  the  proudest  Europeans  were  little 
more  than  aborigines,  and  ate  nuts  and  herbs,  and  depended  on  the  fortunes 
of  the  chase  for  their  meat.  Not  so  many  centuries  before  that,  as  the  world 
measures  time,  a  collection  of  their  handiwork  would  have  shown  a  group  of 
objects  far  more  crude  than  were  those  possessed  by  the  Hawaiians  at  the  time 
of  their  meeting  with  a  dominant  and  powerful  race. 

It  seems  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  following  pages  are  not  offered 
primarily  as  an  original  contribution  to  the  natural  history  of  Hawaii.  The 
task  has  been  chiefly  to  bring  together  information  about  the  islands  that  only 
an  expert  knows  where  to  find.  That  which  has  suited  the  author's  purpose 
has  often  been  taken  almost  verbatim  from  the  most  available,  wliicli  in  many 
cases  has  been  the  original  source. 

From  the  writings  of  the  many  experts  who  liave  studied  the  various  fields 
the  natural  history  of  Hawaii  affords,  the  author  in  his  own  rcadinu'  has  culled 
wherever  anything  was  found  that  would  help  to  makt^  this  l)ook  more  complete 
or  interesting.  The  fruitful  fields  have  been  many,  aiul  to  workers,  past  and 
present,  whoever  they  may  be,  the  author  gladly  makes  the  fullest  acknowledg- 
ments. It  is  owing  to  the  efforts  of  all  that  this  general  treatment  of  nature  in 
Hawaii  is  made  possible.  In  many  cases  whci-e  it  has  been  necessary  to  trace 
material  to  its  original  source,  so  much  lias  been  found  that  luul  been  borrowed 
without  acknowledgment — even  in  the  writings  of  our  most  punctilious  scient- 


12  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

ists — that  to  give  full  and  proper  credit  for  information  on  Hawaiian  subjects 
would  involve  a  searching  and  comparing  of  original  sources,  that  would  profit 
but  little,  and  Avould  add  endless  labor  to  an  already  heavy  task. 

So  as  the  teller  of  an  old  tale  the  author  makes  no  elaborate  attempt  to 
enumerate  his  sources  and  burden  his  book  with  an  extended  bibliography. 
No  one  however  can,  without  flagrant  injustice,  write  upon  any  Hawaiian 
theme  without  acknowledging  his  indebtedness  to  Mr.  Thomas  G.  Thrum,  who 
for  more  than  forty  years  has  been  steadily  engaged  in  gathering,  compiling 
and  publishing  data  on  every  phase  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  His  forty  An- 
nuals constitute  a  mine  of  information  of  which  these  islands  are  justly  proud. 

In  the  body  of  the  text  effort  has  been  made  to  indicate  the  chief  source 
and  give  credit  for  noteworthy  facts,  but  the  author  wishes  especially  in  this 
connection  to  allude  to  his  colleagues  and  fellow  workers  in  the  field  of  science, 
who  have  generously  given  every  assistance  in  their  power  in  a  spirit  of  willing 
cooperation  that  has  made  a  pleasure  of  what  would  otherwise — and  but  for 
the  love  of  the  thing — have  been  a  tedious  and  thankless  task. 

In  order  that  these  pages  might  carry  the  additional  weight  of  specific 
authority  the  author  has  read  the  manuscript  of  the  various  chapters  to  special- 
ists who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  their  chosen  fields,  and  has  incorporated 
their  suggestions  and  corrections  in  the  text.  Those  who  have  rendered  material 
aid  in  this  line  or  in  other  ways  not  elsewhere  mentioned  are  Dr.  John  T.  Gulick, 
evolutionist;  Dr.  N.  B.  Emerson,  ethnologist;  Dr.  William  D.  Alexander,  his- 
torian ;  ]\Irs.  Emma  Metcalf  Nakuina,  Hawaiian  scholar ;  Mr.  Thomas  G.  Thrum, 
historian  and  Hawaiian  authority ;  Dr.  Charles  H.  Hitchcock,  geologist ;  Pro- 
fessor Charles  W.  Baldwin,  geographer;  Dr.  Henry  A.  Pilsbry,  conchologist ; 
Miss  Mary  Rathbun,  crustaceologist ;  Dr.  Walter  K.  Fisher,  zoologist ;  Professor 
Otto  Swezey,  Mr.  David  T.  Fullaway,  ]\Ir.  E.  ]\I.  Ehrhorn,  economic  ento- 
mologists; Dr.  R.  C.  L.  Perkins.  Professor  Henry  W.  Henshaw,  Mr.  Daniel  B. 
Kuhns,  naturalists;  Mr.  J.  E.  Higgins,  horticulturist;  Professor  F.  G.  Krauss, 
agriculturist ;  Professor  Vaughan  IMacCaughey.  Mr.  Joseph  F.  Rock,  Mr.  Charles 
N.  Forbes,  botanists,  and  to  Messrs.  D.  Thaanum,  William  Wilder,  Irwin  Spald- 
ing, collectors.  The  author  is  under  especial  obligations  to  his  former  student, 
Mr.  D.  B.  Kuhns,  for  much  help  in  many  fields. 

To  the  author's  wife,  Elizabeth  Letson  Bryan,  Sc.  D.,  whose  interest  in  his 
labors  has  been  never  failing,  a  sincere  tribute  of  appreciation  is  due  for  con- 
stant and  valuable  help,  criticism  and  suggestions  in  all  departments  of  the  book. 
Only  those  Avho  write  books  can  appreciate  what  her  contribution  in  encourage- 
ment, denial,  love  and  service  has  been  to  this  book. 

The  half-tone  illustrations  were  made  from  photographs  in  the  author's  col- 
lection. They,  like  the  text,  have  been  brought  together  from  many  sources. 
The  greater  number,  however,  are  from  negatives  that,  at  one  time  or  another, 
have  been  made  expressly  for  use  in  this  volume.  Credit  is  given  for  the 
illustrations  in  another  connection. 


PREPWCE.  13 

Doubtless  errors  will  be  found  in  llu-  U'xt  ;aul  in  lla-  pruur-i-eadini;  \)y  those 
who  search  for  them.  Few  will  expect  absolute  perfection.  If  the  bare  facts  of 
nature  have  been  clothed  with  living  interest  sufficient  to  make  them  acceptable 
and  full  of  information  for  the  general  reader,  as  well  as  memorable  and  useful 
to  the  student  of  nature;  and  if  at  the  same  time  what  has  Ix'cn  written  falls 
well  within  the  tenets  and  tenor  of  truth  as  understood  by  the  more  critical 
scientists;  and  above  all,  should  th(^  ])0()k  prove  generally  useful,  the  author's 
ambition  will  have  been  attained. 


WILLLUI  ALAXSOX  BRYAX. 


The  Palms,  Honolulu,  Hawaii, 
September  13th,  1915. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Tlie  illustrations  used  in  the  following  pages  are,  in  the  main,  reproduced 
from  unpublished  photographs  taken  by  the  author,  at  various  times,  during  a 
period  of  many  years  residence  in  the  islands.  In  addition  to  the  plates  taken 
especially  for  this  work,  a  number  of  choice  photographs,  many  of  them  of 
great  value,  have  been  secured  from  various  sources,  and  the  author  takes  this 
opportunity  to  publish  his  indebtedness  to  his  friends  and  colleagues  for  gener- 
ous permission  to  select  and  use,  from  their  private  collections,  such  prints  as 
are  accredited  to  them  in  the  followina-  table : 
Baker,  K.  J.— Plate  1,  fig.  2  ;  23—4 ;  25—2,  8. 
Baldwin,  C.  W.  (Author,  Geographv  of  the  HaAvaiian  Islands)— Plate  7,  figs.  1,  2, 

5,  6 :  41—1,  2,  3,  4 ;  44^1.  2,  5,  6,  7 :  49—2,  3 :  74—1.  2,  3,  6,  7,  8. 
Bishop  Museum,  Objects  in  the  (Bv  permission  of  the  Trustees) — Plate  8,  fig.  2; 

11—1,  2,  3,  4  ;  12—1  ;  13 ;  77—4  ;*78. 

Bonine,  E.  K.— Plate  90,  figs.  1,  2.  3,  4,  6. 

Brvan.  AY.  A.— Plate  8,  fi-s.  1.  4;  10—5:  11—1.  2,  3,  4:  12—1:  13—1  to  21 
i7_4;  18;  19—1,  3,  4,  5:  20—1,  2,  4:  22:  23—2,  3.  4:  24:  26:  29—1,  3 
30— 1,  2,  4:  32—1,  2,  3,  4:  33—1.  2,  3.  4:  34:  35—1.  2.  4:  36—1.  2,  3,  4.  5,  6 
37—1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  e,  7.  8:  39:  46—3:  48—1,  2,  3.  4:  49—3:  51—1  to  18 
52—1.  2.  3,  5,  6.  8:  53—1  to  20:  54^1  to  15:  56—1  to  14:  57—1.  2,  3,  6,  7.  9, 
lU-  58—1  to  16:  59—1  to  17;  60—1.  2,  4.  6:  61—1  to  17:  62—1  to  12:  63—1 
to  19  :  66—1.  3.  5,  7  :  67—1,  2,  5,  6.  7  :  69—5 :  71—2 ;  72—3,  6 ;  74^1 :  75 :  77 ; 
78—1.  2.  3.  4.  5,  6,  7:  79—2,  6,  7.  10,  11.  IH,  17:  80:  81—1  to  9:  82—1  to  6 
83—1  to  12:  84^1  to  H:  85—1  to  9:  86—1  to  7:  87—2,  3.  7:  88—1  to  16 
90—1,  2.  3,  4,  5 :  91—1  to  14 :  92—1  to  16 :  93—1  to  11 :  94—1  to  15 ;  97—1  to 
25-  98—1  to  19:  99—1  to  30;  100:  101—1  to  27;  103—1  to  32:  104—1  to  21 
105—1  to  27:  106—1  to  59;  108— 1  to  24:  109—1,  2,  3,  4,  5;  110—1  to  29 
111—1  to  12 :  112—1  to  13 :  113—1  to  16 :  114—1  to  19 ;  115 :  116—1  to  24 
117—1  to  18. 

Fisher,  W.  K.— Plate  79,  figs.  3,  4,  5.  8,  9,  12,  13.  14,  15. 

Frear,  Hon.  W.  F.— Plate  21.  fias.  2,  4. 

Gartlev,  A.— Plate  17.  fi-.  5  :  23—1 :  25—1 :  27 :  35—:] ;  64—1. 

Gurrev,  A.  K.,  Jr.— Plate  14:  17—1;  47—2. 

Henshaw.  H.  W.— Plate  2:  3.  fius.  1.  2:  4—5:  5:6:  8—5:  12—2:  15—1,  2 
16—2  5-  31:  38:  40:  42:  43:  44—4:  45:  46—1.  2,  4:  47—4,  5:  48—5 
49—1.  5,  6 :  50 :  55 :  64—2.  3 :  69—1.  4.  6,  7 :  70 :  71—1 :  72—1,  5 :  73—6,  7,  8 
74^1 .  87—4,  5,  8 ;  89 :  102—2  :  107. 

Lawrence,  ^Nliss  Marv  S.  (Author  Old  Time  Ha  waiians)— Plate  14:  17—1. 

MacCaughev,  Vaughan— Plate  52,  fig.  7 ;  57-4 ;  60—3,  7  ;  66—4,  6,  9  ;  67—3,  4 ; 
68—3,  5,  9. 

Moses.  Ernest— Plate  46.  fig.  3 :  47—1. 

Perkins,  R.  W.— Plate  69,  fii:s.  2.  8. 

Pope.  W.  T.— Plate  33,  fig.  5:  66—2,  8,  30:  67—8;  68—1,  2,  4,  6,  7,  8;  71—4; 
72—2.  4.  7:  73—1,  2,  4,  5. 

Stokes,  J.  F.  G.— Plate  8.  fig.  2. 

Thrum,  D.  T.— Plate  4,  fitrs.  1.  2.  3.  4. 

Warren.  J.  T.— Plate  1.  fie  1 :  3—3,  4 :  10—2.  4.  6  :  23—5  :  30—3  :  52—4 :  71—5  ; 
102—1. 

Williams,  J.  J.— Plate  9 :  10.  fig.  1 ;  15—3,  4  :  47—3  ;  65  :  76  :  79—1. 

Miscellaneous  Sources  (  Including  Hawaii  Promotion  Committee.  Hawaiian 
Suoar  Planters'  Exp.  Station.  Colles-e  of  Hawaii,  Purchast-d  Photographs. 
Etc.— Plate  7.  fiss.  3.  4:  8  3.  6:  10—3:  16—1.  3.  4;  17—2;  18 :  19-2 :  21—1. 
3  6-  22-  23—3-  24-  26-  29  2 :  34:  39:  48—6:  57—5.  8:  60—5:  65:  71—3: 
75-  77_1.  2.  3,  5:  80:  82:  81:  83:  84:  85:  86:  87—1,  6:  88:  91:  92:  93: 
94:  95—1,  2,  3 :  96^1.  2,  3,  4,  5.  6. 

14 


CONTENTS. 

BOOK  ONE 

SFJ'TIOX  oyE. 
THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Coming  op  the  Hawaiian  Race. 
Plates  1,  2,   [3,  5].* 

Hawaiians  the  First  Inhabitants — Polynesian  Affinities — Evidence  of  Early 
Immigration — Traditional  and  Historical  Evidence  of  Early  Voyages — Ancient 
Voyages — Animals  and  Plants  Brought  to  Hawaii  as  Baggage — Double  Canoes — ■ 
Provisions  for  Long  Voj^ages — Steering  a  Course  by  the  Stars — Establishment 
of  the  Hawaiian  Race. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Tranquil  Environment  of  Hawaii  and  Its  Effect  on  the  People. 

Plates  3,  4,  [1,  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  11,  12,  14,  15,  16,  17,  25,  50,  71,  87,  89,  102,  106]. 

Natural  Environment  and  its  Effect  on  the  People — Kona  Weather — -Tem- 
perature— Effect  of  the  Trade  Winds — Altitude  and  its  Effect  on  Climate — 
Rains  in  Hawaii — Eft'ect  of  a  Sufficient  Amount  of  Food — Inter-lsland  Com- 
munication— -Inter-tribal  War — Agriculture  and  the  Food  Supply — The  Fauna 
and  Flora  Explored  by  the  Hawaiians — Food  and  its  Eff'ect  upon  the  People — 
Important  Foods  of  the  Natives — Response  of  the  Natives  to  their  Environment. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Physical  Characteristics  of  the  People;  Their  Language,  Manners  and 

Customs. 

Plates  5,  6,  [1,  2,  3,  4,  14,  15,  16]. 

Splendid  Stature  and  Physical  Development  of  the  People — Clothing  of 
the  People — Cleanliness — Effect  of  their  Life  in  the  ()])en  Air — Their  Lan- 
guage— The  Alphabet — Genealogy  and  History — Meles  and  Hulas — INIarriage — 
Polygamy — Marriage  Among  Persons  of  Rank — Infanticide — -The  Descent  of 
Rank— The  Tabu. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Religion  of  the  Hawaiians  :    Their  ]\Iethod  of  Warfare  and  Feudal 

Organization. 

Plates  7,  8,  [6.  9.  10.  11.  13.  17]. 

Religion  Among  the  Hawaiians — Idol  Worship — The  Future  State — 
Heiaus — Warfare — Temples  of  Refuge — Preliminary  to  a  Battle — The  King  and 
His  Power — Sorcerers — The  Nobility,  Priests  and  Common  People — The  King 
and  the  Land — Taxes. 


*  Numorals   in   livackots   indiratc   ]>lat('S   sliiiwiiii:   siii'i>I<'iniMitary    illustrations. 

15 


16  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

CHAPTER  V. 
The  Hawaiian  House:  Its  Furnishings  and  Household  Utensils. 
Plates  9,  10.  [2,  4,  5,  8,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  17]. 
Complete  Domestic  Establishment — Building  of  a  House — House  Furnish- 
ings— Household  Implements. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Occupations  of  the  Hawaiian  People. 
Plates  11,  12,  13,  [2,  3,  5,  6,  8,  10,  14,  50,  71]. 
Agriculture  Among  the  Hawaiians — Taro  Growing — Agricultural  Imple- 
ments— Irrigation — Planting  and  Harvesting  a  Crop — Taro  and  Its  Uses — Poi^ 
Sweet  Potatoes  and  Yams — Breadfruit — Bananas — Fiber  Plants,  "Wauki,  etc. — 
The  Manufacture  of  Tapa — Tapa  ]\Iaking  a  Fine  Art  Among  Hawaiians — ]\Iat 
]\Iaking — Lauhala  Mats — IMakoloa  Mats — Fishing — Salt  jManufacture. 

CHAPTER  A^I. 

Tools,  Implements^  Arts  and  Amusements  of  the  Hawaiians. 
Plates  14,  15,  16,  17,  [3,  4,  5,  6,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  28,  35,  87,  89,  106]. 
The  Stone  Age — Whet-stones — Rotary  Drill — Implements  of  Stone,  Bone 
and  Shell — Ornaments  of  Feathers — The  Kahili — Leis — Medicine  Among  the 
Hawaiians — Implements  of  Warfare — The  Hula — ]\Iusical  Instruments — Boxing 
th.3  National  Game — Wrestling — Spear  Throwing- — The  Primitive  Bowling 
Alley — Summer  Tobogganing — Gambling — Cock  Fighting — Children's  Games^ 
Surf -Riding. 


SECTION  TWO. 

GEOLOGY,    GEOGRAPHY   AND    TOPOGRAPHY    OF    THE    HAWAIIAN 

ISLANDS. 
CHAPTER  VIII. 

Coming  of  Pele  and  an  Account  of  the  Low  Islands  of  the  Group. 

Plates  18,  19,  20.  21,   [22,  79]. 

Pele's  Journey  to  Hawaii — Legend  and  Science  Agree — Geographical  Posi- 
tion of  the  Islands — The  Leeward  Islands — Ocean  Island — ^Midway — Gambler 
Shoal — Lisiansky^ — Laysan — Maro  Reef — Dowsett  Reef — Frost  Shoal — Gard- 
ner— French  Frigates  Shoal — Necker^Nihoa. 

CHAPTER  IX. 
The  Inhabited  Islands:  A  Description  of  Kauai  and  Niihau. 

Plates  22,  23,  24,  25,  [75]. 
HaAvaii-nei — Position   of  the   Inhabited   Islands — Niihau — Kaula — Lehua — 
Kauai,    the    Garden    Island — Shore-Line — Waialeale  —  Lava  Soils  —  Secondary 


CONTEXTS.  17 

Volcanic    Cones — The    Canons   of   Kauai — Valleys    and    Waterfalls — Region    of 
Napali — Barking  Sands — Spouting  Horn — Caves. 

CHAPTER  X. 

Island  of  Oahu. 
Plates  26.  27.  28,  20,  30,  31,  32.  33,  [22,  71,  73,  75,  87,  106]. 
Oahu,  the  ]\Ietroi)olis  of  the  Group — A  Laboratory  in  Vulcanology — Dimen- 
sions  and   Outline   of   the   Island — Honolulu   Harbor — Pearl    Harbor — Koolau 
Range  —  Waianae    Range  —  The    Pali  —  AVork    of    Erosion — Smaller    Basaltic 
Craters  and  Tufa  Cones — Diamond  Head — Punchbowl — Elevated  Coral  Reefs — ■ 
The    Age    of    Oahu — Black    Volcanic    Ash — History    of    Diamond    Head — The 
[logic  History  of  Oahu — Artesian  Wells — Economic  Products — Brick — Build- 
ing Stone — Lime — Points  of  Geologic  Interest  About  the  Island. 

,  CHAPTER  XL 

Islands  of  Molokai,  Lanai,  Maui  and  Kahoolawe. 
Plates  34,  35,  36,  37,  38,  [22,  53,  57,  60,  75]. 

The  Position  and  Relation  of  Molokai,  Maui.  Lanai  and  Kahoolawe — Molokai 
Described — Valley  of  Halawa — ]\Iapulehu  Valley — The  Leper  Settlement^ 
Lanai — Kahoolawe — Maui,  the  Valley  Isle — lao  Valley — "The  Needle" — Summit 
of  Puu  Kukui — Outline  of  Maui — Haleakala — Plan  of  East  Maui — Trip  to  the 
Summit  of  Haleakala — The  Great  Crater  Described — Sunset  Seen  from  the 
Summit — Kaupo  Gap — Floor  of  the  Crater — History  of  Haleakala — The  Last 
Eruption. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Island  of  Ha  wail 

Plates  39,  40,  41,  42,  43,  44,  45.  46,  47,  48,  49,  [17,  22,  27,  50,  52,  55,  72,  74, 

75,  87,  89]. 

Size  and  Position  of  Hawaii — The  Youngest  Island  of  the  Group — The  Ko- 
hala  Range — Waipio  and  Waimanu  Valleys — Hamakua  Coast — Sunnnit  of 
Mauna  Kea — The  Ascent  of  Mauna  Kea — Hualalai — Eruption  of  1801 — ]\Iauna 
Loa — Early  Exploration  of  the  Mountain — History  of  the  Important  Eruptions 
of  Mauna  Loa — Earthquake  of  1868 — Amount  of  Lava  Poured  Out  in  the  1907 
Flow — Work  of  Hawaii's  Volcanoes. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

KiLAUEA,   THE  WoRLD^S  GREATEST  ACTIVE  VOLCANO. 

Plates  45,  46.  47,  [22,  39,  48,  49,  50,  52,  55,  57]. 

Geologic  History  of  Kilauea — Kilauea  an  Indt'pendent  Crater — Dimensions 
of  the  Crater — An  Exploded  IMountain — Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Liquid  Lava — 
Explosive  Eruption  of  1789 — Condition  at  Ihe  Crater  in  1823 — Kapiolani  Breaks 
the   Spell   of   Pele— Eruption   and   Flow   of   1840— Eruption    of   1892-94— Ac- 


NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII.  18 

tivity  in  1902 — Activity  in  1907 — Account  of  a  Visit  to  Kilauea  in  1909 — The 
Journey — First  Glimpse  of  the  Crater — Steam  Cracks — Sulphur  Beds — 
Kilauea-iki  —  Keanakakoi  • —  Descent  Into  the  Great  Crater  —  Heat  Cracks  — 
Spatter  Cones — The  Pit  of  Halemaumau  by  Day  and  Night — Side  Trips  from 
the  Crater — Fossil  Tree  Moulds — The  Road  to  Honuapo — Kona  District. 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

Condensed  History  of  Kilauea 's  Activity. 

Plates  45,  46,  47,  48,  49,  [See  Chapter  XIII.] 

Brief  Chronology  and  History  of  Kilauea  from  the  Earliest  Records  of  Its 
Eruptions  Down  to  the  Present,  with  Dates  and  Observations  on  the  Condition  of 
the  Lava  in  the  Crater  of  Kilauea  and  the  Pit  of  Halemaumau. 


SECTION  THBEE. 

FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Plant  Life  of  the  Sea-shore  and  Lowlands. 
Plates  50,  51,  52,  53,  54,  55,  56,  57,  [5,  14,  19,  30,  33,  40,  43,  60,  64,  65,  66, 

67,  68,  69,  70,  71,  72,  73,  76,  78,  79]. 
The  Island  Flora — Its  Isolation  and  Peculiarities — Sources — Number  of 
Genera  and  Species — Endemic  and  Introduced  Plants — Variation  in  Flora  from 
Island  to  Island — Floral  Zones — The  Lowland  Zone — Common  Littoral  Species — • 
Common  Plants  from  the  Sea-Shore  to  the  Lower  Edge  of  the  Forest — Introduced 
Plants — Grasses. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Plant  Life  in  the  High  Mountains. 

Plates  58,  59,  60,  61,  62,  63,  [23,  25,  44,  45,  46,  50,  52,  55,  56,  57,  74]. 

Plants  of  the  Lower  Forest  Zone — Fiber  Plants  Cultivated  by  the  Ha- 
vvaiians — Sandalwood — Middle  Forest  Zone — Giant  Ferns — Upper  Forest  Zone — 
Silver-Sword — Mountain  Bog  Flora. 


SECTION  FOUR. 

AGRICULTURE  AND  HORTICULTURE  IN  HAWAII. 

The  Introduced  Plants  and  Animals  of  Forest,  Field  and  Garden. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

A  Ramble  in  a  Honolulu  Garden:     Part  One. 
Plates  64,  65,  66,  [2,  4,  5,  41,  45,  53,  67,  68,  69,  70,  71,  72,  73,  74,  90]. 
First  Impressions  of  Honolulu — Palms — A  Falling  Leaf — Cocoanut  Palm — 


CONTENTS.  19 


Date  Palm — Ornamental    Talms — -Araucaria  —  Kukiii  — -  Breadfruit  —  [Mango — 
Monkey-Pod — Algaroba. 

CHAPTER  XYIII. 

A  Ramble  in  a  HoNOLUiiU  Garden:      Part  Two. 
Plates  67.  68,  [See  Chapter  XVIIJ. 

Ornamental  Trees — Poinciana — Pride  of  the  Barbadoes— Golden  Shower — 
Pride  of  India — Tamarind — Banian — Pepper  Tree — Kamani — Blaek  Wattle — 
Australian  Oak — Bougainvillea — Allamanda — Big-nonia — Vines  and  Shrubs — 
Hedge  Plants — Crotons — Ki — Pandanus — Ferns — Night-Blooming  Cereus. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Tropical  Fruits  in  Hawaii. 

Plates  69,  70,   [5,  50]. 

Native  and  Introduced  Fruits — Strawberry — Raspberry — Ohelo — Mountain 
Apples — Poha — Bananas  —  Pineapples  —  Alligator  Pears  —  Papaia  —  Guava  — • 
Lemons,  Oranges,  Limes,  Etc. — Wi — Cusard  Apples — Sour  Sop — Cherimoya^ 
Sapodilla — Loquat — Figs — Grapes — [Mulberry — Eugenia — Rose  Apple — Passion 
Powers — Pomegranates — Liehi — [Melons — Prickly  Pear. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Agriculture  in  Hawaii:     Its  Effect  on  Plant  and  Animal  Life. 

Plates  71,  72,  73,  74,  [2,  25,  41,  58,  95,  96,  97,  98,  99]. 

Agriculture  in  Recent  Times — Sugar — Rice — Coffee — Sisal — Fiber  Plants — 
Cotton — Rubber — Tobacco — Potatoes — Sweet  Potatoes  —  Cassava — Castor  Bean 
Plant — Lotus — Peanuts — Sorghum — Forage    Grasses — Weeds — Live    Stock. 


BOOK.   TWO 
SECTIOX  FIVE. 

THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP. 
CHAPTER  XXI. 

Various  Animals  from  Land  and  Sea. 
Plates  75,  76,  77,  [21,  74]. 

Hawaiian  Rats — Plague  Carriers — Royal  Sport — [Mice — Rabbits — Guinea 
Pigs — Cats — Bats — Hogs — Dogs —  Chickens —  Goats — Deer —  Mongoose —  Skinks 
and  Geckos — Frogs  and  Toads — Snakes — Sea  Turtles — Galapagos  Land  Tortoise 
— Porpoise — Dolphin — Whales — Whaling  Industry. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

Introduced  Birds. 

English  Sparrows — Rice  Birds — Chinese  Sparrows — Chinese  Turtle  Doves— 
Mynahs — The  Skylark — Pheasants — California  Partridge— Chinese  Thrush. 


20  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

Birds  of  the  Sea. 

Plates  78,  79,  [19,  20,  21,  76,  80,  81]. 

Regular  Visitors  aud  Ocean  Waifs — Tropic  Birds — Petrels — Shearwaters — 
Terns — Albatross — Man-o'-War  Bird — Birds  of  Laysan  Island — ]\Iiller  Bird — 
Laj'san  Canary — Laysan  Honey-eater — Hawaiian  Rail — The  Albatross  Dance — 
Guano  Deposits — Nesting  Habits  of  the  i\Ian-o'-war  Bird — White  Terns — Grey- 
backed  Terns — Laysan  Duck — Flightless  Rail — Land  Birds  of  Laysan. 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Birds  of  the  Marsh,  Stream  and  Shore. 

Plates  80,  81,   [78,  79]. 

The  Golden  Plover— Old  'Stump-leg'— Turnstone— Sanderling— Tattler- 
Curlew — Hawaiian  Stilt — Black-crowned  Night-Heron — Coot  —  Gallinule — The 
Legend  of  ]\Iaui  and  the  Alae — Hawaiian  Duck — Foreign  Ducks. 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

Birds  of  the  IMountain  Forests. 

Plates  82,  83,  84,  85,   [80,  81]. 

Fifty-six  Species  — •  Elepaio  —  Apapane  —  liwi  —  Amakihi  —  Oreomystis  — 
Thrush-like  Birds — Finch-like  Birds — ]Moho — Black  Mamo  —  Oo  —  Hawaiian 
Duck — Hawaiian  Goose — Crow — Viridonia — Hoi — Hawaiian  Hawk — Hawaiian 
Owl — Family  Drepanididte — Extinction  of  Hawaiian  Birds. 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

Hawaiian  Fishes  :     Part  One. 

Plates  86,  87,  [9,  13,  16,  88,  89,  90,  91,  92,  93,  91,  102.  106]. 

Fishing  in  Former  Times — Fishing  Outfits — Fish  Poison — Fish  Bait — Shark 
Fishing  —  Man-Eater  Sharks  —  Hammer-Head  Sharks  —  Dogfish  —  ]\Iackerel- 
Sharks — Killers — Rays  and  Skates — Sting-Ray — Sea  Devil. 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

Hawaiian  Fishes  :     Part  Two. 

Plates  88,  89,  90,  [See  Chapter  XXVI]. 

Food  Fish  in  the  iNIarket — Anchovies — Barracudas — Butterfly-Fish — Blen- 
nies — Bone-Fish — Catalufas — Cirrhitida^ — Dophin — Eels  —  Frog-Fish —  Plying- 
Fish — Gobies — Flying-Gunards — Headfish — ]\Iullet — Awa. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

Hawaiian  Fishes  :     Part  Three. 

Plates  91,  92,  93,  94,   [See  Chapter  XXVI]. 

Flatfish  —  jMorays  —  INIaekerel  —  ]\Iilk-Fish  —  Needle  -Fish  —  Pampanos  — 
Tarpon — Parrot-Fish — Pipe-Fish — Porcupine-Fish — Porgies — Puffers — Remoras 


CONTENTS.  21 

or  Sucker-Fish — Scorpion-Fish  —  Sea-Bass  —  Snappers  —  Soles  — •  Flounders  — 
Squirrel-Fish — Surgeon-Fish — Surmullets  or  Goat-Fish  —  Swordfish  —  Trigger- 
Fish — Trunk-Fish — Trumpet-Fish. 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

Introduced  Fresh  Water  Fish. 
Goldfish — Carp — Catfish — China    Fish — Black    Bass — Trout — Salmon — Top 
Minnows  or  Mosquito  Fish. 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

Important  Economic  Insects:      Part  One. 

Plates  95,  96,  [97,  98,  99]. 

The  Study  of  Insects — Destructive  Species — Control  by  Natural  Enemies — 
Sugar-Cane  Leaf-Hopper — Sugar-Cane  Borer — Lantana  Insects— Maui  Blight^ 
Mediterranean  Fruit-Fly — ]\Ielon-Fly — Horn-Fly — Flies  —  Mosquitoes  —  Sugar- 
Cane  Insects — Aphids  or  Plant-Lice. 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

Important  Economic  Insects:     Part  Two. 
Plates  97,  98,  99  [95,  96]. 

Scale  Insects — Ladj'bird  Beetles — Beetles — Japanese  Beetles — Fuller  Rose 
Beetle  or  Olinda  Beetle — Weevils — Leaf-Rolling  jNIoths — Cutworms — Army- 
Worms — Hau  Moth — Loopers — Silkworms — Cabbage  Butterfly — Sweet  Potato 
Horn- Worm  or  Humming-Bird  Moth — Cotton  Boll- Worm — Bird-Lice— Lice — 
Mites — Ticks — Fleas — Bubonic  or  Black  Plague  carried  by  Fleas — Cock- 
roaches— Bedbugs — Bugs — AVhite  Ants — Silverfish  —  Ants  —  Carpenter  Bees  — 
Mud-Daubers — Wasps — Honey-Bee  —  Clothes-]\Ioth  —  Household  Pests  —  Centi- 
pedes— Scorpions — Thousand-Legged  Worms — Sow-Bugs  or  Slaters — Sand-Hop- 
pers— Spiders,  Mites  and  Ticks — House-Spider — Jumping-Spiders — Ilamakua 
Spiders. 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 

Native  Insects. 

Character  of  the  Native  Fauna — Insects  Occurring  on  ^Nlamaki — Ants, 
Bees  and  Wasps  —  Beetles  —  Fleas  —  Two-Winged  Insects  or  Flies  and  Mos- 
quitoes— Butterflies  and  jMoths — Dragon-Flies  and  the  Nerve-Winged  Insects — 
The  True  Bugs — Plant-Lice — Jumping  Lice — Leaf-Hoppers,  etc. — Thrips — 
Grasshoppers,  Crickets,  Cockroaches,  Earwigs — Wingless  Bird-Lice — Silver- 
fish — Spring-Tails. 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

Land  and  Fresh  Water  Shells. 
Plates  100,  101  I  75.  }():]]. 
Character  of  the  Fauna — Land  Shells — \'a  rial  ions — Dillicullies  of  Classifica- 


22  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

tion — Color  Varieties — Important  Families  Represented — Common  Forms  De- 
scribed— Earthworms. 

CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

Shells  from  the  SexV-shore:  Part  One. 
Plates  102,  103  [104,  105,  106]. 
Pleasure  of  Collecting  Shells — The  Common  Forms  Numerous — Three  Tj^pes 
of  ]\Iollusca — ]\Iussels,  Clams,  Scallops,  Oysters — Attempts  at  Oyster  Culture — 
Gasteropods.  including  the  Snails,  Slugs,  Whelks,  Cowries,  Periwinkles,  etc. — • 
Spiny  Rock  Shells— Tritons— Spindle  Shells— AVhelks— Dog  Wlielk— r^Iitre 
Shells— :\Iargin  Shells— Olives— Harp  Shells— Dove  Shells— Grey  Shells.      , 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 

Shells  from  the  Sea-shore  :  Part  Two. 
Plates  104,  105.  [See  Chapter  XXXIV]. 
Cone  Shells— Auger  Shells— Conch  Shells— Cowry  Shells— Egg  Shells— Tun 
Shells — Cameo  Shells — Moon  Shells — Slipper  Shells — Limpets,  etc. — Worm 
Shells — Caicum  Shells — Eulimas — Pyramid  Shells  —  Sun-Dial  Shells  —  Violet 
Snails — Ladder  Shells — Cerithiida^ — Periwinkles — Sea  Snails — Turban  Shells — ■ 
Top  Shells— Keyhole  Limpets— Umbrella  Shells— Chitons— Bubble  Shells— Sea 
Slugs. 

CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

Plants  and  ANiMiU^s  from  the  Coral  Reef:     Part  One. 
Plates  106,  107,  108,  109.  110.   [72.  102,  103,  104,  105,  111,  112.  113,  114, 

115,  116,  117]. 
The    Common    Crabs — The    Lobster — Prawns — Shrimps — Hermit    Crabs^ 
Barnacles — Common  Corals — Sea-Anemonies — Coral  Reefs — Eight-Rayed  Corals 
— Sea-Fans — Sea-Plumes,     etc. — Jellyfish — Hydroids  —  Portuguese    Man-of-war 
^Sea  Money — AIoss-Animals — Lamp  Shells — Sea-Sciuirts — Balanoglossus. 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

Plants  and  Animals  from  the  Coral  Reef:      Part  Two. 
Plates  111,  112,  113,  114,  115,  116,  117,  [See  Chapter  XXXVI]. 
Starfish  —  Sea-Urchins  —  Brittle  -  Stars  —  Sea  -  Cucumbers  —  Sea-Lilies    or 
Crinoides  —  Flat-AVorms  —  Bristle-Worms  —  Earthworms  —  Single  -  Celled    and 
Many-Celled  Animals — Sponges  —  Protozoa  —  Seaweeds  —  How  to  Collect  Ha- 
waiian Algae. 


< 
P 
O 


O 


Q 
O 

o 

M 


O 

Cl. 

a. 
O 

« 

» 
El 
<>! 
>:) 

P4 

fa 
O 

?; 

o 

&< 

a. 
h^ 
3i 
o 

CO 

OS 

o 


Natural  History  of  Hawaii. 


SECTION  ONE 

THE  J!A^yAIIAS  PEOPLE. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  COMING  OP  THE  HAWAIIAN  RACE. 
Hawaiians  the  First  Inhabitants. 

The  Polynesian  ancestors  of  the  Hawaiian  race  are  believed  to  be  th(;  first 
human  inhabitants  to  set  foot  on  Hawaii's  island  shores.  Inasmuch  as  the  group 
comprises  the  most  highly  isolated  island  territory  on  the  globe,  it  seems  logical 
to  infer  that  this  sturdy  race  must  have  migrated  to  Hawaii  from  other  lands. 
By  tracing  the  relationship  of  the  original  inhabitants  it  has  been  found  that 
they  belong  to  the  same  race  as  the  natives  of  New  Zealand,  Samoa,  Marquesas, 
Society,  Tonga  and  other  islands  in  the  southern,  central  and  eastern  Pacific. 

That  all  the  native  people  found  over  this  vast  Pacific  region  are  the 
scattered  branches  of  one  great  race,  springing  from  a  common  ancestral  stock, 
has  been  demonstrated  in  many  ways.  The  marked  similarity  in  the  manners 
and  customs,  language  and  religion,  as  well  as  many  peculiar  physical  char- 
acteristics and  intellectual  traits  common  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  widely  scat- 
tered Pacific  islands  just  mentioned,  leaves  little  doubt  in  the  minds  of  +hosp 
who  have  studied  these  people  of  the  Pacific,  as  to  their  racial  affinities. 

Polynesian  Affinities. 

Collectively,  this  group  of  Pacific  Islanders  has  been  called  by  Europeans 
the  Polynesian  I'ace,  a  reference  to  the  inau.x'  islands  inhabited  by  them.  The 
exceedingly  vexed  question  as  to  the  genesis  of  the  race  as  a  whole  and  the 
fixing  of  the  place  fi'oni  whence  the  progenitors  of  the  dark-skiiine;!  kaiuika 
people  entered  the  Pacific  has  long  been  a  subject  of  interest  int.;'  discussion. 

Since  the  genesis  of  the  race  is  by  no  means  a  settled  (juestion  it  will  !iot 
be  profitable  in  this  connection  to  dwell  uixm  the  matter  farther  than  to  say 


Descrti'tkin-    of    Pi.atk. 

Tho  .s|)leii(li(l  physique  of  tlio  ])e()])lo,  tlieir  woll  shaped  heads,  attractive  features  and 
kindly  eyes  are  well  shoAvn  by  the  photographs  and  indicate  the  strong  iudividualit}'  and  lovable 
character  of  the  race  as  a  M-hole.  Old  Hawaiians,  especially  of  the  better  class,  possessed  a 
high  ty]ie  of  Polynesian  culture  that  embraced  a  tliorouf;h  and  useful  knowledjje  of  their  iso- 
lated environment.  At  the  time  of  tlieir  introduction  to  European  ci\ilization  many  among 
tlu'in  w  ic  intimately  acquainted  with  their  own  iiistory  and  peuealogy,  as  well  as  with  the 
fund  of  inf or. nation  concerning  their  traditions,  myths,  arts,  occupations  and  i)raetices;  more- 
over they  possessed  a  store  of  knowledge  about  the  i.slands  and  their  natural  history  that  at 
once  won  for  tlie  i-ace  the  respect  ai-d  admiration  of  their   Knropean  benefactors. 


25 


D.  H.  HILL  LIBRARY 
North  Carolina  State  College 


26  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

that  the  origin  of  the  Polynesian  race  has  been  traced  by  different  writers,  in 
different  ways  to  various  places.  North.  South  and  Middle  America,  as  well 
as  Papua,  i\Ialay.  China.  Japan  and  India,  have  each  in  turn  been  declared 
the  cradle  of  this  widely  distributed  people  and  each  made  responsible,  directly 
or  indirectly,  for  their  presence  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

While  it  is  probable  that  the  origin  of  the  race,  as  a  whole,  will  always  be 
shrouded  in  doubt,  there  is  little  uncertainty  as  to  the  more  immediate  an- 
cestors of  the  Hawaiian  people.  All  their  various  affinities  seem  to  point  un- 
erringly in  the  direction  of  the  islands  to  the  south  of  us.  Although  the  Society 
and  Samoan  Islands,  which  are  the  nearest  islands  in  any  direction  at  present 
inhabited  by  this  race,  are  more  than  two  thousand  miles  distant,  they,  without 
doubt,  form  the  stepping  stones  over  which  the  early  immigrants  passed — if  they 
are  not  the  actual  points  of  origin  of  the  migrations  that  resulted  in  the 
settling  of  the  Polynesian  race  on  this,  the  most  remote  group. 

Evidence  of  Early  Immigrations. 

That  the  race  existed  here  ages  ago,  perhaps  far  beyond  the  traditions  of 
the  people,  is  believed  by  some  to  be  proven  by  certain  geologic  evidence.  What- 
ever the  geological  facts  may  be.  and  the  data  thus  far  secured  is  by  no  means 
conclusive,  the  traditions  of  the  people  are  more  certain.  They  throw  much  light 
on  the  antiquity  of  the  early  voyages  of  the  race  and  point  far  back  into  the 
shadowy  past.  Their  genealogies,  which  were  handed  down  from  father  to  son 
with  remarkable  accuracy,  also  contribute  much  information  that  can  be  ac- 
cepted as  reasonably  authentic  and  historic,  and  give  a  fair  basis  for  measuring 
time,  especially  during  the  past  four  or  five  centuries.  The  comparative  study 
of  gejiealogical  records  has  brought  to  light  proof  of  many  obscure  points  that 
had  to  do  with  the  history  and  wanderings  of  the  race  as  a  whole,  l)ut  their 
traditions  are  especially  clear  witli  reference  to  the  ITawaiians  themselves. 

Traditional  and  Historical  Evidence  of  Early  Voyages. 

Those  who  have  studied,  the  history  and  traditions  of  the  Polynesians  as  a 
people  regard  Savaii,  in  the  Samoan  group,  as  the  most  likely  center  of  dispersal. 
It  is  probable  that  at  least  one  of  the  bands  of  early  voyagers  that  settled  on 
these,  then  presumably  unpeopled  islands,  came  from  that  group  in  very  ancient 
times, — perhaps  as  long  ago  as  500  B.  C.  Just  why  these  early  wanderers 
set  out  on  the  long  perilous  journey  over  unknown  seas  will  never  be  known. 
It  is  suggested  that  they  may  have  been  forced  from  their  early  homes  by  war 
and  driven  from  their  course  by  storms.  But  since  there  was  no  written  lan- 
guage, the  historian,  as  already  stated,  is  forced  to  rely  for  his  data  on  legends, 
traditions,  genealogies  and  such  other  meager  scraps  of  information  as  are 
available. 

Unfortunately,  of  the  very  early  period  scarcely  a  reliable  tradition  exists. 
We  are  therefore  left  free,  within  a  certain  measure,  to  construct  for  ourselves 
such  tales  of  adventure,  privation  and  hardship  as  seem  sufficient  to  account  for 
the  appearance  of  the  natives  in  this  far-away  and  isolated  land.      We  know 


TIIK   HAWAIIAN   PF.OPLK.  27 

that  tlie  first  voyaues,  like  iiKiiiv  undcflakcii  in  more  recent  times,  must  have  been 
made  in  open  boats  over  an  unfriendl\'  and  uncharted  ocean.  We  know  also 
that  they  survived  the  journey  and  found  the  land  hal)itablc  when  they  came. 

To  the  dim  and  uncertain  period  coverinu  the  several  centuries  that  fol- 
lowed, many  gTeat  primitive  achievements  have  l)een  asci'ibed.  Amonsr  them  are 
such  tasks  as  the  buildino-  of  walled  tish-])on(ls,  the  consli-uction  of  certain  ureat 
crude  temples,  the  niakinu'  of  irrioation  ditches,  and  the  development  of  a 
distinct  dialect,  based  of  course,  on  their  ancient  mother  tongue.  But  at  last, 
after  the  lapse  of  centuries,  perhaps  many  centuries,  this  long  |)eriod  of  isola- 
tion and  seclusion  ended  and  conununication  was  once  more  resumed  \\illi  the 
rest  of  the  Polynesian  world. 

Ancient  Voyages. 

It  is  reliably  recorded  in  the  traditions  of  the  race,  but  more  especially 
in  those  of  the  Hawaiian  people,  that  after  many  generations  of  .separation 
from  the  outside  world,  communication  was  again  taken  up  and  many  voyages 
were  made  to  Kahiki — the  far-away  land  to  the  south.  From  this  time  on  the 
story  of  the  people  becomes  much  more  definite  and  reliable.  We  not  only  know 
that  intercourse  was  resumed  between  Hawaii  and  the  islands  of  tlie  South 
Pacific,  but  the  names  of  several  of  the  navigators  and  the  circumstances,  as  well 
as  the  time  when  their  journeys  were  made,  also  incidents  of  their  voyages, 
have  come  down  to  us.  In  some  cases  the  same  mariner  is  known  to  have  made 
more  than  a  single  journey.  Naturally  the  exploits  of  the  brave  navigators  of 
the  race  were  made  matters  of  record  in  the  minds  of  the  people  and  handed 
down  from  father  to  son  in  numberless  songs,  stories  and  traditions.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  there  is  evidence  to  prove  that  during  the  twelfth  and  thirtetMith 
centuries  of  our  Christian  calendar  there  came  an  era  of  great  unrest  tlirough- 
out  the  whole  of  Polynesia  and  a  great  number  of  voyages  wern  made  to  the 
remote  parts  of  the  region.  In  fact  it  is  asserted  in  the  tradition  of  the  peo- 
ple that  "they  visited  every  place  on  earth."  This  broad  statement  seems  to 
indicate  that  to  the  Polynesian  mind  the  world  was  confined  to  Oceanica.  as 
they  appear  to  have  known  nothing  of  the  gi'eat  eonlinents  which  sui'miuided 
them  on  every  side.  At  any  rate,  there  is  on  record  a  eonsidei'able  list  of 
these  voyages  and  an  equally  long  list  (tf  the  places  where  the\  landed,  accom- 
panied l)y  incidents  of  their  wanderings. 

Animals  and  Plants  Bkoluut  to  Hawau  as  r).\(i(;A(JL. 

Our  special  interest  in  the  natural  history  of  the  plants  and  aninrds  of 
Hawaii  inakes  this  period  of  Pacific  travel  of  unusual  importance.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  useful  plants  and  animals  that  had  fol- 
lowed the  race  in  their  various  wanderings  were  l)rough1  as  |)recious  baiigage 
with  them  to  these  islands  from  over  th(»  s(»a. 

Any  one  who  has  experienced  the  ilitficidties  and.  dis;i|)i)oin1nients  encoun- 
tered in  transplanting  a  young  breadfruit  tree  from  one  valley  to  another,  will 


—  ~  3 

5   ■   « 


y. 


_     31 


X 


_    m 

-   o 


—  -   >^ 

z:  =  .a 

-  r.  -3 

-  ~  o 

■-  ~   m 

-  -     M 

^-  -     ? 

— '  Jh 

r.  _    O 


ii      =   i 


^      ^  ^  j:3 


<  -a 

—  i:  X   :3 

—  n  4^ 

r  -     " 

.    ~  -=  '-3 


=  S 

c:  -  a> 

>  ■■'  ti 

•-  ^  o 

.=  "z  ffl; 

_  .-;  ci' 

-  =  Ht 


.7!    ,-  o 

-  —  3 


o 
o 
n 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  29 

appreciate  in  a  measure  the  difficult ics  tli.-it  miisl  Iuinc  Ix-sct  tlie  TT;i.\v;iiitiiis  in 
transporting  liviny'  ciittiiius  of  this  delicate  seedless  plant  from  far  oft'  Kahiki 
to  these  islands,  yet  it  is  practically  certain  that  not  only  was  the  breadfruit 
brought  here  in  this  mannci-  but  also  the  banana,  the  taio.  the  mountain  apple, 
the  sugar-cane  and  a  score  or  more  of  their  other  important  economic  plants. 
The  wild  fowl,  the  pig  and  th(^  dog  were  also  brought  with  them  in  the  same 
way,  in  very  early  times,  and  were  in.  a  state  of  common  domestication  over  the 
group  when  the  islands  were  first  visited  by  the  white  race. 

Naturally  there  were  many  references  in  Hawaiian  and  Polynesian  tradi- 
tion to  these  long  and  teinpestous  voyages.  AVhen  all  the  circumstances  sur- 
rounding these  rugged  feats  of  daring  and  adventure  are  considered,  it  is  not 
loo  much  to  say  that  the  race  to  which  the  ancient  Hawaiians  belonged  is  worthy 
of  a  special  place  among  the  most  daring  and  skillful  navigators  of  all  times. 
To  this  day  their  prowess  and  aptitude  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  sea  is  such 
as  to  command  the  admiration  and  respect  of  all. 

Double  Canoes. 

The  making  of  the  large  canoes  employed  in  their  important  journeys  by 
the  use  of  stone  tools  alone,  was  by  no  means  an  ordinary  task.  Aside  from  the 
descriptions  of  their  canoes  handed  down  to  us  in  their  traditions,  we  know  that 
a  century  ago  there  existed  in  these  islands  the  remains  of  war  canoes,  such  as 
we  are  told  were  used  in  those  early  voyages,  that  were  seventy  feet  in  length 
by  more  than  three  feet  in  width  and  depth,  capable  of  carrying  seventy  per- 
sons from  island  to  island.  What  is  still  more  remarkable  the  hull  in  each  case 
was  carved  from  a  single  giant  koa  log. 

The  selecting  of  a  suitable  tree  from  among  its  fellows  in  the  mountain 
forests,  the  felling  and  shaping  of  it  by  means  of  the  crude  stone  implements 
of  the  time,  and  the  subsequent  transporting  of  the  rough-hewn  canoe  to  the 
sea  by  main  strength,  was  an  undertaking  not  to  be  lightly  assayed;  but  the 
executing  of  a  2000-mile  voyage  in  such  a  craft  seems  almost  incredible.  In  this 
connection  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  early  Polynesians  made  not  only 
single  canoes  of  monstrous  proportions,  but  double  ones  by  lashing  two  together 
and  rudely  decking  over  the  space  between  them.  In  this  ingenious  way  they 
made  a  craft  capable  of  carrying  a  large  numl)er  of  people  and  a  ^-oodly  supply 
of  provisions. 

Provisions  for  Long  Voyages. 

It  is  probable  that  in  tlicii-  more  extended  xoyaues.  especially  when  they 
were  voluntarily  luidertakeii,  the  natives  used  the  double  canoe  and  provided 
the  craft  with  a  mast  to  which  lliey  riiii^vd  laruc  dui-able  sails  made  of  mats. 
The  legendary  mele  telling  of  the  coming  of  llawaii-loa  states  that  during  live 
changes  of  the  moon  he  sailed  in  such  a  craft  to  b.'  i-ewarded  at  last  by  the 
sight  of  a  new  land  ever  after  calh-d   Hawaii. 

As  to  the  snp])ly  of  pro\isions  it   is  to  be  remembered  that  the  Polyiu^sians 


30  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

have  several  kinds  of  food  capable  of  being  preserved  in  a  compact  form.  The 
eocoaniit,  either  fresh  or  dried,  was  an  invalnable  article  of  food,  while  dried 
fish  and  squid  are  not  to  be  despised.  The  taro,  lireadfrnit  and  sweet  potato, 
or  yam,  are  articles  of  daily  diet,  capable  of  being  transported  in  an  edible 
condition  for  great  distances  at  sea.  Besides  cocoanut  water,  in  the  nut,  to 
drink,  they  had  utensils  for  storing  fresh  water  and  it  is  probable  that  they 
provided  themselves  with  calabashes  and  wooden  bowls  specially  prepared  for 
use  on  their  long  sea  journeys. 

Steering  a  Course  by  the  Stars. 

As  they  were  expert  fishermen  and  exceedingly  hardy  seamen  the  perils  of 
the  deep  were  considerably  minimized.  Add  to  this  their  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  food  to  be  found  living  everywhere  in  the  sea  at  all  seasons  and  their 
acquaintance  with  the  habits  and  methods  of  capture,  as  well  as  skill  in  the 
preparation  of  such  animals  and  plants  as  they  esteemed  as  food,  and  we  must 
conclude  that  they  were  by  nature  well  fitted  for  such  journeys.  With  such 
substitute  food  as  the  sea  would  furnish,  always  at  hand,  it  was  possible  for 
them  to  travel  far  and  suffer  but  little,  for  they  were  able  to  eat,  not  only  such 
fresh  and  dried  food  as  we  have  mentioned,  but  to  relish  many  creatures  of  the 
sea  in  a  raw  state — as  flying-fish,  squid  and  seaweed — that  would  scarcely  be 
thought  of  as  food  ])y  a  more  fastidious  peoi^le.  jMoreover,  in  making  these 
journeys  they  were  able  to  roughly  guide  their  course  by  the  stars,  the  sun  and 
the  moon,  as  they  had  a  crude  but  working  knowledge  of  astronomy.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  they  had  a  number  of  traditions,  telling  of  mysterious  lands,  far 
away  beyond  the  horizon,  that  served  them  both  as  an  inspiration  and  an  assur- 
ance, besides  being  useful  to  them  in  many  ways  in  tlieir  practical  navigation. 

Establishment   of  the   Hawaiian   Race. 

Great  care  was  always  exercised  in  selecting  the  proper  place  and  season 
for  setting  forth  on  their  journeys.  Once  having  made  a  successful  voyage 
they  were  particular  to  start  from  the  same  spot  in  making  similar  journeys 
thereafter.  In  this  wa\-  the  south  point  of  Hawaii  as  well  as  the  southern  end 
of  the  little  island  of  Kahoolawi  came  to  be  known  as  the  proper  points  from 
which  to  embark  on  a  journey  to  Tahiti. 

There  is  but  little  doubf  that  in  those  times  they  were  expert  navigators, 
who  in  addition  to  being  able  to  guide  their  courses  at  sea  by  the  stars,  also 
knew  the  art  of  steering  their  canoes  in  such  a  fashion  as  to  catch  and  ride 
great  distances  on  the  splendid  long  ocean  s^\■ells,  after  the  manner  of  the  surf 
riders  of  less  adventurous  times. 

Just  how  tliese  striking  feats  of  navigation  were  accomplished  we  may 
never  know.  At  any  rate  there  is  every  reason  to  Ix'lieve  that  they  were  per- 
formed. We  do  know,  however,  that  the  perils  att<'nding  them  were  safely 
passed,  the  difficulties  of  tlie  journeys  surmounted,  and  that  those  who  per- 
formed them  lived  to  tell  the  tale  of  tlieir  daring  to  their  eliildnMi.  and  they  to 


THE  HAAVAIIAN  PEOPLE.  31 

their  children's  children.  We  know  tlint  tlif(MiL;li  llicin  in  titnc  the  Polynesian 
race  came  to  occupy  a  new  land,  established  the  Hawaiian  people  and  ])iiilt  up  a 
crude  though  Avorthy  civilization. 


CHAPTER  II. 

TRANQUIL  ENVIRONMENT  OF  HAWAII  AND  ITS  EFFECT  ON  THE 

PEOPLE. 

The  Natural  Environment. 

Without  dwelling  further  on  the  remote  and  uncertain  period  whicli  had 
to  do  with  the  origin  and  early  migration  of  the  Hawaiian  people,  it  will  .be 
fitting  to  briefly  consider  the  race  in  connection  with  their  natural  environment. 
It  is  well  within  the  purpose  of  this  sketch  of  the  natural  history"  of  Hawaii 
to  treat  of  the  people  as  the  native  inhabitants,  and  for  that  reason  we  sliall 
dwell  upon  their  primitive  and  interesting  native  culture  rather  than  their 
more  recent  political  history. 

In  dealing  with  the  race  as  a  natural  people  it  will  be  of  interest  to  enu- 
merate some  of  the  various  forces  of  nature  among  which  they  developed  for 
centuries,  since  without  doubt  their  environment  helped  to  make  the  race  what 
it  was  at  the  time  of  its  discovery, — a  swarthy,  care-free,  fun-loving,  super- 
stilious  people,  witli  a  culture  that,  now  it  has  been  more  fully  studied  b\'  un- 
biased ethnologists  and  is  better  understood,  has  at  last  gained  for  the  ancient 
Hawaiians,  not  only  the  respect,  but  the  admiration  of  their  more  highly  cultured 
and  fairer  skinned  ])rothers.  In  seeking  only  to  depict  their  life  as  it  was  in 
the  interesting  time  of  their  primitive  paganism,  before  Christianity  was  brought 
to  them,  we  must  leave  entirely  out  of  account  the  story  of  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable religious  and  political  developments  that  a  race  has  ever  under-gone 
in  the  history  of  the  civilized  world. 

.So  capable  and  receptive  was  the  Hawaiian  race  thai  within  less  tlian  an 
hundred  years  the  entire  population  has  not  only  embraced  a  foi-eign  and  ex- 
ceedingly advanced  form  of  religion,  but  by  its  agency  transformed  their  lan- 
guage, practices,  customs,  manners,  arts  and  moi-als  to  sucli  a  degree  that  today 
hardly  a  trace  of  their  former  culture  remains  to  indicate  the  long  road  wliieh 
they  have  traveled  in  the  upwni'd  march  from  a  i-ude  i-ule  of  miglit,  feai"  and 
sui)erstition  to  the  place  where  their  representatives,  chosen  l)y  ballot,  sit  on 
equal  terms  in  legislative  asseml)lages  with  their  oiK^-time  ]iatrons  and  Avould-ix' 
benefactors,  and.  witliout  fear  or  favor,  creditjihly  discharuc  the  duties  of  citi- 
zenship in  the  great  American  Republic. 

KoNA  Weather  and  Traok  AYintds. 

One  of  the  most  iiMp(U'1;int  physical  iuHuenees  lliat  has  atf'ected  the  ]iei>ple 
is  the  climate.  Althougli  tlu'  Hawaiian  Tslai.ds  lie  ;it  the  northern  edge  of  the 
torrid  zone,  their  climate  is  seini-troi)ii'al    rathei-  than   li'ojucal.   and   is  several 


g3 


:::  o 


,< 


<    —   i   z 


x. 


^-  r. 


I 


.--  .-    -j: 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOl'LE.  33 

d  grees  cooler  than  thai  of  ;\<.\y  other  coiiiili'v  in  the  same  latitude.  The  tem- 
perature is  moderate,  at  U-ast  ten  degrees  below  the  noniial.  owinL;  to  tlie  in- 
fluence of  the  cool  ndi'llieast  ocean  cuiTents.  The  delightfully  cool  iKtrtheast 
trade  wind,  which  is  ohvions'.y  the  pi'iiicipal  I'h'ini'iit  in  the  Hawaiian  climate, 
l)l(;ws  steadily  during  at  least  nine  months  of  the  year.  During  the  I'eiiiaining 
months  the  wind  is  variable,  and  occasionally  stoinis  with  heavy  i-ains  blow 
from  the  southwest,  producing  what  is  k'liown  as  "Kona"'  weathci-.  Taken 
through  a  long  period,  the  temperature  at  sea  level  rarely  rises  aijove  90 
degrees  during  the  hottest  day  of  the  year,  and  seldom  falls  below  60  degrees 
for  more  than  a  few  hours  at  a  time,  with  the  mean  temi)eralnre  fluctuating 
about  75  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  ditference  between  the  daily  average  mid- 
sunnner  and  midwinter  temperature  is  about  10  degrees.  With  I'cference  to 
human  comfort  the  temperature  excells  for  its  equableness.  This  fact,  coupled 
with  the  refreshing  trade  winds  that  sweep  over  thousands  of  miles  of  cool 
ocean  and  the  bright  and  genial  warmth  of  the  troi)ical  sun,  produces  the  climate 
of  Paradise — a  condition  found  in  no  other  region  on  the  globe. 

Altitude  and  Its  Effect  on  Climate. 


In  fact  the  Hawaiian  language  liad  no  word  for  "weather,"  as  it  is  usually 
understood.  Nevertheless,  a  remarkable  difference  in  climate  is  experienced 
in  passing  from  one  side  of  the  islands  to  the  other,  or  from  lower  to  hii^her 
altitudes.  The  northeast,  oi'  windward  side  of  the  grou|).  which  is  expnseil  to 
the  trade  winds,  is  cool  and  rainy,  while  the  southwestern  or  leeward  side  is,  as 
a  rule,  unicli  drier  and  warmer.  The  most  important  variation,  however,  is 
due  to  altitude;  the  thermometer  falling  about  four  degrees  for  every  1. ()()(•  feet 
of  ascent.  It  is  therefore  possible  to  look  from  the  i)alin  groves  thai  hask 
in  tropical  warmth  aloiiL;-  the  coast  of  Hawaii  to  the  highest  mountain  pc;ik-  of 
the  gi'ouii,-  to  And  it  frequently  snow-capped,  pai'ticularly  durini;'  the  cooler 
months.  As  to  rainfall,  similar  variations  occur.  At  Honolulu  Ihe  average 
precipitation  is  thirty-eight  inches,  at  the  Pali.  Ave  miles  away  in  the  niunn- 
taius.  11(1  inches;  while  at  Hilo,  on  the  north  side  of  Hawaii,  it  is  nearly 
twelve  feet.  If  the  group  is  taken  as  a  whole,  almost  evei'y  variation  from 
warm  to  cold,  wet  to  dry.  windy  to  calm,  may  be  found. 

Effect  of  a  Sufficient  Amount  of  Fo(ti\ 

The  direct  influence  of  thes(>  facts  on  the  chai-acter  of  the  people,  howevei-, 
is  rather  obscure.  .Aside  from  the  hearing  it  may  have  had  on  their  clolhing, 
food  aud  sheltei'  it  is  imleed  difficult  to  trace.  .\lthough  it  is  the  i^cneral 
opinion  that  a  warm  climate  is  not  liable  1o  be  couducive  to  a  highei-  culture, 
there  is  plenty  of  e\idence  to  the  coiiti'a ry  here  and  elsewhei'e.  and.  considering 
the  insular  i)ositi(»n  of  the  Islands,  their  limited  fcxul  sui)pl.\\  the  lack  of  raw 
materials  for  manufacture,  the  absence  of  such  metals  as  iron  and  coi)per  and 


Southerly.  -  Maunu  Ken,    13.825  feet 


34  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

the  want  of  domestic  animals  as  beasts  of  burden,  the  Hawaiians  achieved  a 
remarkably  high  stage  of  development  before  their  discovery.  The  degree  of 
their  development  is  especially  shown,  as  we  shall  see,  by  the  thoroughness 
with  which  they  had  explored  their  environment  and  utilized  the  natural  raw 
materials  which  it  supplied. 

The  easy  tropical  conditions,  as  well  as  the  unsettled  political  state  which 
surrounded  them  originally,  were  not  necessarily  conducive  to  the  highest 
physical  or  mental  achievements.  According  to  Blackman,  the  regular  recur- 
rence of  a  sufficient  amount  of  food  to  supply  their  needs  may  also  have  pre- 
vented the  development  of  the  traits  of  thrift  and  frugality  that  are  so  inbred 
in  the  races  of  the  north.  There  is  no  doul)t  tliat  the  bright,  warm,  cheerful 
climate  had  its  influence  on  their  temperatment,  their  health,  and  their  home 
life,  by  diminishing  the  relative  importance  of  permanent  shelter,  by  enticing 
the  people  out  of  doors;  and  also  on  their  morality,  as  we  interpret  it,  ]\v  ren- 
dering clothing  the  thing  least  required  for  l)odily  comfort. 

Inter-Island  Communication. 

Another  important  point  in  their  environment  was  the  fact  that  the  in- 
habited islands  were  sufficiently  numerous  and  near  enough  together  to  influ- 
ence one  another  decisively,  yet  far  enough  apart  to  make  inter-island  com- 
munication difficult.  The  group  was  far  enough  removed  from  other  groups  to 
prevent  fre(iuenf  migrations  and  small  enough  to  render  a  wandering  life  and 
contact  with  other  people  and  tribes  impossible.  At  the  same  time  they  were 
just  far  enough  away  from  each  other  to  satisfy  the  natural  human  desire  for 
travel,  adventure  and  experience. 

Inter-Tribal  Wars. 

The  valleys  on  the  various  islands  constituted  natural  divisions  of  the  land 
that  had  a  marked  influence  on  the  government  of  the  people  by  district  chiefs 
who  were  frequently  at  war  with  one  another.  To  offset  this  there  were  inter- 
tribal and  inter-island  marriages  enough  to  in-cduce  a  uniform  stock  throughout 
the  group.  This  interchange  of  blood  and  ideas  was  most  beneficial  in  bringing 
about  the  homogeneity  and  compactness  necessary  to  preserve  inherited  habit 
and  secure  the  persistence  of  traditions,  customs  and  the  learning  of  the  whole 
people. 

Agriculture  and  the  Food  Supply. 

Althougli  file  valleys  are  usually  fertile,  they  are  limited  in  extent.  The 
soil  though  rich,  varies  greatly  in  productiveness,  and  being  of  a  porous  nature, 
needs  much  water  to  render  it  valuable  for  the  various  pursuits  of  agriculture. 
To  meet  this  demand,  extensive  irrigation  systems  were  built  and  used  by  the 
native  farmers.  Besides  flic  valley  lands,  there  are  broad  tracts  of  rougli  lava 
and  dry  upland  country  that  were  of  little  use  to  the  aborigines  with  their 
primitive  methods  of  agriculture.  In  brief,  the  conditions  were  such  as  to  re- 
quire much  labor  and  skill  to  produce  sufficient  food  from  the  soil  t(t  sn])ply 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  35 

their  wants.  For  tliis  reason,  among'  others,  their  life  was  not  the  one  of 
indolence  it  is  sometimes  thoug'ht  to  have  been,  yet  eoiulitioiis  were  niiiforinly 
more  favorable  to  life  in  llaw.-iii  than  were  tliose  met  willi  in  certain  other 
gronps  in  the  Pacific  to  which  I'olynesians  migrated  and  settled,  presumably 
as  they  did  in  these  islands. 

Fauna  and  Flora  Explored  by  the  Hawamans. 

So  much  must  be  said  of  the  animals  and  plants  in  anothci-  conneeliori  thai, 
though  they  form  an  important  feature  of  environment,  it  will  suffice  here  to 
note  the  salient  facts.  The  flora  furnished  trees  for  the  construction  of  theii- 
canoes  and  houses,  the  implements  of  their  warfare  and  peaceful  pursuits,  the 
raw  material  for  the  manufacture  of  their  clothing,  nets,  calabashes,  medicines, 
and  above  all,  a  sufficient  amount  of  Avholesome  food  throughouf  tlie  year  to  pro- 
vide for  their  sustenance. 

The  most  important  animals  existing  on  the  islands  at  th(>  time  of  their  dis- 
covery by  the  whites  were  the  swine  and  the  dogs,  both  of  which  were  freely  used 
as  food.  There  were  domestic  fowls  of  the  same  species  as  were  common 
throughout  the  Polynesian  islands.  The  waters  about  the  group  provided  a 
never  failing  supply  of  fish  food.  The  insects  were  all  inconspicuous  and  harm- 
less. The  only  game  birds,  as  ducks  and  plovers,  were  not  abundant,  while  the 
reptiles  were  represented  by  a  few  species  of  small,  inotfensive  lizards  that 
were  of  little  importance. 

The  Hawaiians  were  preeminently  an  agricultural  people  with  a  natural 
love  for  the  soil  and  its  cultivation.  They  had  an  appreciation  of  the  beautiful 
in  flower  and  foliage  that  has  had  an  abiding  influence  on  their  homes  and 
home  surroundings.  They  were  also  skilled  fishermen.  The  lack  of  animals, 
domestic  or  wild,  other  than  the  few  species  mentioned,  in-evented  them  from 
following  the  hunting  and  pastoral  life,  and  as  a  result  they  were  settled  in 
permanent  villages,  usually  along  the  coast. 

Since  there  were  no  noxious  insects,  poisonous  serpents  or  dangerous  birds 
or  beasts  of  prey,  there  was  no  occasion  for  the  alertness  and  constant  fear  that 
so  frequently  makes  life  in  a  tropical  country  a  never-ending  strain  if  not  an 
actual  burden. 

Food  and  Its  Effect  on  the  People. 

While  the  chiefs  and  the  more  prosperous  of  the  people  were  well  supplied 
with  meat,  the  common  people  had  it  only  at  I'ai-c  intervals.  They  were  forced 
to  subsist  on  a  diet  chiefly  vegetal)le,  which  wa^--  lacking  in  variety,  and.  althoueli 
fat-producing,  was  also  difl:'use  and  hnlky.  To  the  cliaracter  of  their  food  ni;iy 
be  attributed  the  hal)it  of  alternately  gorgini;  and  Tasting,  whicli  was  so  com- 
mon a  trait  of  the  ancient  Hawaiians,  and  which  is  believed  to  have  resulted  in 
the  abnormal  development  of  the  abdomen,  formally  so  noticeable  anions  theiii. 

Although  taro  was  the  staff  of  life  in  Hawaii,  sweet  potato,  oi'  yam, 
also  figured  largely  in  the  every  day  di;'t  of  the  comnioii  people.  Tlion-^li  meat 
was   never  al)uiidant,   as   lias   been    s1ate(l.   tlie\-    wei-e    not    eiitireh'    witlioiit    aiii- 


i  s, 


z; 


TIIK   HAWAIIAN   I'KOIMJO.  Zl 

mal  food.  Fisli  \v;is  jilwfiys  jivjiihihlc  jiiid  I'jiirlv  piciilifiil,  and  tnTlaiii  kiials 
were  often  eaten  raw.  Fowl,  pork  and  do.us  were  occasionally  to  be  had  as  a 
change  and  were  much  esteemed  as  delicacies.  The  poi-dou'.  when  carefnlly 
fed  and  fattened  on  poi.  was  regarded  as  even  more  delicious  in  tlavoi-  ilum  pnrk. 
Dogs  always  formed  an  important  dish  at  the  native  feasts  and  on  sueli  occa- 
sions large  nundiers  of  them  would  he  hak'ed  ,n  eaiHi  ovens. 

Response  op  the  Natives  to  their  EInvironment. 

Looking  ))roadl.\'  at  their  environment  it  may  be  said  that  the  most  (U-cisive 
factors  in  the  surroundings  of  the  Hawaiian  race  were  isolation,  the  evenness 
of  the  climate  and  the  conditions  which  made  the  [)ui'suit  of  agriculture  a 
necessity.  The  latter  induced  a  more  regular  and  constant  activity  and  more 
settled  life  than  is  found  among  a  hunting  and  roving  jx'ople.  and  in  connection 
with  the  other  conditions  mentioned  it  had  an  important  beariim  on  the  tcmpcM-a- 
ment  of  the  race.  The  isolation,  even  temperature,  and  always  sufficient  food 
supply  nnist  have  had  their  effect  in  producing  a  patient,  traiKiuil.  self-i-eliant 
mind — a  satisfied  disposition — an  even  temper — a  settled  attachment  to  the  soil — - 
an  aptitude  and  faculty  for  the  development  of  their  peculiar  forms  of  learning, 
and  above  all,  habits  of  life  and  customs  of  dress  that  were  peculiarly  suited  to 
and  the  result  of  the  ffentle  demands  of  their  environment. 


CHAPTER  III. 
PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTK^S  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 

Statitre  and  Physical  Development  of  the  People. 

At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  llawaiians  they  were  i)hysical]y  one  of 
the  most  striking  native  races  in  the  world.  ^loreover,  they  were  distinguished 
as  being  among  the  kindest  and  most  gentle  nuninered  of  jH^oplc.  and  l)ut  for  the 
oppression  of  their  priests  and  chiefs,  they  would  undoulttedly  have  been  among 
the  happiest. 

As  a  race  they  were  tall,  shapely  and  musculai-.  witli  Liood  features  and 
kind  eyes.  In  symmetry  of  form  the  women  ha\'e  scai'cely  lieeii  surpass  mI.  if 
equalled,  while  the  men  excelled  in  muscular  .streuLith,  pai-ticularly  in  the  region 
of  the  back  and  arms. 

The  average  height  of  an  adidt  Po]\uesian  is  giv(Mi  as  five  fe(>t  nine  and  a 
third  inches,  and  the  Hawaiians  were  well  up  to.  if  not  aitovc.  that  av'ei'aL;*'. 
while  individuals  of  unusual  size,  often  little  sliort  of  giants,  were  not  uncomnio'i 


Desckiption    of    1'l.\te. 

1.  Sfra]iingf  and  prcparhir>'  a  jiig'  []niaa]  for  tmkiiiir.  -1.  Tlio  oartli  oven  |  iimi  j  liollnwetl 
out  ami  filloii  witli  hpalcd  stmies  ready  foi'  tlic  fund.  :;.  The  iinu  Idled  and  closed;  the  heat 
and  steam  hakes  the  food  wliich  is  wraiijieil  in  ki  or  banana  leaves.  4.  Tlie  food  baked  and 
ready  to  be  eaten,  .t.  Founding-  ]>oi  on  a  "  doul)le  "  board  jjiapa  kui  poll,  wliicdi  is  a  shallow 
trough  made  of  hard  wood;  "single"  boards  were  also  common.  About  the  grass  house  may 
be  seen  coeoanut  palm  trees  in  the  rear,  jiajiaya  trees  to  the  right  and  left  and  a  small  noni 
tree  at  the  end  of  the  house. 


38  NATl'RAL    HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

ainouy'  tliein.  There  is  an  authentic  record  of  a  skeleton  foiiiid  iu  a  burial 
cave  that  measured  six  feet  seven  and  three-quarters  inches  in  length,  and  there 
is  sufficient  evidence  to  establish  tlie  tact  tliat  men  of  even  larger  stature  were 
b}'  no  means  unusual. 

Instances  of  excessive  corpulency  have  been  common  among  Hawaiians, 
especially  among  the  chiefs  who  were  always  better  nourished  than  were 
the  common  people.  Having  plenty  to  eat  and  little  to  do,  they  grew 
large  and  fat.  This  tendency  to  corpulency,  as  has  been  elsewhere  noted,  was, 
however,  more  common  among  the  women.  IMany  of  them  were  perfectly  enor- 
mous in  size,  but  this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  since  the  Hawaiian  ideal  of 
female  loveliness  includes  stoutness  of  figure  as  a  fundamental  requisite. 

The  natives,  before  their  mixture  with  foreigners,  were  a  brown  race,  vary- 
ing in  color  from  light  olive  to  a  rich  swarthy  brown.  Their  hair,  usually  raven 
black,  was  straight,  wavy  or  curly,  Imt  never  kinky.  Their  lips  were  of  a  little 
more  than  medium  thickness,  witli  the  upper  lip  slightly  shortened.  This  gave 
to  tile  mouth  a  peculiar  form  that  is  characteristic  of  the  race.  Their  teeth 
were  sound,  regular  and  very  beautiful,  a  fact  frecpiently  ascribed  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  food  they  ate.  The  nose,  a  rather  prominent  feature,  was  in  most 
cases  broad  and  slighty  flattened.  The  eyes  of  the  pure-hlooded  Hawaiian 
were  always  black  and  very  expressive.  Their  foreheads  were  usually  high, 
and  perhaps  a  trifle  narrow  in  proportion.  In  general,  their  features  were 
strong,  good-humored,  and  in  many  instances,  when  combined  with  their  splendid 
physiques,  produced  a  striking  and  impressive  personality  that  gave  the  im- 
pression of  their  belonging  to  a  very  sui)erior  race. 

Clothing  of  the  People. 

At  the  time  of  their  discovery  the  men  wore  the  malo,  a  plain  piece  of  tapa 
cloth,  about  the  loins  in  the  form  of  a  T  bandage.  The  W(mien  Avore  the  pa'u 
of  tapa,  which  was  a  simple  piece  of  bark  cloth,  wrapiied  about  the  Avaist,  to 
form  a  short  skirt,  that  hung  down  to  tht^  knees.  While  the  foregoing  were  the 
usual  articles  of  dress  they  were  by  no  means  averse  to  answering  the  call  of 
their  environment  by  stalking  about  naked  or  nearly  so,  if  a  pretense  offered. 
They  were  fond  of  certain  kinds  of  adornment,  particularly  flowers,  using  them  as 
garlands  about  their  necks  or  as  wreaths  aliout  their  heads.  The  children  while 
often  wearing  flowers  about  their  necks,  went  otherwise  unadorned  until  six  or 
eight  years  of  age. 

Cleanliness. 

Although  the  Hawaiians  wore  their  tapa  cloth  clothing  as  long  as  it  would 
hold  together,  the  people  as  a  whole  took  great  pride  in  personal  appearance 
and  cleanliness.  They  were  fond  of  ornaments  and  were  skillful  in  their  manu- 
facture. Both  sexes  wore  ornaments  fashioned  from  shells,  nuts  and  ivory 
about  their  heads  and  shoulders  in  addition  to  the  flower  garlands  just  men- 
tioned. While  tattooing  was  indulged  in  as  a  form  of  decoration  its  use  in  this 
respect  was  not  carried  to  the  extent  that  it  was  among  the  New  Zealanders  or 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PKOI'LE.  39 

the  Marquesians.      Its  ])riiu'ipal   use  in  Hawaii   was  to  denote  I'aiik  or  lineage, 
to  brand  a  slave  or  sometimes  as  a  token  of  mourning. 

Although  the  chiefs  were  markedly  superior  physically  and  otherwise,  when 
compared  with  the  common  people,  they  were,  nevertheless,  descendants  of  the 
same  race.  The  difference  in  stature  and  capability  which  they  exhibited  seems 
to  have  l)een  the  natural  result  of  their  environment.  Being  better  fed.  having 
more  leisure,  and  relieved  of  the  burdens  of  living  and  in  many  wa\s  ])ampered 
and  protected,  they  escaped  the  mai'k's  that  exposure,  excessive  toil,  hunger, 
fear  and  superstition  invariably  stamp  on  the  less  fortunate  of  every  race. 

Life  in  the  Open  Air. 

The  unusually  salubrious  Hawaiian  climate  stimulated  the  habit  of  out-of- 
door  life,  which  was  almost  universal.  The  native  huts  were  used  chietly  as 
sleeping  places  and  for  protection  from  the  rain.  Their  aquatic,  athletic  and 
sea-going  habits  were  the  growth  of  the  open-air  life  they  led.  The  love  of 
freciuent  bathing,  the  nearness  of  the  sea  and  the  necessity  of  securing  at  least 
a  i)art  of  their  sustenance  from  the  ocean,  all  combined  in  making  them  the 
most  powerful  and  daring  swimmers  in  the  world  and  developed  among  them, 
perhaps,  the  world's  most  expert  and  intelligent  fishermen. 

Their  Language  and  Alphabet. 

Their  language  was  singularly  deficient  in  generic  and  abstract  terms,  but 
to  make  up  for  this  general  deficiency  it  was  especially  rich  in  specific  names 
of  places  and  things,  most  of  which  were  derivitives  that  were  full  of  meaning, 
frequently  taking  account  of  nice  distinctions.  Broadly  speaking  the  Hawaiian 
language  was  little  more  than  a  simple  tribal  dialect  of  the  Polynesian  tongue 
that  was  spoken  with  much  uniformity  in  a  large  number  of  the  Pacific  island 
groups.  In  fact,  there  is  less  variation  in  meaning  and  pronunciation  of  the 
language  throughout  Polynesia  than  exists  today  between  the  Spanish  and 
Italian  tongues.  Besides  the  language  of  every-day  life  there  was  a  style  especi- 
ally appropriate  for  oratory  and  another  suited  to  the  demands  of  religion  and 
poetry.  Since  there  was  no  written  language,  not  even  a  picture  language,  at 
the  time  of  which  we  write,  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  American  missionaries 
was  to  reduce  their  speech  to  writing.  For  this  purpose  only  five  vowels,  a,  e, 
i,  0,  u.  and  seven  consonants,  li.  k.  1.  ni.  u.  j).  w.  were  found  necessary.  In  the 
use  of  these  twelve  letters  the  p]uropean  pi-oiiuiiriation  of  llic  vowels  \\;is  adopted. 
The  letter  a  is  sounded  as  in  arm;  e  as  in  they;  i  as  in  niacliine.  and  u  as 
in  rule.  Tht^  (lil)thong  ai,  resembles  the  English  ay.  and  an  has  the  sound  of  ow. 
The  consonants  were  sounded  as  in  English  excei)t  that  k  is  sometimes  exchanged 
for  t,  and  the  sound  of  1  confounded  with  k  and  d.  The  dirth  of  consonants 
and  the  over-plus  of  vowels  gave  to  the  spoken  language  such  openness,  fluidity 
and  richness  as  to  be  particularly  noticeable  to  persons  unac(iuainted  with  tlie 
tongue.  By  some  this  peculiar  (piality  of  the  spokiMi  language,  by  reason  of 
its  intellectual  indefiniteness,  perhaps,  is  Ix-lieved  to  represent,  oi-  at  least  re- 
flect, the  open,  frank  character  of  the  people  who  developed  it. 


■SI 

—  J 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  41 

Genealogv  and  TTistory. 

Their  legends  and  traditions,  many  of  Ihetn  ideiilical  witli  lliose  found  in 
other  groups  in  Polynesia,  as  has  been  stated,  were  handed  down,  generation 
after  generation,  by  a  highly  hon()r(>d  class  of  genealogists  and  bards.  Each 
family  or  elan  hatl  its  respected  historians  and  j>oets,  and  generally  the  i)osition 
of  genealogist,  at  least,  became  hereditary,  to  be  handed  down  from  father  to 
son.  It  was  the  especial  office  of  the  genealotiist  to  keej)  and  correctly  transmit 
the  historical  records  of  chietiy  unions,  births,  deaths  and  the  achieveiiuMits  of 
the  mor(^  important  people  of  their  community. 

In  this  way  nnu-li  of  the  history  of  the  people,  as  well  as  many  of  their 
legends  and  nuieh  of  their  historical  beliefs,  superstitions  and  ])ractices,  have 
come  down  to  us  in  fairly  accurate  form,  often  from  very  remote  times. 

Meles  and  Hulas. 

Their  meles  and  hulas  were  the  supreme  literary  achievements  of  the  ancient 
historians  and  poets,  and,  as  their  subjects  were  diverse,  they  vary  much  in 
substance  and  character.  j\Iany  are  folk  songs;  some  are  of  a  religious  order, 
being  prayers  or  prophecies;  others  are  name  songs,  composed  at  the  birth  of  a 
chief,  in  his  honor,  recounting  the  exploits  of  his  ancestors ;  the  dirge  was  a 
favorite  form  of  composition;  others  again  are  mere  love  souths,  and  still  others 
are  composed  to  or  al)out  things  and  places. 

Although  they  are  without  rhyme  or  regular  meter,  as  it  is  generail\-  under- 
stood, many  of  them  are  strikingly  poetic  in  spirit.  A  single  example  taken 
almost  at  random  from  the  many  excellent  translations  given  liy  my  fiiend. 
Dr.  X.  B.  Emerson,  in  his  l)ook  on  the  Hula,  may  serve  to  illustrate  their 
appreciation  of  the  poetic  side  of  nature  as  well  as  to  demonstrate  their  natural 
descriptive  power  and  literary  gift. 

By  way  of  introduction,  we  should  know  that  Koolau  is  a  district  on  the 
windward,  or  rainy,  side  of  the  Island  of  Ocdni  and  that  the  stanza  given  is 
one  taken  from  one  of  the  many  songs  for  the  hula  ala'a  i)apa.  It  is  but  an 
episode  from  the  story  of  Hiiaka  on  her  journey  to  Kauai  to  bring  the  handsome 
prince  T.ohiau  to  the  goddess  Pele.     Hence, — 

"  'Twas  in  Koolau  I  met  the  rain; 
It  comes  with  liftino'  and  tossing  of  dust, 
Advancing  in   columns,  dashing  along. 
The  I'ain,  it  sighs  in  the  forest; 
The  rain,  it  beats  and  whelms  like  the  surf; 
It  smites,  it  smites  now  the  land. 
Pasty  the  earth  from  the  stainiiinj:  rain; 
Full   run   the  streauis  a    lushing'  flooii; 
The  mountain  walls  leap  with  the  rain. 
See  the  water   chafing  its  bounds  like   a   dog, 
A  raging  dog,  gnawing  its  way  to  pass  out." 

nKSORIPTICV     OF     PL.\TE. 

1.  The  nose  flute  player  and  iiula  dancer.  2.  Hawaii.iii  Imuse  on  a  raised  stone  |ilat- 
form.  3.  Making  fire  by  the  ancient  Hawaiian  method:  a  hard  stick  of  t)lomea  (Pcrrottetia 
Sa7idu-ice)K'iis)  is  rubbed  in  a  groov(>  on  a  soft  jiieee  of  hau  wood  until  the  friction  ignites  the 
tinderdike  dust  that  aeeunnilates  in  tlu'  end  n\'  the  groovr.  I.  A  icni|i(iiarv  house  made  of 
sugar-cane  leaves.  In  the  foreground  taro  and  t(d)acco  are  shown,  to  the  left  a  ]iapaya.  while 
in  the  background  lauhala,  banana,  breadfruit  and  cocoanuts  may  be  seen. 


42  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

Mauy  find  a  suggestive  parallelism  of  expression  in  the  Hawaiian  meles 
comparable  with  the  Hebrew  psalms,  others  to  tlie  rugged  poetry  of  Walt  Whit- 
man. No  better  illustration  of  this  dignified  form  of  Hawaiian  poetry  can  be 
found,  perhaps,  than  the  passage  from  the  dirge,  "In  the  ^Memory  of  Keeau- 
moku,"  as  preserved  by  tlie  Rev.  William  Ellis: 

"Alas,  alas,  dead  is  my  chief. 
Dead  is  my  lord   and  friend; 
My  friend  in  the  season  of  famine, 
My  friend  in  the  time  of  drought. 
My  friend  in  my  poverty, 
My  friend  in  the  rain  and  the  wind. 
My  friend  in  the  heat  and  the  sun, 
My  friend   in   the   cold  from   the   mountain. 
My  friend  in  the  storm. 
My  friend  in   the   calm, 
My  friend  in  the  eight  seas, 
Alas,  alas,  gone  is  my  friend, 
And  no  more  will  return. ' ' 

As  SO  frequently  happens  with  people  gifted  with  a  lyric  talent,  the  Ha- 
waiians  were  also  possessed  of  an  extraordinary  musical  talent.  There  were 
many  among  them  at  the  time  of  their  discovery  that  sang  with  skill,  after  their 
own  fashion,  and  they  were  by  no  means  slow  to  acquire  the  technique  of  our 
own  more  intricate  written  music,  a  fact  which  soon  revolutionized  their  form  of 
musical  expression. 

]\Iarriage. 

Passing  now  to  the  more  domestic  customs  of  the  people  it  may  l)e  said  that 
among  the  Hawaiians,  marriage  was  entered  into  with  very  little  ceremony, 
except,  perhaps,  in  the  case  of  a  few  of  the  more  important  chiefs.  Among  all 
classes  the  relations  among  the  sexes  w^ere  very  free  and  it  is  difficult  to  determine, 
with  accuracy,  what  the  exact  condition  was  originalh^  with  reference  to  chastity. 
All  the  evidence  goes  to  show  that  the  habits  of  the  people  in  this  regard  were  far 
better  formerly  than  they  afterwards  became.  Whatever  may  have  lieen 
brought  about  by  the  coming  of  white  men,  and  we  refer  to  the  hardy  seamen 
of  the  early  days,  it  is  a  mistake  to  assume  that  wholesale  promiscuity  existed 
originally  among  them  comparalile  to  the  debasing  type  found  among  certain 
classes  in  our  own  scheme  of  social  civilization.  Although  there  was  much  free- 
dom on  the  part  of  both  parties  in  the  marriage  relation  and  scarcely  any  re- 
straint at  all  among  the  young  previous  to  entering  the  more  settled  domestic 
arrangement,  it  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  there  was  an  absence  of  a  definite 
marital  relationship,  accompanied  l\v  well  understood  obligations  between  the 
parents  and  their  offspring. 

Polygamy. 

By  such  Hawaiians  as  could  afford  and  command  more  than  one  wife, 
polygamy  was  practiced  to  some  extent,  rather  more  as  a  mark  of  distinction 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  43 

and  affliU'iK-e  tiiaii  utlierwise.  The  pour  and  dcpeiidfiit  euudilioii  (j1  tlir  mass 
of  the  common  people,  if  there  had  been  no  other  reasons,  prevented  the  practice 
from  becoming  widespread  among  them.  It  is  a  curicus  and  interesting  fact 
in  this  connection  to  note  that  the  Hawaiian  called  all  of  his  relatives  of  the 
same  generation  as  himself  "brothers"  and  "sisters,"  and  those  of  the  next 
older — "fathers"  and  "mothers";  tliose  of  a  younger  generation  "sons"  and 
"daughters,"  and  so  on.  This  tendency  is  taken  by  some  as  indicative  of  the 
uncertain  relations  that  existed  among  them,  since  brothers,  to  a  certain  extent, 
shared  their  wives  in  common,  and  sisters  their  husbands.  P)ut  Pic  marital  form, 
where  one  man  and  one  woman  habitually  cohabit,  while  yet  indulging  in  other 
attachments,  was  the  rule  among  them  at  all  times  and  in  all  classes  as  is  cleai'ly 
shown  by  the  earliest  recorded  facts  on  the  subject. 

It  is  known  that  in  certain  instances  betrothals  were  arranged  by  parents 
and  friends  while  the  children  who  were  the  prinei])als  in  the  arrangement  were 
still  quite  young.  Among  the  common  people,  as  distinguished  from  the  chiefs, 
marriage  was  largely  a  matter  of  caprice,  but  among  the  chiefs  it  was  a  subject 
of  serious  concern,  involving  matters  of  state,  puljlic  policy,  position  and  power. 
Especially  was  this  true  at  the  mating  of  women  of  rank,  since  rank,  position 
and  inheritance  descended  chiefly,  though  not  wholly,  through  the  mother.  For 
example,  the  offspring  of  a  woman  of  noble  l)irth  would  inherit  her  rank  despite 
the  rank  of  the  father.  But  the  children  of  a  father  of  liigli  rank  would  fail 
to  retain  their  position  if  born  to  a  woman  of  inferior  position. 

Marriage  Among  Persons  of  Rank. 

For  this  reason  reigning  families  were  careful  to  examine  into  the  genealogy 
of  those  who  were  liable  to  join  themselves  with  members  of  the  more  exelusiv(; 
families.  For  reasons  of  policy  brothers  were  forced  on  rare  occasions  to  marry 
sisters,  that  there  might  be  no  question  as  to  the  i-ank  of  theii-  cliildi'eii. 

While  there  was  no  set  wedding  ceremony  the  event  was  often  made  an 
excuse  for  a  feast;  and  frequently,  particularly  among  the  common  peo|)le,  the 
bridegroom  declared  his  choice  by  throwing  a  piece  of  tapa  clotli  ovei-  the  lu'ido 
in  the  presence  of  her  relatives,  or  less  frecpiently  by  their  friends  throwin;:; 
a  piece  of  tapa  over  both  bride  and  groom.  It  is  an  astonishing  fact,  that  with 
the  exception  of  marriage,  almost  every  act  in  the  life  of  the  peoi)le  was  cele- 
brated with  prayers,  sacrifices  and  religious  ceremonies.  It  eaimot  be  doubted, 
therefore,  that  the  marriage  tie  was  a  loose  one.  lightly  assunn'il  and  liuhlly 
put  off,  and  depended  largely  for  its  duration  on  the  will  of  the  husliand. 
As  might  be  expected,  separation  was  of  frequcMit  occurrence^  amoni:  tlimi:  and 
while  fond  of  their  children,  after  time  had  given  o])poi'l  niiily  I'oi-  an  alladi- 
ment  to  develop  between  parent  and  child.  i1  was  ne\ci--1  he-less  a  widespread  prac- 
tice among  them,  for  mothers  to  part  with  tlieii-  balnis  at  birth.  i:ivinu'  them  freely 
and  without  reserve  to  relatives  or  friends  who  iiiiuht  e\])ress  a  wish  tor  the  ehild. 

Infanticide. 

There  can  be  no  doidjt  but  that  infant  ieide  was  [)i'evalent   auionu  them  and 


X      - 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  45 

tliat  n  very  I.u'uo  per  cent  of  llic  cliildicii  liorii  were  dispose;!  ol'  in  \;ii'i(!iis  ways 
liy  their  parents,  soon  after  their  hirtli.  (ieiierally  speaking,  i1  ap- 
pears that  in  Hawaii,  as  tln'oniihout  Polynesia,  tlie  strnugh'  for  exist- 
ence and  life's  necessities,  was  largely  evaded  l)y  i'es1  riding  the  na- 
tni'al  increase  in  popnlation  in  this  way.  AVhatcNcr  the  cansr  may  liave 
been  for  this  ninisnal  restriction,  it  is  (piite  generally  adiiiilled  to  have  Ixvn  an 
effective  one  so  far  as  keejting  the  populalion  down  to  whri'c  a  cond'ortahle 
snhsistenee  conld  hi'  had  l)y  all  who  were  [)erinitted  by  their  i)ai'en1s  to  live  past 
the  perilous  period  of  early  infancy.  From  the  purely  economic  point  of  view 
this  artificial  check  was  most  l)eneficial.  Freed  from  crowding  liy  overpopnla- 
tion,  the  [vrimitive  connnnnily  need  not  live  under  the  scourge  of  grin;lin'.i' 
poverty.  By  limiting  the  size  of  the  family  to  the  means  and  ability  of  the 
parents  to  ])i-ovide,  there  conld  lie  enough  foi'  all.  Direct  reasoninu'  led  tliem, 
therefore,  to  free  themselves  from  the  irksome  necessity  of  providing  nnire  oi" 
dividing  less,  by  restricting  the  increase  in  popidation  to  a  jxiint  well  within 
the  apparent  normal  food  sui)ply.  jNIv  friend,  T)i\  Titus  .Alnnson  Coan.  without 
upholding  the  crude  methods  employed  in  adjusting  the  two  imjiortant  factors 
mentioned,  fiiuls  the  freedom  which  the  ])eople  enjoyed  from  tlie  necessity  of 
pi-oviding,  to  be  the  main  cause  of  the  unusual  development  of  the  genial  and 
generous  traits  of  the  llawaiians,  and  in  it  finds  the  principal  source  of  their 
marital  happiness.  Other  writers  account  for  the  practice  of  infanticide  among 
the  TTawaiians  on  the  unpardonable  ground  of  laziness — unwillingness  to  tike 
the  trouble  to  reai'  children.  But  as  we  are  told  that  pariMits  wei-e  fond  of  their 
children  and  ]iarental  disciplini^  was  not  riti'orous.  and  as  children  were  left 
laryelx-  to  their  own  devices,  their  care  could  hardly  be  regarded  as  a  serious 
burden  ;  moreover,  more  girl  children  were  destro^■ed  than  boys,  indicating'  that 
the  f(U^mer  reason  was  the  more  economic  and.  theri^fore  the  more  human  and 
logical  one.  On  the  other  hand  it  may  be  urged  that  a  cei'tain  aiiiount  of 
brutality  was  always  exhibited  toward  their  own  kind.  The  old  and  jihvsically 
unfortunate  among  the  connnon  {)eople  fared  roughly  at  the  hands  of  the  com- 
munity.     Old  age  was  despised.      The  insane  were  often  stoned  to  death  and 


Descriptiox   of    PIj.\te. 

1.  A  sturdy  old  native  in  characteristic  Euro]iean  dress.  2.  The  Hawaiian  warrior 
Kaniehaneha  I.  From  a  monument  in  front  of  the  Judiciary  Building  in  llonohiiu.  erected, 
during  the  reign  of  King  Kalakaua,  one  handnd  years  after  the  discovery  of  the  ll;n\;iiian 
Islands  by  Captain  Cook.  The  statue,  by  an  Anieric;ni  artist,  is  a  coniposite.  based  on  a  |iaint- 
ing  of  Kamehameha  by  a  Eussian  artist  and  supidiniented  by  ])hotographs  of  the  finest  tyjies  of 
modern  Hawaiians.  The  figure  is  shown  wearing  the  helmet  |mahio]e|  made  of  wick(>r-work 
covered  with  feathers;  a  long  cloak  [ahuula]  of  feathers  attaclied  to  a  fine  net  work  of  olona  ; 
about  the  chest  and  over  the  shoulders  is  draped  tlie  malo  of  I'mi.  also  made  of  feathers  on  an 
olona  fouiidaticm.  About  the  loins  is  tied  the  common  tajia  malo — the  covering  worn  by  the 
men  of  ancient  Hawaii  when  at  work;  in  the  left  hand  is  tlie  sjiear  [newa|,  the  ciiief  imple- 
ment of  warfare.  The  Honolulu  statue  is  a  duplicate  of  the  original  whicli  was  lost  in  a  wreck 
on  the  voj^age  to  Honolulu.  The  sunken  statue  was  subsetinently  raiseil  and  now  stands  in 
the  court  yard  at  Kohala,  Hawaii.  Four  pictures  in  bas-relief  about  the  base  of  tiie  monu  nent 
(not  here  shown)  represents  (a)  canoes  greeting  Captain  Cook  at  Kealakekiia  l^ay  ;  (b)  si.\  men 
hurling  s]iears  at  Kjunehamelia ;  (c)  a  fleet  of  war  canoes  buih  f(n'  tlie  invasion  of  Kauai, 
and    (d)    ir.en  am!  children   im   the  roadside.     3.      Muscular  ydiiiig    Ilnwaiian. 


46  NATUEAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

the  sick  sometimes  left  to  die  of  neglect  or,  less  frequently,  were  put  to  death 
by  their  relatives. 

Descent  of  Rank. 

AVhile  the  descent  of  rank  through  the  female  line  gave  women  a  place  of 
unquestioned  importance  in  their  social  scheme  and  often  elevated  her  to  the 
hiuhest  positions  in  the  political  order,  it  did  not  save  her  from  certain  forms 
of  social  degradation  directed  irrevocably  at  all  her  sex.  For  example,  her  sex 
was  excluded  from  the  interior  of  their  chief  heiaus.  At  lurth  she  was  more  un- 
welcome than  her  brother  and  more  lialile  to  be  summarily  sent  to  the  grave. 
She  was  the  object  of  the  most  oppressive  of  the  regulations  of  the  tabu  system. 
She  must  not  eat  with  men  or  even  taste  food  from  an  oven  that  had  been  used 
in  preparing  food  for  them.  She  was  not  allowed  in  the  men's  eating  houses, 
and  several  of  tlie  choicer  food  products  of  the  islands  Avere  absolutely  forbidden 
her.  Such  delicacies,  for  example,  as  turtle,  pork,  certain  kinds  of  fish, 
cocoanuts  and  l:)ananas,  were  reserved  by  the  tabu  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the 
male  sex.  But  as  a  sort  of  compensation  the  men  attended  to  the  preparation 
and  cooking  of  the  food,  and  women  were  allowed  the  privilege  of  accompanying 
and  aiding  their  husbands  and  brothers  in  battle  They  could  manufacture 
bark  cloth  without  fear  of  competition  by  the  men,  and  they  could  engage  in 
the  practice  of  medicine,  as  they  understood  it,  on  equal  terms  with  the  sterner 
sex. 

The  Tabu. 

Reference  has  just  been  made  to  their  tabu  system.  A  cursory  examination 
of  it  will  show  what  a  far-reaching,  serious  and  exceedingly  complicated  system 
of  penal  exactions  and  regulations  it  was.  No  one,  not  even  the  king,  was  alto- 
gether free  from  its  influence,  and  the  common  people  were  made  to  bow  to  its 
dictation  at  every  turn  of  their  daily  lives.  As  an  institution,  the  system  was 
both  religious  and  political,  in  that  the  violation  of  the  tabu  ^  was  a  sin  as 
well  as  a  crime.  As  a  punishment  for  its  infraction  the  offender  was  liable  to 
lu'i ng  down  the  wrath  of  the  gods,  and  they  were  numerous,  as  well  as  bring 
al)()ut  his  own  death.  Avhich  was  often  inflicted  in  an  exceedingly  cruel  and  bar- 
lifirous  manner.  This  extraordinary  institution,  although  common  throughout 
Polynesia,  was  worked  out  to  a  finer  detail,  and  more  sternly  enforced  in  Hawaii, 
perhaps,  than  in  any  of  the  Pacific  islands.  For  the  present  purj^ose  it  would  be 
tedious  to  sketch  the  system  in  anything  more  than  a  general  way.  Suffice  to 
say  that  the  tabu  was  the  supreme  law  of  the  land.  In  its  final  analysis  it  was  a 
system  of  religious  prohibition  founded  on  fear  and  superstition,  the  interpreta- 
tion and  use  of  which  was  in  the  hands  of  a  ]iowerful  and  unscrupulous  priest- 
hood, the  kahunas,  who  in  their  i)almy  days  were  supported  with  all  the  physical 
power  that  the  kings  and  influential  chiefs  could  bring  to  bear. 

Some  of  the  tabus  were  fixed  and  permanent,  being  well  understood  by  all 
the  people.      Many  such  there  were  relating  to  the  seasons,  to  the  gods  and  to 


^  That  which  was  forbidden. 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  47 

oft-repeated  ceremonies.  Others  were  special.  Icinpofary  jiiid  ci-i-alic.  liaving 
their  inception  in  the  will  or  caprice  of  the  king  or  tlie  pleasnrc  of  the  kalmnas. 
Some  of  the  more  burdensome  were  sjjecific  and  dii-ected  against  certain  persons 
or  objects.  Eor  example,  the  persons  of  llie  chiefs  and  priests  were  lalni - 
as  were  the  temi)les  and  the  temple  idols.  Some  in  effect  were  exceedingly 
rigid  requirements,  others  partook  more  of  the  force  and  importance  of  regula- 
tions. There  were  four  principal  tabu  periods  during  each  month.  During 
these  periods  a  devout  chief  was  expected  to  spend  much  time  in  the  heiau.-'^ 
At  such  times  women  were  forbidden  to  enter  a  canoe  or  have  intercourse  with 
the  other  sex  until  the  tabu  was  lifted.  An  especial  edict  nuide  it  incumbent 
that  during  the  whole  period  of  her  pregnancy  the  expectant  mother  nuist  live 
entirely  apart  from  her  husband,  in  accordance  with  a  very  ancient  tabu.  At 
the  periods  sacred  to  the  great  gods  many  were  put  to  death  for  infractions 
of  th(^  tabu,  as  many  restrictions  were  promulgated  and  enforced  at  such  sea- 
sons, and,  through  ignorance,  the  people  were  liable  to  disregard  them. 

We  are  informed  by  the  people  and  through  the  records  of  early  visitors 
that  at  such  times  no  person  could  bathe,  or  be  seen  abroad  during  the  day-time, 
no  canoes  could  be  launched,  no  fires  were  allowed,  not  even  a  pig  could  grunt, 
a  dog  bark  or  rooster  crow  for  fear  the  tabu  might  be  broken  and  fail  of  its 
purpose.  Should  it  fail  the  offenders  were  made  to  pay  the  penalty  with  tlieir 
lives. 

Any  particular  place  or  object  might  be  declared  tabu  by  tlie  proper  person 
by  simply  affixing  to  it  a  stick  bearing  aloft  a  bit  of  tapa,  this  being  a  sufficient 
sign  that  the  locality  was  to  be  avoided.  The  bodies  of  the  dead  were  especially 
sacred  objects  and  always  tabu.  As  long  as  the  body  remained  unburied  it  was 
subject  to  the  vagaries  of  the  system.  Those  who  remained  in  the  house  or  had 
to  do  with  the  corpse  were  defiled  and  forbidden  to  enter  other  houses  in  the 
village. 

Owing  to  the  tabu,  two  ovens  must  l)e  nuiintained,  one  for  tlie  husl)and,  the 
other  for  the  wife:  two  houses  must  be  built  t(»  eat  in,  a  third  to  sleep  in.  Tn  a 
thousand  similar  ways  the  system  was  fastened  on  every  act  of  the  daily  life  of 
the  people  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was  ever  present,  dominating  their  every 
thought  and  deed.  It  o]')pressed  their  lives,  cirtniled  tluMi-  libcM-ties.  and  dark- 
ened and  narrowed  th(Mr  horizon  bevond  belief. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  HAWAllAXS:  THEIR  :\[ETHODS  OF  WAR- 
FARE AND  FEUDAL  ORGANIZATION. 

Complex  and  bewildering  as  was  the  Hawaiian  system  of  tabus.  Ilieir  re- 
ligious system  was  even  more  so.  Moreovei'.  the  one  was  so  inlerlwined  with 
the  other  that  the  two  subjects   cannot    1><'   treated   sepai'atelx-.       Since   the   lla- 


^  Sacred.        ^  Tenijile. 


o 


-f. 


x'    t 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PP^OPLE.  49 

waiians  were  naturally  a  lii'-ihly  religious  people,  tlicy  found  iiinny  objects  to 
worship  and  many  ways  in  which  to  worship  them.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
cartli,  the  sea  and  the  air  were  iilled  with  their  aiiiakiias,  in  the  form  of  invisible 
being's,  who  wrought  wonders  in  the  powers  and  ])lienoineiia  of  natni-e.  Tiie 
presence  and  power  of  the  amakuas  was  evidenced  to  them  b\-  the  thundt-r,  light- 
ning, wind,  earthquakes  and  volcanoes. 

Religion  Among  the  IIawaiians. 

Of  the  innumerable  gods  in  the  pantheon,  Ku,  Kane,  Lono  and  Kanaloa 
were  supreme.  These  important  gods  were  supposed  to  exist  in  the  heavens,  in 
invisible  form,  and  to  have  been  present  at  the  beginning.  They  were  also  ho- 
lieved  to  appear  on  the  earth  in  human  form.  In  addition  to  these  each  person 
had  his  or  her  own  titulary  deity,  and  each  occupation  was  presided  over  by  a 
special  amakua,  to  which  worship  was  due.  Thus  the  fisherman,  the  canoe  maker, 
the  hula  dancer,  the  tapa  maker,  the  bird  catcher,  even  the  thieves  and  the 
gamblers,  all  had  presiding  deities  with  power  to  prospei-  them  in  their  callings 
and  bring  them  good  luck  in  their  undertakings.  Other  deities  were  clothe  1  in 
life  in  the  form  of  numerous  animals  and  plants.  Disease  and  death  were  quite 
naturally  regarded  as  the  woi-k  of  the  gods  and  appreciated  l)y  the  people  as 
material  evidence  of  their  invisil)]e  powers. 

Idol  Worship. 

They  Avorshipped  their  deities  chiefly  through  idols  made  of  wood  or  stone. 
They  believed  that  such  images  represented,  or  in  some  way  were  occupied  by 
the  spirit  of  the  deity  that  they  sought  to  worship. 

The  people  as  a  whole  had  a  rather  well  defined  conception  in  regard  to 
existence  after  death.  They  believed  that  each  person  had  an  invisible  double. 
They  also  thought  that  after  death  the  spirit  lingered  al'iout  in  dark  places  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  body  and  was  able  to  struggle  in  hand  to  hand  encounters 
with  its  enemies.  A  nightmare  was  interpreted  as  a  temporai'v  (piitting  of  the 
l)ody  by  the  spirit  and  in  certain  cases,  through  proper  prayers  and  ceremonies, 
it  was  believed  to  be  possible  to  put  the  soul  back  into  the  body  after  it  had 
left  it.  This  was  usually  accomplished  by  lifting  the  toe-nail  of  the  unfortunate 
pel-son  concerned.  Many  places  were  believed  to  be  haunled  and  the  spirit  was 
supposed  to  journey  from  the  grave  to  its  fcu-mer  abode  along  tlie  path  that  the 
corpse  was  carried  for  burial. 


DKsrKiPTiox    OF   Plate. 

1.  The  Ilc'iau  of  Puukiluiln  at  Kawailiac — a  luii;(.'  .stuiic  ciiclosuri'  Imilt  liy  Kaiticlianielia  I. 
as  a  ])roteetion  ajjainst  the  perils  of  war.  Many  human  sacrifices  were  nia(h'  on  ils  altar  to 
the  great  war  god  Kukailiinoku ;  among  others  the  l)o<ii(>s  of  Kaniehameha 's  rival.  Keoua.  and 
his  followers  who,  on  a  peace  mission,  were  treacherously  slain  while  landing  at  Kawaihae 
from  a  canoe  in  the  year  1791.  -.  P^ntranee  to  the  lliian  at  Kawaiha".  .'!.  l)oul)le  war 
canoe  equip{)ed  with  mat  sails;  the  gourd  masks  wcirn  liy  the  wari-iors  art'  also  shown. 
4.  l^eather  cloalf  [ahuula]  worn  liy  (diiefs  of  importance;  made  of  red  |iiwi]  and  yellow 
[mamo  and  o-o]  bird  feathers.  ■"».  The  city  of  refuge  |  })Uulioiuia  |  at  llonaunau;  a  stone  wall 
twelve  feet  high  and  fifteen  feet  thick  encloses  seven  acres  of  tabu  grtnnid.  To  such  sanctuaries 
women  and  cliildren,  warriors  worsted  in  battle,  criminals  and  others  in  peril  might  floe  f(U" 
safety  from  their  avengers.  6.  Heian  of  the  ojien  truncated  jiyramidal  type;  compare  with 
the  rectangular  walled  type  shown  in  figs.   1   and  2. 

D.  H.  HILL  LIBRARY 


50  NATURAL   HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

The  Future  State. 

They  had  a  ratlier  iiideiiuite  notion  as  to  the  exact  nature  of  the  future  state. 
However,  they  believed  that  the  two  usual  conditions,  misery  and  happiness, 
existed.  If  the  soul  after  journeying-  to  the  region  of  Wakea  ^  was  not  favor- 
ably received,  it  was  forced  through  despair  and  loneliness  to  leap  into  the 
abode  of  misery,  far  below.  Precipices  from  which  the  souls  of  the  unhappy 
departed  were  supposed  to  plunge  on  this  wild  leap  are  occasionally  pointed  out 
at  various  places  about  the  group.  One  at  the  northern  point  of  Oahu,  another 
at  the  northern  extremity-  of  Hawaii,  and  a  third  on  the  western  end  of  Maui 
are  w^ell  known  to  those  acquainted  with  Hawaiian  superstition. 

Heiaus. 

In  order  to  propitiate  their  gods,  or  better  accomplish  their  worship,  the  peo- 
ple through  fear  or  at  the  command  of  the  king  or  priests,  erected  numerous 
temples  or  heiaus.  To  many  students  of  the  race  this  blind  fear  of  their  gods 
and  their  chiefs,  and  their  unreasoning  acceptance  of  the  tabu,  are  subjects  of 
continual  wonder.  Their  principal  temples  were  of  two  general  forms,  the 
older  being  composed  of  rough  stones  laid  up  without  mortar  in  the  form  of  a 
low,  truncated  pyramid,  oblong  in  shape,  on  top  of  which  were  placed  the  altar 
of  sacrifice,  certain  grass  liouses,  the  idols  of  the  temple  and  the  other  grotesque 
wooden  images  and  objects  used  in  their  worship.  The  later  and  more  common 
form  of  heiau  was  made  by  erecting  four  high  walls  of  stone,  surmounted  with 
numerous  images,  enclosing  a  space  occupied,  as  before,  by  the  various  images, 
oracles,  sacred  places  and  altars  of  worship.  These  temples  were  numerous  in 
the  more  thickly  settled  regions  on  all  the  islands  and  were  usually  built  near 
the  shore.  On  Hawaii,  in  the  region  from  Kailua  to  Kealakekua,  particularly, 
they  were  very  numerous  and  close  together.  The  principal  heiaus  were  dedi- 
cated to  their  chief  gods,  but  many  smaller  ones  were  built,  as  fish  heiaus,  rain 
heiaus  and  the  like,  and  were  dedicated  to  the  special  god  of  the  builder. 

Where  temples  were  found  in  large  numl)ers  a  corresponding  num1)er  of 
priests  were  to  he  expected.  Of  these  there  were  many  orders  and  sub-orders. 
They  and  th<Mr  rights  were  constantly  made  use  of  by  the  chiefs  for  the  purpose 
of  terrifying  the  people.  Through  them  the  tabu  was  coupled  with  idol  worship, 
and  their  combined  cruelties,  terrors  and  restrictions  made  an  integral  part  of 
the  general  system  of  government. 

Warfare. 

War  among  the  ancient  Hawaiians  was  one  of  the  chief  occupations  and 
witli  them,  as  with  other  races,  war  was  the  "sport  of  kings."  In  making 
preparations  for  war  the  king,  however,  in  addition  to  the  council  of  his  chiefs, 
had  the  advantage  of  the  advice  and  skill  of  a  certain  class  of  military  experts 
who  were  instructed  in  the  traditions  and  wisdom  of  their  predecessors.      Being 


1  The    hdiiip    (if    the    re]iiite(l    father    of    the    race,     a    jihTce    provided    with    houses,     food,     consorts    and 
pleasures. 


THE  HAWAIIAN  l*EOJn.E.  51 

well  ac'cjuaiuted  with  the  inetluxl.s  of  warfare  that  had  been  successfully  re- 
sorted to  by  kings  in  former  times,  the\-  wei-e  at  all  times  among  the  king's 
most  respected  advisors. 

Fortitications,  as  we  understand  them,  were  not  a  ])art  of  their  scheme  of 
warfare,  though  sites  for  camps  and  defences  were  selected  that  jxjssessed 
natural  advantages  in  the  matter  of  their  defense  against  tlie  enemy.  That 
part  of  the  population  not  actually  engaged  in  battle  was  sent  to  strongholds, 
usually  steep  eminences  or  mountain  retreats.  In  case  of  a  rout  the  whole  army 
retired  to  these  strongholds  and  valiantly  defended  them.  In  addition  to  these 
natural  forts,  there  were  temples  of  refuge  or  sanctuaries  to  whicli  those  broken 
in  battle,  or  in  peril  of  their  lives  in  time  of  peace,  might  tiee  and  escape  tho 
wrath  of  all  powers  without.  These  temples  were  crude  thougli  permanent 
enclosures,  whose  gates  were  wide  open  to  all  comers  at  all  times. 

The  Hawaiian  warriors  had  many  methods  of  attack  and  defense,  depend- 
ing usually  on  such  matters  as  the  strength  of  the  enemy,  the  character  of  the 
battlefield  and  the  plan  of  campaign.  Their  l)attles  were  generally  a  succession 
of  skirmishes,  the  whole  army  seldom  engaging  in  a  scrimmage.  They  usuall\", 
though  not  always,  made  their  attack  in  the  daytime,  generally  giving  battle  in 
open  fields,  without  the  use  of  much  real  military  strategy.  Occasionally  inter- 
island  wars  occurred  in  the  form  of  naval  battles  in  Avhich  several  hundred  canoes 
were  used  by  both  sides,  but  as  a  general  thing  their  differences  were  settled  on 
land. 

Practically  the  entire  adult  population  was  sul)ject  to  a  call  to  engage 
in  hostilities.  Only  those  who  were  incapacitated  through  age  or  from  in- 
firmity were  exempt  from  the  summons  of  the  recruiting  officer  sent  out  by  the 
king  to  gather  warriors,  when  anything  like  an  extensive  military  operation 
was  determined  upon.  If  occasion  required,  a  second  officer  was  sent  to  forcibly 
bring  to  camp  those  who  refused  to  answ^er  the  call  of  the  first.  As  a  limniliation 
and  mark  of  their  insubordination  it  was  a  custom  to  slit  the  ears  of  the  offenders 
and  drive  them  to  camp  with  ropes  around  their  bodies. 

Preliminary  to  a  Battle. 

The  army  stores  were  usually  prepared  beforehand,  and  each  wai-rioi-  was 
expected  to  bring  his  own  provisions  and  arms.  Not  infrequently  iiolice  of 
an  impending  attack  was  sent  to  the  opposing  forces  and  a  battlefield  imiluail\' 
satisfactory  to  both  forces  selected  for  the  engagement.  The  women  took  an 
active  share  in  the  important  pai't  of  the  work  connected  with  tlie  eonnnissar\  ; 
often  following  their  husbands  and  hi-others  onto  the  battlefield,  carrying  extra 
weapons  or  calabashes  of  food.  Wlien  tlu^  forces  were  assembled  and  all  tilings 
in  readiness  for  the  fray,  an  astrologer  was  consulted  by  the  king.  1 1"  tlu^  signs 
were  auspicious  the  battle  would  l)e  undertaken.  As  the  opposing  armies  aiv 
proached  each  other,  the  king's  chief  priests  were  smnmoned  to  make  the  king's 
sacrifice  to  his  gods.  Two  fires  beiue  built  b(>tween  the  armies,  the  ]-)riosts 
of  each  army  made  an  offering,  usually  a  \u\s.  wliieli  was  killed  by  strangling. 
When    the    various    relisious    ceremonies    were    over    the    battle    would    begin, 


X 


z 

^  1 

<1^ 

a 

Eh 

fj 

V3 

^ 

0 

>-' 

1. 

^ 

=  , 

P2 

s 

-< 

13 

02 

-^ 

r^ 

a 

Eh 

a:' 

•5 

P^ 

r* 

<; 

0 

„^ 

^ 

J 

0 

<11 

Eh 

TlIK    HAWAIIAN    I'HOI'LH.  53 

the,  priests  aeeoiupaiiyiii^-  tlic  armies,  l)eariii^'  tiicii-  idols  alol't  thai  the  Ixxlic^s 
of  the  first  slain  in  battle  mi^ht  be  properly  olTci-cd  lo  the  <iuds.  Tlieir  idols 
took  the  place  of  hjiiiiiers.  During-  the  heat  of  halllc  ihey  would  be  advanced 
in  the  midst  of  the  warriors,  while  the  priests,  siipporl  iiig'  them,  to  cheer  their 
followers  and  spread  terror  in  llic  hearts  of  the  enemy,  would  aive  blood  cui-dling 
>('lls  accompanying'  Ihciii  with  frightful  grimaces,  all  ol  whii-li  were  supposed  to 
come  from  the  images  themselves,  and  to  be  an  unmistakahle  token  that  the 
gods  were  in  their  midst. 

In  opening  the  attack-,  it  is  i-elated.  a  single  wai'ri(»r  would  sometinu^s  ad- 
vance from  the  ranks,  armed  only  with  a  fan  and  when  within  hailing  distance 
would  proceed  to  blackguard  the  enemy,  daring  them  to  attack  him  single-handed. 
This  exasperating  challenge  would  l)e  answered  by  a  nund)er  of  spears  being 
hurled  at  the  taunting  warrior,  who  would  nimbly  avoic^l  tiiem  or  seize  them  in 
his  hands  and  hurl  them  back  at  the  enemy.  Such  incendiar\'  manoeuvers  were 
well  calculated  to  precipitate  trouble  and  not  infrequently  they  resulted  in  the 
death  of  the  intrepid  warrior.  A  fierce  struggle  would  tlien  follow  to  gaiit 
possession  of  his  body. 

Their  battles  were  often  almost  hand  to  hand  encounters,  lasting  some- 
times for  days.  However,  they  do  not  seem  to  have  been  very  fatal.  Often 
they  resulted  in  routing  one  party  or  the  other,  the  conquerors  taking  possession 
of  the  land  and  portioning  it  out  among  the  victorious  chiefs.  A  heap  of  stones 
was  made  over  the  bodies  of  tlie  victorious  dead,  v/hile  the  vanquished  slain  were 
left  unburied.  Captured  wai-riors  were  occasionally  allowed  tlieir  freedom,  but 
more  frequently  they  were  put  to  death  or  kept  as  future  sacrifices.  The 
women  and  children  of  the  captured  were  made  slaves  and  hound  to  the  soil. 

When  peace  was  sought  a  ])raneli  of  ki  leaves  or  a  young  banana  plant  was 
borne  aloft  b\'  the  ambassadors  as  a  flag  of  truce.  When  terms  were  arrived  at 
a  pig  was  sacrificed  and  its  ])lood  poured  on  the  ground  as  an  emblem  of  the  fat<^ 
of  the  party  to  the  treaty  who  shoul'l  break  its  conditions.  The  leaders  of  both 
armies  would  then  braid  a  lei  of  maile  and  deposit  it  in  a  temple  as  a  peace 
offering.       The  heralds   were   then   sent   running   in    all    dii-ections   to   announce 


Descriptiox   of   Pl.\te. 

1.  Typical  Hawaiian  burial  caw.  The  coininon  pcoiilc  after  dcatli  were  usually  secreted 
in  caves  in  the  neighliorhood ;  the  burial  took  place  durinu'  the  iiiyht.  tireat  care  was  taken, 
however,  to  hide  the  bones  in  secret  places  to  prevent  them  fniin  being  used  for  fish  hooks  and 
arrow  points.  The  important  bones  of  the  kings,  including  the  skull,  leg  and  arm  bones,  were 
gathered  from  the  decayed  flesh,  collected  into  a  ))undle,  wrapped  with  ta])a  and  bound  up  with 
cord;  the  bundle  was  tlien  deified  by  elaborate  ceremonii's  before  the  bonces  were  placed  in  tlie 
mo,st  secret  and  inacc;ssible  caves,  often  being  carried  from  uiie  island  to  another.  The  bones 
of  a  high  chief  were  preserved  in  vaultdike  caves  in  the  idiffs  and  nut  infrequently  were  laid 
at  rest  in  the  warrior's  canoe  together  with  other  precious  possessions  belonging  to  the  departed. 
2.  An  aged  kahuna.  3.  Kukailinn)ku,  the  god  of  war;  taken  from  a  figure  in  ( 'ook 's 
Voyages;  other  representations  of  this  go<l  are  on  exliil)ition  in  the  i^)isho])  .M\iseum.  4.  Burial 
cave  (near  view  of  fig.  1)  showing  a  ''transition"  burial  in  a  eollin  hewn  from  a  log. 
5.  Burial  cave  showing  portion  of  a  cano(>,  mats,  tapa,  etc.  li.  Ancient  wooden  idol.  Prior 
to  the  landing  of  the  missionaries  idolatry  was  abolished  and  the  idtils  df  the  nation  hidden 
away  in  caves;  later  many  of  them  were  collected  ami  burned.  A  number,  however,  were 
preserved  and  are  now  in  museums  in   Hawaii,  America  and  Europe. 


54  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

the  termination  of  the  war,  and  the  event  wonki  be  approi)riately  eelebrated  with 
feasts,  dancing  and  games. 

The  King  and  His  Power. 

The  king  was  the  recognized  liead  of  all  civil  and  military,  also  ecclesiastical 
authority.  The  lands,  the  people,  their  time,  their  possessions,  the  temples,  the 
priests,  the  idols,  the  tabus,  the  prophets,  all  lielonged  finally  to  him.  Every- 
thing M'as  his  to  use  as  he  willed  so  long  as  he  Avas  in  the  favor  of  the 
gods.  The  priests,  who  were  the  only  ones  skilled  in  interpreting  the  oracles 
and  learning  the  wishes  of  the  gods,  were  also  the  class  which  determined  the 
offerings  that  would  placate  the  deities  worshipped.  In  this  way,  through 
fear,  they  were  able  to  hold  no  small  amount  of  influence  over  the  affairs  of 
state  by  reason  of  the  king's  dread  of  the  wrath  of  the  gods  of  his  realm. 

The  liigh  priest  kept  the  national  war  god  and  was  at  all  times  in  close  rela- 
tion to  the  monarch.  Other  priests  were  charged  with  perpetuating  the  traditions 
of  the  people  as  well  as  their  own  medical,  astronomical  and  general  learn- 
ing. Besides  the  regular  orders  of  priests  there  was  a  numerous  class  of 
more  irregular  priests  or  kahunas,  that  were  little  more  than  sorcerers.  They 
were  able  to  cause  the  death  of  persons  obnoxious  to  themselves,  their  clients, 
their  chiefs  or  their  king. 

In  order  to  pray  any  person  to  death  it  was  only  necessary  for  one  of  their 
kahunas  to  secure  the  spittle,  the  hair,  a  flnger  nail,  or  personal  effects  be- 
longing to  the  intended  victim,  and,  by  means  of  certain  rites,  conjurings  and 
prayers  to  the  gods,  to  so  work  upon  the  fear  and  imagination  of  the  individual 
as  to  almost  invariably  cause  his  death.  As  a  result  they  were  unpopular  as  a 
class  and  not  infrequently  were  conspired  against  by  the  people,  or  themselves 
prayed  to  death  by  the  more  powerful  of  their  cult. 

The  Nobility,  Chiefs  and  Common  People. 

In  the  time  of  which  we  write  the  ixtpulation  was  divided  into  three  classes, 
the  nobility,  including  the  kings  and  chiefs ;  the  priests,  including  the  priests, 
sorcerers  and  doctors ;  and  the  common  people,  made  up  of  agriculturists, 
artisans  and  slaves  taken  in  war.  There  was  an  impassable  gulf  between  the 
class  including  the  chiefs  and  the  common  people. 

The  distinction  was  as  wide  as  though  the  chiefs  came  from  another  race 
or  a  superior  stock,  yet  as  we  have  said  elsewhere  they  were  undoubtedly  all 
of  one  and  the  same  origin  with  the  people  under  them.  A  common  man  could 
never  be  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  chief,  nor  could  a  chief  be  degraded  to  that  of 
a  commoner.  Hence  the  rank  was  hereditary  in  dignity  at  least,  tliough  not 
necessarily  so  as  regards  function,  position  or  office.  Within  the  class  of  the 
nobility,  sharp  distinctions  were  numerous  and  a  certain  seniority  in  dignity 
was  maintained.  As  far  as  can  be  learned  there  was  no  distinction  between 
civil,  military,  ecclesiastical  and  social  headship,  and  there  was  no  separation 
between  the  executive,  judicial  and  legislative  functions.  The  power,  in  an 
irresponsible  way,  was  entirely  centered  in  \ho  hands  of  the  nobility. 


TlIK   HAWAIIAN   PKoi'Llv  55 

Since  the  eliiei's  were  Ix'licved  l),v  llie  coiiinu)n  people  to  he  desceiideil  i'l-din 
the  gods  in  some  mysterious  and  complicated  way,  they  wer-e  supposed  to  be  in 
close  touch  with  tlie  invisible  i)owers.  They  were  looked  up  to  with  super- 
stitious awe,  as  being  both  powerful  and  sacred.  This'  ndvantage  was  shrewdly 
employed  l)y  the  ruling  class  in  securing  the  respect  and  iiii<iiiestioned  sul)- 
mission  of  the  common  people.  Death  was  the  penalty  inflicted  for  the  slightest 
breach  of  etiquette.  Through  the  enforcement  of  such  submission  the  chiefs 
were  able  to  exact  the  marks  of  distinction  claimed  by  them  from  the  masses, 
and  to  control  and  direct  them  through  a  blind  rule  of  duty.  Singularly  enough 
the  chiefs  were  respected  while  living  and  in  most  cases  were  revered  })y  the 
people  after  their  death. 

Among  the  chiefs  themselves  there  was  constant  bickering  and  class  rivalry. 
The  moi,  or  king  of  each  island  usually  inherited  his  i)Osition,  but  the  accident 
of  birth  did  not  guarantee  that  he  would  long  remain  in  power,  for  unfortu- 
nately  the  assurance  of  his  i)lace  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  district  chiefs  under 
him.  Seldom  could  they' be  relied  upon  for  unshaken  fealty.  Their  love  of 
power  and  capacity  for  intrigue,  as  a  rule,  was  not  of  a  common  order  and 
they  were  often  able  to  demonstrate  their  complete  mastery  of  the  game  of 
politics. 

The  important  chiefs  were  therefore  usually  summoned  by  the  king  to  sit  in 
council  as  an  advisory  body  when  weighty  matters  were  to  be  passed  upon. 
But  the  immediate  source  of  all  constructive  law  as  such,  among  the  ancient 
Iljiwaiians,  was  the  will  of  their  king.  Not  unlike  kings  in  more  enlightened 
lands,  they  were  guided  in  important  matters  by  their  stronger  chiefs  whose 
influence  they  required.  These,  in  turn,  were  influenced  by  and  dependent  upon 
the  good  will  of  the  people  under  them,  for  there  was  nothing  to  prevent  the 
common  people  from  transferring  their  personal  affections  and  allegiance  to 
other  and  more  considerate  chiefs.  But  back  of  the  king,  the  chiefs,  and  the 
people  M'as  the  traditional  code  of  customary  laAV  that  served  as  a  powerful  re- 
straint on  the  king  in  preventing  the  promulgation  of  purely  arbitrarj^  decrees. 
The  traditional  law  of  the  land  related  mostly  to  religious  and  customary  ob- 
servances, marriage,  the  family  relation,  lands,  irrigation,  personal  property  and 
barter.  With  such  crimes  as  theft,  personal  revenge  was  the  court  of  first 
resort.  The  aggrieved  person  had  the  right,  if  he  so  desired,  to  seek  the  aid  of 
a  kindred  chief,  or  to  resort  to  sorcery  with  the  aid  of  his  kahiuia.  The  king, 
however,  was  the  chief  magistrate,  with  his  various  chiefs  exercising  inferior 
jurisdiction  in  their  own  territories. 

The  King  and  the  Land. 

The  king  was  regarded  as  the  sole  proprietor  of  the  land  :  of  the  pcojile  who 
cultivated  it,  the  fish  of  the  sea, — in  fact  everything  oti  1he  land  oi'  in  the  sea 
about  it  was  the  property  of  the  king.  The  king,  in  short,  owned  everything, 
the  people  owned  nothing,  so  that  technically,  the  peo|)le  existed  in  a  state  of 
abject  dependence.      The  system  that  developed   lidiii  Ihis  was  one  of  complete 


56  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAAVAII. 

and  absolute  feudalism.  Tlie  kiny  made  his  head  chiefs  his  principal  bene- 
ficiaries. They,  in  turn,  established  a  jirade  of  lesser  chiefs  or  landlords,  who 
gathered  under  them  the  connnon  people  as  tenants  at  will.  The  lands  beini]: 
divided,  those  who  held  the  land  owed  every  service  and  obedience  to  the  chief- 
tain landlords.  On  these  landlords  the  king  relied  for  men.  lab(n\  nnmitions 
and  materials  to  carry  out  his  plans  and  fight  his  battles. 

Taxes. 

This  system  was  so  offensive  that  it  is  said  that  the  laborer  did  not  receive 
one-third  the  returns  due  him  for  his  toil;  the  lion's  share  of  everything,  even 
in  this  simple  system,  went  to  the  over-lords,  in  the  form  of  a  tax.  There  was 
first,  the  royal  tax  that  was  collected  by  each  grade  paying  to  its  superiors  until 
the  whole  tax.  which  consisted  of  such  articles  as  hogs,  dogs,  fish,  fowl,  potatoes, 
yams,  taro,  olona.  feathers,  and  such  articles  of  manufacture  as  calabashes, 
nets,  mats,  tapas  and  canoes,  was  collected.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  the 
people  were  subject  to  special  taxes  at  any  time,  and  labor  taxes  at  all  times, 
when  they  were  called  upon  to  build  walls,  repair  fisli  ponds,  cultivate  the  chief's 
taro  ponds,  or  construct  or  repair  the  temples. 

Besides  all  these,  and  other  means  of  taxing  the  people,  there  were  customs 
which  made  it  necessary  to  make  extraordinary  presents  to  the  king,  especially 
when  that  dignitary  Avas  traveling,  with  the  penalty  that  if  enough  presents 
were  not  brought,  plunder  and  rapine  was  the  consequence.  AVith  this  hasty 
review  of  some  of  the  more  general  and  especially  interesting  or  striking  pecu- 
liarities of  the  Hawaiian  people,  as  a  branch  of  the  Polynesian  race,  that  are  of 
importance  as  salient  characteristics  when  we  wish  to  compare  them  and  their 
natural  human  history  with  that  of  other  races  of  mankind,  we  can  now  pass  to  a 
brief  review  of  their  arts,  occupations,  ornaments,  weapons,  tools  and  kindred 
subjects  in  which  they  made  use  of  the  materials  with  which  nature  surrounded 
them. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

THE  HAWAIIAN  HOUSE:  ITS  FURNISHINGS  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

UTENSILS. 

The  houses  of  the  common  people  were  little  more  thnn  single-room  straw- 
thatched  hovels,  supported  upon  a  crude  frame-work  of  poles,  the  structure 
in  many  instances  being  scarcely  suffici(Mit  to  shelter  the  family.      On  the  other 

(Description  of  Plate  Continued  from  Opposite  Page.) 
woven  over  a  wooden  umeke  or  a  gourd-calabash,  a  fine  Niihau  [makaloa]  mat,  a  sled  [papa 
holiia]  for  coasting  on  the  grass  on  steep  hills  and  two  spears;  in  2  are  a  number  of  small 
objects  including  gourd  water  bottle  [huewai],  small  idol,  canoe  model,  bowling  stones  [ulu- 
maika].  Hawaiian  brick  shaped  pillows  [uluna],  gourd  hula  drum  [palm  hula],  three  large 
and  several  small  umekes,  fans,  a  feather  malo  or  waistband  and  a  large  and  small  kahili;  in 
3  the  old  Hawaiian  keeper  [kahu]  is  surrounded  by  numerous  objects  of  native  manufacture, 
including  poi  pounders  [pohaku  kni  poi],  kukui  nut  and  feather  leis.  the  famous  skirt  [pa-u] 
of  0-0  feathers  (made  for  the  sister  of  Kamehanudia  III.  and  last  useil  over  the  coffin  of 
Kalakaua)  and  two  large  and  two  small  kahilis;  in  4  are  three  large  umekes  in  nets  [koko], 
a  carrying  stick  [auamo],  a  gourd  fish  line  container  [poho  aho],  several  choice  umekes,  rare 
tapas,  kukui  nut  leis  and  a  small  kahili. 


PLATE  9.     POETION   OF   THE   HAWAIIAN   GOVEKNMENT   COLLECTION. 
(Now  Deposited   in   the   liishop   Muscuni.) 
Among  other  objects  shown  in  1  are  three  large  wooden  calabashes   [iiineke|   of  flat  form 
on   a   fine   lanhala   mat;    four   kaliibs   of    various   forms;    a    wicker-work    basket    |liaiiai    poepoe] 

(Dcucfi/flidii    (if   I'lalc   ('(ihtiiiiicd   mi    tin'   Opinmite  Page.) 


58  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

hand,  the  houses  of  the  better  class,  notably  the  chiefs  and  the  nobility,  were 
much  superior.  Being  well  built  and  neatly  kept,  they  were  not  so  devoid  of 
simple  comfort  as  their  absolute  lack  of  architectural  beauty  might  suggest. 

While  their  houses  varied  much  in  size  and  shape  they  were  uniformly 
dark  and  poorly  ventilated,  being  invariably  without  windows  or  doors,  save 
the  small  hole  left,  usually  on  one  side,  through  which  the  occupant  might  pass 
in  and  out  in  a  crouching  posture. 

Complete  Domestic  Establishment. 

As  with  the  various  occupations  that  had  to  do  with  the  gathering  of  their 
food  and  the  making  of  their  raiment,  so  the  building  of  the  house  which 
sheltered  them  was  attended  by  many  important  religious  observances,  the  omis- 
sion of  any  of  which  might  result  in  the  most  serious  consequences.  Every 
stage,  from  the  gathering  of  the  timbers  and  grass  in  the  mountains,  to  the  last 
act  of  trimming  the  grass  from  over  and  around  the  door  before  it  was  ready 
for  final  occupancy,  furnished  an  occasion  for  the  intervention  of  the  priests 
and  the  imposition  of  special  tabus  that  must  be  satisfied  before  the  house 
could  be  used  as  a  dwelling. 

As  has  been  suggested  elsewhere,  a  complete  domestic  establishment  was  made 
up  of  several  conveniently  grouped  single-room  houses  that  were  given  over  to 
special  purposes.  The  well-to-do  Hawaiian  boasted  of  at  least  six  such  single- 
room  houses.  The  house  for  the  family  idols  and  the  men's  eating  house  were 
both  always  tabu  to  women.  The  women's  eating  house,  a  common  sleeping 
house,  a  house  for  the  beating  of  the  tapa,  and  lastly,  a  separate  house  for  the 
use  of  the  women  during  various  tabu  periods  made  up  the  group.  Occa- 
sionally the  better  houses  were  on  a  raised  stone  foundation,  and  a  fence  made 
about  the  group  to  separate  them  from  their  neighbors  and  to  mark  the  limits  of 
the  sphere  of  domestic  influence.  To  the  foregoing  might  be  added  a  house 
for  canoes,  a  storehouse,  and  others  for  special  purposes  as  might  be  required. 

Building  of  a  House. 

The  building  of  a  grass  house  of  the  better  type  was  an  important  task  and 
one  that  called  for  much  skill  and  experience.  The  timbers  of  which  it  was  con- 
structed were  selected  with  great  care,  different  woods  being  preferably  used  for 
certain  purposes.  When  trimmed  of  the  outer  bark,  notched  and  fashioned  into 
shape  by  crude  stone  tools  they  were  placed  into  the  positions  which  they  were 
intended  to  occupy  in  the  framework  of  the  structure  and  then  firmly  bound 
together  with  braided  ropes  of  ukiuki  grass. 

The  corner  posts  were  first  to  be  put  in  place,  each  being  securely  set  in  the 
ground.  The  side  posts  were  next  planted  in  line  and  the  plate  pole  lashed 
to  the  top.  The  tall  poles  at  the  end  of  the  house  w^ere  next  put  up  and  the 
ridge  pole  put  into  place.  The  rafters  were  then  added  and  the  upper  ridge 
pole  lashed  firmly  above  the  main  ridge  pole.  Small  straight  poles  were  finally 
lashed  horizontally,  a  few  inches  apart,  on  the  outside  of  the  completed  frame- 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PP:OPLE.  59 

work.  This  clone  the  thatch  was  added  and  a  rude  sliding  door  made  and  fitted 
in  place.  The  outside  was  trimmed,  and  over  all  a  large  net  placed  to  hold  the 
grass  in  shape  while  it  dried.  Pili  grass,  lau.hala  leaves,  sugar-cane  and  ki 
leaves  were  used  as  a  thatch  according  to  circumstances.  When  completed  a 
group  of  Hawaiian  houses  resembled  nothing  as  much,  in  general  appearance, 
as  a  number  of  neat  hay  stacks. 

While  as  a  general  rule  each  man  was  expected  to  be  able  to  perform  all 
the  various  forms  of  labor  necessary  to  the  building  of  a  house,  making  a  canoe 
or  carving  his  dishes,  there  were  those  who  l)y  choice  did  certain  things  in  ex- 
change for  the  work  of  others.  That  is  to  say,  should  a  chief  order  a  house  built, 
certain  men  would  cut  the  timbers,  others  gather  the  pili  grass,  others  hue  the 
timbers,  while  still  others  made  the  binding  cords  or  prepared  the  holes  for  the 
corner  posts.  The  thatchers  would  then  perform  their  work,  so  that  l)y  piece 
work,  all  working  together,  a  house  could  be  completed  in  two  or  three  days. 

If  well  made  it  would  last  a  dozen  years, — when  it  Avould  require  re-thatching 

I' 

House  Furnishings. 

The  furnishings  and  utensils  in  even  the  best  houses  were  meager  in  the 
extreme.  The  raised  portion  of  the  floor,  covered  with  mats  that  formed  tht? 
beds  by  night  and  lounge  by  day,  and  the  space  on  the  stones  in  the  center  of 
the  floor,  that  served  as  a  fireplace  when  required  during  rainy  weather,  were 
the  most  noticeable  evidences  of  comfort.  •The  braided  mats  and  ornamented 
tapas  were  the  most  conspicuous  among  their  possessions,  liut  the  bowls  and 
dishes  for  the  serving  and  storage  of  food  were,  perhaps,  the  most  important 
household  necessities.  These  few  objects  formed  characteristic  features  of  the 
Hawaiian  home.  The  most  valuable  of  their  household  utensils,  without  doubt, 
was  the  calabash.  It  was  fashioned  from  wood  or  made  from  the  shell  of 
the  gourd,  for  though  clay  was  known  to  the  Hawaiian  people  they  made  no  use 
of  it  and  knew  nothing  whatever  of  the  potter's  art. 

In  the  carving  of  these  wooden  bowls  or  umekes  they  exhibited  much  skill, 
using  only  the  simple  stone  implements  of  their  culture  and  such  primitive 
devices  as  they  knew  in  fashioning  them.  Some  wonderful  bowls  were  pro- 
duced from  the  woods  of  the  native  kou,  kamani  and  the  koa  trees.  After  the 
log  had  been  soaked  for  a  long  period  it  Avas  roughly  shaped  without  and  was 
hollowed  out  within  by  hacking  and  burning  until  the  desired  form  was  secured. 
By  this  method  the  wooden  sides  were  reduced  to  a  fraction  of  an  incli  in  tliick- 
ness.  The  receptacle  was  then  smoothed  by  rub])ing  first  with  coral,  then  rough 
lava,  and  lastly  with  pumice.  The  real  polishing  was  done  by  rubbing  with 
charcoal,  bamboo  leaves  and  at  last  with  ])readfruit  leaves  and  tapa.  Ol'ten  a 
lid,  made  and  polished  in  the  same  way,  was  added,  and  usually  a  koko  or  net 
of  convenient  form  for  carrying  or  handling  them  was  provided.  It  may  be 
truthfully  said  that  the  splendid  vessels  made  in  this  way,  some  of  them  thirty 
inches  in  diameter,  were  among  the  most  remjirkablt^  obj(M'ts  wronulit  by  the 
ancient  Hawaiians. 


<1 


7.      < 


<     3 


< 


i-l       o 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  61 

Household  Implements. 

In  the  manufacture  of  other  household  implements,  as  pig  dishes,  dog 
trays,  fish  dishes,  finger  bowls,  slop  hasins  and  the  like,  the  same  tools  and  ma- 
terials were  used  and  tlie  same  general  method  of  working  them  into  shape  was 
emploj'Cd,  though  frequently  they  were  carved  or  ornamented  in  various  ways. 

In  the  calabash  gourd  the  Hawaiians  had  a  substitute  for  the  more  labori- 
ously prepared  wooden  bowl  jnst  described.  While  the  calabash  gourd  is  not  a 
native  of  Hawaii  and  was  not  found  on  the  other  islands  in  Polynesia,  it  was 
in  general  use  among  the  natives  of  this  group  at  the  time  of  their  discovery 
and  the  shells  of  the  fruit  put  to  many  uses  in  their  economy,  often  being  em- 
ployed as  receptacles  for  food,  containers  for  water  and  storage  boxes  for  cloth- 
ing and  personal  effects. 

A  slightly  different  though  equally  useful  species  was  the  bottle  gourd. 
Unlike  the  former,  it  was  known  and  used  quite  generally  throughout  Poly- 
nesia. The  smaller  ones  served  as  first-rate  water  bottles  and  the  larger  speci- 
mens were  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  their  hula-drums,  which  w'ere  some- 
times three  feet  or  more  in  height.  Both  species  were  extensively  cultivated  in 
the  period  of  which  we  write.  In  preparing  them  for  use  the  soft,  bitter  pulp 
was  first  scraped  out  as  clean  as  possible  and  the  shell  allowed  to  dry.  When 
it  had  become  thoroughly  hardened  the  remaining  portion  of  the  soft  material 
was  scraped  out  with  a  piece  of  pumice  or  a  fragment  of  coral.  They  were  then 
filled  with  water  and  left  to  stand  until  they  had  become  sweet. 

In  making  water  bottles  where  the  small  neck  did  not  admit  of  the  pre- 
liminary scraping,  the  soft  part  was  allowed  to  rot  ont.  Then  stones  and  sand 
were  put  inside  and  shaken  about  until  the  contents  came  away,  leaving  only 
the  clean,  hard  outer  shell.  To  the  bottle  was  added  a  sea  shell  or  folded  palm 
leaf  as  a  stopper,  and  the  container  was  ready  for  use.  The  different  forms  often 
had  different  uses.  When  it  was  desired  to  carry  them, — or  indeed  any  heavy 
burden, — the  larger  gourds  were  usually  provided  with  carrying  nets  of  one  form 
or  another  and  suspended  one  on  either  end  of  a  tough  wooden  carrying  stick 
which  was  notched  at  each  end. 

Finger  bowls  were  in  general  use  among  the  Hawaiians  long  before  they 
were  introduced  by  the  v.hites,  and  many  ingenious  devices  were  perfected 
by  the  natives  to  remove  the  sticky,  pasty  poi  from  their  fingers.  These  bowls 
varied  greatly  in  size,  shape  and  design,  bnt  were  gencraly  made  from  the  kou. 

Description   of   Plate. 

1.  A  chiefess  [alii]  wearing  a  lioloku ;  about  tlie  neck  is  sliowii  a  lei  |  li'i  jialnoa  |  of 
braided  human  hair  ornamented  with  a  pendant  ivory  hook;  in  the  liand  is  a  small  kaliili  with 
ivory  and  tortoise  shell  handle.  The  lei  palaoa  and  the  "fly  flap"  are  both  insignia  of  chief- 
tainship. 2.  Middle-aged  corpulent  Hawaiian;  beside  the  poi  board  is  shown  the  tare  roots 
as  they  appear  before  baking.  3.  Group  of  Hawaiian  diving  boys  in  Honolulu  harbor. 
4.  Hawaiian  woman  plaiting  a  lauhala  mat;  besiile  her  is  a  finished  mat  and  a  bundle  of  the 
lauhala  leaves  ready  for  use.  5.  Ohulenui,  whose  father,  as  a  boy,  was  familiar  with  the 
history  and  practices  of  worship  at  Hiiliopoi.  the  great  heiau  on  Molokai  in  Mapulehu  Valley. 
6.  A  pure  blood  middle-aged  Hawaiian  surrounded  by  objects  of  more  or  less  recent  manu- 
facture. 


62  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

With  the  finger  bowl  at  liand,  into  which  the  fingers  might  be  dipped  or  the 
hands  washed,  and  witli  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  leaves  as  napkins,  the 
absence  of  knife,  fork  and  spoon  from  the  Hawaiian  table  was  not  such  a  serious 
omission  as  it  might  at  first  seem.  However,  in  certain  parts  of  the  group,  as 
Puna,  where  a  less  tenacious  poi  was  made  from  the  sweet  potato,  a  general 
utility  implement  w^as  fashioned  in  the  form  of  a  generalized  spoon  from  a  frag- 
ment of  cocoanut  shell  that  served  very  well  the  combined  purpose  of  spoon  and 
ladle. 

Otlier  household  implements  for  special  use  were  made  from  the  shells  of 
cocoanuts.  Besides  serving  many  varied  purposes  they  were  chiefly  useful 
as  cups  and  were  made  in  special  forms  as  containers  for  awa. 

The  Hawaiian  mirror  was  an  ingenious  device  consisting  simply  of  a  pol- 
ished piece  of  wood  or  a  piece  of  smooth,  dark-colored  lava.  In  order  to  pro- 
duce a  reflecting  surface  it  was  dropped  into  a  calabash  of  water.  The  image 
was  thus  produced  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  or,  if  sufficiently  polished,  it! 
could  be  used  after  immersion  in  the  water.  To  trim  the  hair,  a  shark  tooth 
firmly  fastened  in  a  stick  was  employed;  or,  if  this  method  proved  to  be  too 
painful,  fire  might  be  used  instead.  A  fan  of  curious  form,  braided  usually 
from  the  leaves  of  the  pandanus  or  the  loulu  palm,  was  a  convenience  of  ancient 
origin  among  the  Hawaiians.  The  form,  however,  has  been  greatly  modified 
in  recent  times.  The  back-scratcher,  a  scraper-like  implement  made  of  hard 
wood  and  provided  with  a  long  handle,  M'as  a  decided  comfort  to  the  ancient 
Hawaiians.  and  they  were  in  general  and  frequent  use  at  the  time  of  which  we 
write. 

In  the  evening  artificial  light  was  supplied  by  burning  the  nuts  of  the 
kukui,  which  were  strung  on  slencler  strips  of  bamboo.  The  oil  of  these  useful 
nuts  was  also  pressed  out  and  burned  with  a  tapa  wick  in  a  stone  cup  or  crude 
lamp.     Occasionally  the  fat  of  the  pig  and  dog  was  used  as  an  illuminating  oil. 

Fire. 

The  Hawaiian  method  of  lighting  a  fire  was  by  the  friction  of  tw-o  pieces 
of  wood.  A  sharp  hard  stick  w^as  pressed  firmly  into  a  groove  on  a  large  and 
softer  stick  and  rubbed  up  and  down  until  the  fine  dust  that  rubbed  ofl^  and 
accumulated  in  one  end  of  the  groove  ignited  from  the  heat  of  friction.  When 
everything  was  properly  managed  only  a  few  minutes  were  necessary  to  start 
the  tinder  and  transfer  the  light  to  a  bit  of  tapa  or  other  inflammable  material. 
The  trouble  incident  to  igniting  a  fire  was  obviated  by  carrying  fire  from  place 
to  place.  To  do  this  old  tapa  was  twisted  into  a  cord  a  third  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  and  rolled  into  a  ball  to  lie  used  when  desired  as  a  slow-burning  torch. 
In  this  way  a  lighted  fuse  might  be  carried  a  long  distance. 

The  Hawaiian  broom  was  simpl^y  a  conveniently-sized  l)undle  of  palm-stem 
midribs  tied  together.  And  since  sweeping  ^vas  not  an  exacting  art,  it  served 
every  purpose.  While  wooden  pillows  were  used,  oblong  six-sided  ones  made  of 
platted  pandanus  leaves  were  more  common. 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  63 

Small  stones  of  different  shapes  for  various  domestic  purposes  were  used, 
some  for  cooking  birds,  others  as  bath  rubbers,  and  so  on.  })ut  the  principal 
use  of  stone  in  the  household  was  in  the  manufacture  of  pt)i  pounders  and 
mortars,  to  which  reference  has  been  made  in  another  chapter.  Lastly,  refer- 
ence should  be  made  to  their  wooden  slop  jars  which  were  in  common  use  as 
receptacles  for  refuse  food,  banana  skins,  fishbones  and  offal.  While  many  of 
them  were  roughly  made  of  Ivou.  others  were  finished,  and  a  few  belonging  to 
the  chiefs  were  inlaid  with  the  bones  of  their  enemies  or  those  whom  they 
would  dishonor. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE. 

Agriculture  Among  the  Hawaiians. 

Agriculture  w^as  one  of  the  principal  occupations  of  the  ancient  Hawaiians 
and  like  almost  everything  they  did,  was  accomplished  by  a  set  of  more  or  less 
elaborate  religious  ceremonies.  They  were  particular  to  plant  in  the  proper 
time  of  the  moon,  and  prayers  were  said,  and  offerings  made  and  tabus  kept 
during  the  various  stages  of  the  growth  of  the  plant.  When  necessary,  prayers 
were  made  for  rain  or  to  allay  the  wind,  or  to  stop  the  ravages  of  insects,  and  at 
last  when  the  crop  was  ripe,  prayers  of  thanksgiving  were  said  and  appropriate 
offerings  were  made  to  the  family  gods. 

The  growing  of  taro  was  the  chief  industry  among  their  farming  activi- 
ties, and  the  simple  dishes  manufactured  fronj  this  plant  have  always  been  their 
principal  and  often  only  article  of  food.  Two  methods  of  planting  were  and 
still  are  followed.  Where  running  water  was  to  be  had  from  the  streams  taro, 
or  kalo,  could  be  grown  at  all  seasons,  and  only  a  scarcity  of  water  could  seri- 
ously influence  the  yield.  AVhere  water  could  be  led  onto  the  ground  from  the 
streams  or  be  led  to  the  fields  by  their  primitive  irrigation  ditches,  the  crop  was 
always  in  a  flourishing  state  of  growth.  The  work  necessary  to  prepare  the 
ground,  plant,  irrigate  and  cultivate  the  crop,  then  as  now.  formed  the  most 
laborious  part  of  the  native  farming. 

Taro  Growing. 

Considering  the  character  of  the  country,  the  natives  had  arrived  at  a 
degree  of  skill  in  the  cultivation  of  the  useful  taro  plant  that  has  been  difficult 
to  improve  upon.  After  a  century  of  contact  with  European  ingenuity  and 
learning,  the  crop  is  still  cultivated  in  the  ancient  manner,  with  the  exception 
that  the  primitive  digger  or  oo,  made  of  wood,  has  been  sn]>]ilauted  by  some  of 
the  more  modern  garden  implements  made  of  metal. 

The  taro  ponds  are  usually  small  and  irregular  in  form,  and  vary  in  size 
from  a  few  yards  to  a  half  acre  or  more  in  extent.  They  were  formerly  nuide 
with  the  utmost  care,  by  first  removing  the  earth  down  to  a  water  level  and 


X 


X 


X 

an 
P 
O 


< 

fa 
O 

% 

0 


o 


<1      & 


o     « 
C    £ 


a 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  65 

using-  the  surplus  soil  to  l)uild  strong  embankments  on  jill  sides  of  the  pond, 
which,  when  necessary,  were  re-enforced  with  stones,  sugar-cane  and  cocoanut 
leaves.  The  earth  in  the  pond  was  then  carefully  manipulated  so  that  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  could  be  beaten  solid.  In  early  times  tlie  hai-d  end  o£  a  cocoanut 
leaf  was  used  as  a  flail  when  it  was  necessary  to  pack  the  earth  tirmlv  to  form 
the  walls  and  bottom  into  a  water-tight  basin.  When  the  pond  was  water-tight 
the  earth  was  thoroughly  spaded  and  worked  over  for  a  couph^  of  feet  in  dcptli. 
The  water  was  then  let  into  the  pond  and  the  earth  mixed  and  stamped  wilh 
the  feet  until  a  thin  muck  was  formed. 

The  next  step  was  the  planting  of  the  ne\\  crop.  The  leaves  cut  oCf  in  a 
buncli  just  below  the  crown  of  the  plant  as  the  ripe  roots  are  harvested,  form 
the  Imli.  The  taro  is  usually  propagated  by  planting  the  huli  wliile  still  fresh, 
in  rows  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  apart.  Water  is  let  into  the  patch,  after 
planting,  so  as  to  form  a  shallow  pond  and  a  fresh  water  supply  is  constantly 
kept  running  into  the  patch  until  the  roots  become  mature,  when  they,  are  ready 
for  use. 

The  taro  plants  usually  recpiire  from  nine  to  fifteen  months  in  which  to 
ripen,  but  they  will  continue  to  grow  and  improve  in  quality  for  two  years  or 
more.  The  provident  Hawaiian  would  therefore  plant  but  a  small  area  at  a 
time  with  the  result  that  the  plants  would  not  all  l)e  ready  to  harvest  on  the 
same  date. 

In  addition  to  the  common  method  of  pond  cultivation  just  described. several 
other  methods  continue  to  be  made  use  of  in  the  planting  and  cnltivation  of 
taro,  which  varj^  more  or  less  in  detail.  In  regions  where  streams  vrere  not  avail- 
able and  where  other  conditions  were  suitable,  the  land  was  cleared  of  weeds 
and  large  holes  dug  in  which  several  plants  were  set.  AVhen  necessary  the  soil  was 
enriched  with  kukui  leaves,  ashes  and  fine  earth.  The  crop,  if  carefully  i)lanted 
in  this  way,  and  tended  faithfulh'.  would  vield  abundant  returns. 


Description  of  Plate. 

1.  Kahuna  pule  aiuiana.  It  was  the  business  of  these  sorcerers  to  jn'ooure  the  deatli  of 
persons  obnoxious  to  themselves,  or  the  chiefs,  or  their  clients,  by  means  of  prayers  and  reli- 
gious rites.  They  secured  the  spittle  or  some  intimate  beloncfing  of  the  person  whom  they 
wished  to  destroy  and  by  means  of  certain  rites,  coiijuriny  and  jiraycrs  to  the  gods,  so  wrought 
upon  the  imaoination  and  superstitious  fear  of  the  individual  as  to  almost  invariably  briug  about 
his  death.  At  the  left  is  showA  a  large  cocoanut  hula  drum  [palm  hula]  that  formerly  was 
only  beaten  on  the  occasion  of  a  royal  birth.  2.  Group  designed  to  show  the  process  of  poi 
pounding.  3.  Tapa  making;  the  old  woman  is  shown  boating  the  Itark  on  the  wooden  anvil 
I  kua  kuku]  with  a  tapa  club  for  the  purpose  of  thinning  the  wet  liark  or  felting  the  edges 
of  the  sti'ips  together.  The  girl  stands  by  with  an  umeke  of  water  to  sprinkle  on  the  bark 
from  time  to  time;  on  the  bush  beside  her  are  a  numl)er  of  strips  roughed  out  ready  to  be 
beaten  thin  and  smooth;  behind  her  a  finished  sheet  is  in  the  process  of  being  ornamented. 
4.  Scraping  olona.  The  long  fibers  of  this  useful  jilant  are  hackled  out  by  scraping  the 
bark  on  a  narrow  board  [laau  kahi  olona]  with  a  tortoise  shell  scraper  [uhi  kahi  olona 
kuahonu].  From  the  fiber,  twine  for  all  purposes,  but  especially  useful  in  the  manufacture  of 
fish  nets,  was  made.  In  the  case  behind  are  shown  such  fishing  apparatus  as  seins.  nets,  fish 
hooks,  shrimp  baskets,  sinkers  and  all  the  various  articles  made  use  of  by  the  native  fisherman. 


66  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

Taro  and  Its  Uses. 

Several  varieties  of  taro  were  planted  by  the  natives  which  varied  in  size, 
flavor  and  growth.  In  general,  however,  the  varieties  all  have  large,  thrifty, 
heart-shaped  leaves  of  a  light  green  color.  The  flower  is  a  fragrant,  green- 
yellow,  calla-like  blossom  and  inconspicuous.  The  root  is  of  a  regular  oval 
form,  from  four  to  eight  inches  in  length,  and  from  two  to  four  inches  in  dia- 
meter. In  a  natural  state,  when  either  ripe  or  unripe,  both  the  root  and  the 
leaves  have  the  exceedingly  acrid,  pungent  taste  so  characteristic  of  the  genus 
of  plants  to  which  the  taro  belongs.  But  when  thoroughly  cooked  it  becomes 
mild  and  palatable  without  a  more  disagreeable,  peculiar  or  characteristic  taste 
than  spinach  or  potatoes  might  be  said  to  have.  When  the  root  is  ripe  it  is 
compact  and  whitish  in  color,  both  before  and  after  cooking;  but  when  poor  in 
quality  or  unripe,  it  is  liable  to  be  a  dull  lead  color.  There  are  several  varieties, 
as  the  pink  or  royal  taro,  and  the  blue,  or  common  taro,  which  differ  as  indi- 
cated in  the  color  of  the  ripe  and  cooked  roots  as  well  as  in  the  color  of  the 
poi  made  from  them. 

The  natives  prepared  the  root  for  use,  as  they  cook  all  their  food,  by  first 
baking  it  in  a  curious  oven  called  an  inui.  The  oven  is  formed  by  digging  a 
hole  two  or  three  feet  in  depth  and  six  or  more  feet  in  circumference  and 
placing  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole  a  layer  of  stones.  On  the  stones  wood  is  piled 
and  on  top  of  the  heap  still  other  layers  of  stones  are  laid.  A  fire  is  then 
lighted  in  the  pile  of  wood  and  kindling.  AVhen  the  stones  are  thoroughly 
heated  those  on  top  are  thrown  to  one  side  and  the  taro,  sweet  potatoes,  bananas, 
pig,  dog,  fish  or  whatever  is  to  be  cooked  is  wrapped  in  ki  or  banana  leaves 
and  laid  on  the  stones  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  The  loose  hot  stones  are  thrown 
in  on  top  of  the  bundle  of  leaves  containing  the  food,  and  a  little  water  is  added 
to  create  steam ;  the  earth  and  leaves  are  then  hurriedly  placed  on  the  mound 
to  prevent  the  heat  from  escaping. 

Pol 

The  taro  after  being  cooked  in  this  manner  was  and  is  made  into  the  favorite 
dish  of  the  Hawaiians,  namely  poi.  The  process  of  manufacture,  though  simple, 
was  laborious  and  was  invariably  performed  by  the  men.  The  first  step  in  the 
process  of  transforming  taro  into  poi  was  the  removing  of  the  rough  outer  skin 
of  the  root  after  it  had  been  thoroughly  cooked.  The  scrapings  thus  secured 
were  put  aside  to  he  returned  to  the  ponds  as  a  fertilizer.  The  roots  when 
carefully  scraped  were  thrown  on  a  short  plank  of  hard  wood  called  a  poi 
board.  The  board  was  scooped  out  slightly  in  the  middle,  like  a  shallow  tray. 
On  this  plank  the  roots  were  pounded  with  a  thick,  heavy  stone  pestle,  of  which 
two  or  three  forms  were  formerly  in  use. 

Poi  pounding  is  real  work,  and  when  it  was  to  be  done  properly  the  na- 
tives stripped  themselves  of  everything  save  thcii-  loin  cloths.  Seating  them- 
selves cross-legged,  usiuilly  one  at  each  end  of  the  poi  board,  the  pestling  of  the 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  67 

mass  would  continue  for  an  honr  or  more.  With  careful  niani])iilati()ii  tlir  roots 
were  thus  reduced  to  a  sticky,  dough-like  mass.  As  the  pounding  proceeded, 
water  was  judiciouslj'  added  to  prevent  the  mass,  in  the  form  called  paiai.  from 
sticking'  to  the  stone  pestle.  When  it  was  sufficiently  smooth  and  firm  i1  was 
removed  from  the  board  and  at  once  made  into  poi  1)\'  thinning  with  water  to 
whatever  consistency  was  desired;  or  made  into  good-sized  bundles  wrapped 
with  ki  leaves.  In  this  way  the  paiai  could  be  kept  for  months  at  a  time  and 
was  often  shipped  from  place  to  place.  It  was  in  this  condition,  in  all  proba- 
bility, that  taro  formed  one  of  the  chief  stores  made  use  of  by  the  natives  in 
their  long  voyages. 

Whenever  poi  was  required  a  portion  of  the  doughy  mass,  paiai,  was  put 
in  a  calabash  and  thinned  with  water.  It  was  ready  for  use  in  a  few  hours 
after  the  water  was  added,  but  the  natives  preferred  it  after  it  had  soured,  or 
worked,  for  a  dav  or  more. 

Poi  vras  eaten  by  tlirusting  the  forefinger  of  the  right  hand  into  the  mass 
and  securing  as  much  as  would  adhere  to  the  finger,  and  then  passing  the  food 
from  the  bowl  to  the  mouth  by  a  neat  revolving  motion  of  the  hand  and  finger. 
The  native  name  for  the  forefinger  signifies  the  "poi  finger.'  For  this  reason 
it  was  quite  the  custom  to  grade  poi  as  one-finger  poi,  two-finger  poi,  and  so  on, 
thereby  indicating  its  consistency.  When  ready  to  be  eaten  a  dozen  or  more 
natives  might  surround  one  calabash  and  greedily  dip  up  its  contents,  sucking 
their  fingers  and  smacking  their  lips  in  a  state  of  obvious  enjoyment.  Usually 
they  finished  the  entire  allowance  at  one  sitting,  only  to  fall  asleep  afterwards — 
"full  and  satisfied."  Poi  was  occasionally  mixed  with  the  tender  meat  of  the 
eocoanut,  and  was  specially  prepared  for  the  sick  in  several  ways.  Baked  taro 
also  makes  an  excellent  vegetable,  and  the  leaves  of  the  plant,  as  well  as  the  stems 
and  flowers  were  cooked  and  greatly  relished  hy  the  natives. 

Sweet  Potatoes  and  Yams. 

Next  to  the  taro,  sweet  potatoes  and  yams  were  the  most  important  food 
plants  grown  in  the  islands.  Many  varieties,  accurately  described  and  named 
by  the  natives,  were  in  general  cultivation.  They  thrived  in  the  drier  localities 
and  were  eaten  raw,  baked  or  roasted.  They  were  also  made  into  a  kind  of  poi. 
Poi  and  sweet  potatoes  v,-ere  fed  to  their  pigs  and  dogs  to  fatten  them,  and  ani- 
mals cared  for  in  this  way  were  regarded  as  particularly  delicious  hy  the  TT;i- 
M'aiians  of  a  century  ago. 

Breadfruit  and  Bananas. 

The  breadfruit  was  much  used  as  a  food  by  tlie  natives,  after  being  cooked 
in  their  ovens  or  roasted  in  an  open  fire.  It  was  pounded  into  a  delicious  \nn 
as  well.  The  natives  were  very  skillful  in  growing  this  delicate  plant 
which  was  propagated  by  root  cuttings.  Bananas  were  also  cultivated  by  lliciu 
and  eaten  both  raw  and  cooked.  Sugar-cane  calabasli  gourds,  the  paper  nnil- 
berry,  olona,  ki,  cocoanuts  and  awa  were  anioiiL;  tlic  uscrul  plants  fornio'ly 
grown  by  the  Hawaiians. 


SI 


3  -2 
•S  3  i 


o  ^ 


55     o .: 


35 


CO 


2;    ^'^^ 


O     ;- 


r^    »< 


X 


CI       c 

^    ^  *]• 

_:     ^  p  O 
S  -    3 

^  ^  -i 
3  "H  M 
•+-     >, 

{■  u 

c  r  1 

<i       ^ 

"?& 
•   =  o 

^   -  n 

•1i 

^  o 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  69 

In  addition  to  the  forogoiny  list  of  plants  that  were  cultivated  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  there  were  a  number  of  others  that  were  made  use  of  as  food  in 
times  of  scarcity  that  could  hardly  be  regarded  as  cultivated  in  a  strict  sense. 

Fiber  Plants. 

The  paper  mulberry,  called  wauki,  one  of  the  plants  from  which  their 
bark  cloth  was  manufactured,  was  regularly  cultivated,  there  being  extensive 
groves  of  this  small  tree  planted  about  almost  every  n.itive  home.  The  plant 
was  kept  carefully  trimmed  from  its  earliest  growth  in  order  to  prevent  it  fol- 
lowing its  inclination  to  branch  out  from  the  main  stem.  In  this  way  a  single 
shoot  was  secured  unbroken  by  branches.  When  it  had  attained  a  height  of 
ten  or  twelve  feet  and  a  diameter  of  an  inch  or  two.  the  men  cut  the  plants  and 
the  women  stripped  otf  the  bark  in  a  single  piece  by  splitting  it  from  end  to 
end  of  the  stem.  The  outer  bark  was  then  scraped  otf  and  the  fibrous  part 
forming  the  inner  bark,  was  rolled  endways  into  loose  disk-like  bundles 
and  left  to  dry  until  it  had  taken  on  a  fiat  surface.  The  bark  was  then  placed 
in  water  until  it  became  covered  with  a  mucilaginous  coating;  then  it  was  laid 
on  a  stone  or  a  log  prepared  for  the  purpose  and  beaten  with  a  series  of  round 
and  square  sticks  of  hard  wood,  known  as  tapa  beaters. 

]\Ianufacture  of  Tapa. 

In  the  making  of  tapa  cloth,  strips  of  raw  material  were  laid  side  by  side 
and  doubled,  pounded  and  manipulated  in  order  to  unite  the  free  edges,  the  mass 
being  kept  saturated  with  w^ater  during  the  process.  The  length  and  breadth 
of  the  tapa  sheet  was  increased  at  pleasure  by  the  addition  of  more  bark.  Sheets 
double  the  size  of  an  ordinary  blanket  were  frequently  made  in  this  simple  way. 
The  water  mark  in  the  fibre,  as  well  as  the  texture  and  thickness,  was  regu- 
lated by  the  amount  of  the  beating  and  the  character  and  markings  of  the  mallet 
used.  Places  torn  in  making  the  sheet  were  mended  by  rewelding  the  edges. 
When  finished  the  tapa  was  spread  in  the  sun  to  dry  and  bleach. 

The  next  step  in  the  process  was  the  dying  and  marking  of  the  clotli.  The 
tapa  is  naturally  of  a  light  color  and  much  of  it  was  worn  in  that  state,  but  a 
great  portion  of  it  was  stained  either  with  dyes,  mostly  of  vegetable  origin, 
or  by  mixing  with  the  sheet  while  in  a  plastic  state  fragments  of  old  colored 
tapas  that  had  been  reduced  to  pulp.  The  colors  used  were  both  beautiful  and 
durable — yellow,  salmon,  straw,  blues  in  various  shades,  puri)le,  green,  red,  lilac, 
pink,  dove,  chocolate,  brown,  fawn,  as  well  as  black  and  white  were  quite  com- 
mon. The  list  of  vegetable  and  mineral  dyes  utilized  in  j)i-(»(luce  the  various 
colors  is  a  long  one  and  shows  a  knowledge  of  the  simple  clieinical  reactions  of 
the  dyer's  art  that  is  truly  remarkable.  Leaves,  roots  and  hai-k  were  used  in 
various  conditions,  singly  and  in  combination,  often  witli  minei'al  substances, 
as  salt,  earth,  inuck.  charcoal,  or  occasionally  wilii  animal  dyes,  as  that  derived 
from  the  sea-urchin,  the  s(iniil  and  ceiiain  sea  slugs. 


PLATE  13.     OBJECTS   OF   NATIA^E   MANUFACTUEE. 

(Scale   line — 6   in.) 
1.     Large  wooden  idol  of  ohia  wood,  long  buried  in  a  fish  pond.     2.    A  wooden  image  of 
Kalaipahoa,    the    jaoison    god.       3.     Hawaiian    fish    baskets    and     traps.       4.     Canoe    paddle. 

(Descrijitiun    of  Plate   Continued   on    the   Oi>iiosite   Page.) 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  71 


Tapa  IMaking  a  Fine  Art.  . 


The  plain  or  colored  tapas  were,  often,  beautifully  and  tastefully 
printed  with  ingenious  figures  or  patterns  of  various  designs.  'I'he  pattern  lo  he 
transferred  to  the  cloth  was  first  cut  on  the  side  of  a  narrow  strip  of  haniboo. 
The  bamboo  was  then  dipped  into  the  color  and  the  pattern  carefully  printed  on 
the  tapa  by  pressing  the  stick  on  the  tapa  and  against  the  hand.  This  operation 
was  repeated  until  little  by  little  the  intended  design  was  completed.  Often 
the  entire  tapa  was  printed  with  various  designs  and  colors  in  this  primitive 
manner.  Some  kinds  were  marked  with  a  string  dipped  in  the  color  to  be  trans- 
ferred. The  string  was  then  drawn  taut  across  the  tapa  and  the  color  snapped 
on  it  in  the  same  manner  in  which  the  chalk  line  is  commonly  used. 

In  the  preparation  of  their  "printing  inks"  the  colors  were  frecpiently  mixed 
with  kukui  nut  oil.  Some  tapas  were  saturated  with  cocoanut  oil  to  render  them 
waterproof  and  to  make  them  more  durable.  Tapas  which  were  not  oiled  could 
not  be  washed.  For  this  reason  the  laundry  work  to  be  done  in  the  Hawaiian 
family  was  reduced  to  the  minimum.  l)ut  the  amount  of  time  and  labor  expended 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  tapa  must  have  been  enormous,  since  three  or  four 
days  were  required  to  beat  an  average  sized  tapa  and  a  new  set  was  required 
about  once  a  month.  Other  materials  were  used  by  the  Hawaiians  in  the  manu- 
facture of  tapa,  the  most  important  being  the  bark  of  the  mamake,  which  grew 
wild  in  the  woods.  It  was  gathered  by  the  women  and  steamed  in  an  oven 
with  a  certain  fern  that  gave  off  a  dark  red  coloring  matter.  The  bark  from 
tender  breadfruit  stems  was  sometimes 'used,  as  was  also  the  bark  from  the 
hau  tree. 

Provision  was  commonly  made  for  carrying  on  this  work  by  providing  a 
special  house  devoted  to  the  purpose  and  also  by  the  setting  aside  of  certain  special 
gods  to  preside  over  the  undertaking.  Certain  of  their  tapas  were  delicately 
perfumed  with  the  root  of  the  kupaoa ;  maile  and  mokihana  were  also  used  in 
this  way  on  account  of  their  delicate  and  lasting  scents. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  tapa  beating  was  coiniiion  among  all  the 
Polynesian  islanders,  when  suitable  material  was  to  be  had.  It  was  an  art  that 
was  old  in  the  hands  of  the  pioneer  Hawaiians  at  the  time  of  their  scltliiig 
on  these  islands.  While  tapa  making  was  generally  practiced  over  the  whole  of 
the  Pacific,  and  indeed  almost  the  whole  world,  it  fell  to  the  pninstaking 
Hawaiian  women  to  carrj'  the  manufacture  of  paper  cloth  to  the  highest  degree 
of  excellence  attained  among  any  primitive  people.  Their  best  tapas  Avere  l)ut 
little,  if  any,  inferior  to  the  fine  cotton   fabrics  tli;i1    ha\-e  enlii'ely   disj^laced 


(Description    of   Plate    Continued    from    Opposite   Pnfie.) 

5.  Small  kahili.  (J.  Slop  bowl  orntinioiited  with  luniiati  teeth.  7.  Stoiio  lamps  of  various 
forms.  8.  Feather  cape  [ahunla].  9.  Tapa  beater.  10.  Poi  pounders  (ring  form).  11. 
Pandanus  baskets.  12.  Finger  bowls  of  various  designs.  13.  Spittoons.  14.  T.arge  and 
small  umekes  or  bowls.  15.  Hanai  poepoe.  Ki.  Carved  dish  for  baked  jiig.  17.  Oourd 
hula  drums.  18.  Hawaiian  fans.  lil.  f'oeoanut  wood  hula  drums.  "JO.  I'liuli  hula  or 
rattles.     21.     Mortar  and  pestle. 


72  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAAVAII. 

them.  So  completely,  however,  has  the  art  and  manufactiire  disappeared  that 
the  implements  used  in  its  manufactnre  even  are  only  to  be  seen  in  museums, 
while  the  technique  of  the  art  must  be  gleaned  from  the  scanty  records  of  the 
early  missionaries  and  travelers. 

Mat  Making. 

Perhaps  the  manufacture  next  in  importance  to  the  making  of  tapa  was 
the  plaiting  of  mats.  These  were  used  by  the  natives  to  lounge  upon  by  day  and 
to  sleep  upon  by  night.  ^Nlats  were  also  used  as  sails  for  their  canoes,  as  parti- 
tions in  their  houses,  as  food  mats,  clothing  and  robes, — in  fact  their  uses  were 
innumerable.  Taken  altogether,  being  more  durable  than  tapa,  their  possession 
in  abundance  was  regarded  as  unmistakable  evidence  of  material  Avealth. 

The  typical  bed  of  the  Hawaiian  chiefs  was  a  raised  portion  of  the  floor, 
perhaps  one  entire  end  of  the  house.  The  elevated  portion  was  made  of  loosely 
laid  stones  forming  a  pile  eight  or  ten  feet  square,  over  which  was  spread  several 
thicknesses  of  mats,  as  many  as  thirty  or  fort.y  being  employed  on  the  lied  of  a 
well-to-do  chief.  Naturally  the  coarsest  ones  were  placed  at  the  bottom  and 
the  finer  ones  spread  on  top.  Lauhala  mats  are  still  made  and  used  quite  generally 
throughout  the  group,  many  of  the  best  houses  being  furnished  with  them  in 
place  of  the  more  familiar  though  less  approved  floor  rugs.  Several  materials 
were  made  use  of  in  the  weaving  of  mats,  the  most  important  being 
the  lauhala ;  next  came  the  stems  of  the  makaloa,  and  lastly  species  of  other 
native  sedges. 

Lauhala  ]\Lvts. 


In  the  making  of  lauhala  mats,  the  leaves  were  broken  from  the  trees,  by  the 
women,  with  long  sticks.  They  were  withered  over  a  fire  for  a  short  time  and 
then  dried  in  the  sun.  The  young  leaves  were  preferred  to  the  old  ones,  so 
that  in  plaiting  the  mats  the  raw  material  was  carefully  selected  and  graded 
as  to  quality  and  color.  It  w^as  then  scraped,  the  saw-like  edges  removed,  and 
split  into  strips  of  the  required  width,  varying  from  an  eighth  to  an  inch  or 
more  in  width.  The  braiding  was  done  \>y  hand  without  the  aid  of  a  frame 
or  instrument,  and,  though  mats  were  often  made  twenty-five  feet  scpuire,  they 
were  finished  with  great  evenness  of  texture  and  regularity  of  shape.  The  finer 
braided  ones  were  usually  small  in  size  and  left  with  a  wide  fringe;  being 
greatly  prized,  they  were  occasionally  carried  by  attendants  to  be  spread  down 
on  other  coarser  mats  when  their  chiefs  chose  to  sit. 

IMakaloa  jNIats. 

The  rush  or  sedge  mats,  called  makaloa  mats,  are  soft  and  fine;  the 
islands  of  Kauai,  and  particularly  Niihau,  were  famous  for  their  production. 
For  this  reason  the  mats  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  Niihau  mats.  V>\\\  on  both 
islands  the  finest  mats  were  those  made  from  the  young  shoots. 

Many  of  the  lauhala,  as  well  as  most  of  the  Niihau  mats  were  ornamented  with 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PI^OPLE.  71 

imicli  taste — rod  and  Iji-own  sedge  stems  being  used  fni-  tlic  piii-i)()sr.  Tliese  were 
worked  in  on  the  iipi)er  surface  of  the  mat  in  patterns  tluit  reseml)k!d  embroider}^ 
various  designs  being  formed,  as  squares,  diamonds,  stripes  and  /igzau'  lines. 

Tlie  phiiting  of  mats,  like  the  beating  of  tapa,  w;is  women  "s  \v()rl<  in  ancient 
Hawaii,  and  those  who  possessed  much  skill  in  llicsc  imijortant  arts  were;  esteemed 
for  their  labor  and  praised  for  their  handiwork. 

Fishing. 

Aside  from  war,  fishing  and  agriculture  were  the  chief  occui)ati()ns  engaged 
in  l)y  the  men,  so  that,  in  general,  men  procured  the  food  while  the  woihimi  did 
their  full  share  in  making  the  provisions  for  the  Hawaiian  family,  and  supply- 
ing the  raiment  that  their  civilization  refjuired. 

Fishing,  like  agriculture,  was  associated  with  religious  ceremonies  and  tlie 
worship  of  idols.  Among  this  class,  the  practice  was  carried  to  such  an  extent 
that  special  heiaus  and  altars  were  constructed  and  a  somewhat  ditferent  form 
of  worship  established.  Like  the  fishermen  in  all  lands  and  in  all  times,  the 
natives  were  firm  believers  in  good  luck  and  their  faith  in  si<:ns  and  omens  was 
accordingly  deep-seated.  Their  gods  were  numerous,  so  that  each  fisherman 
worshipped  one  of  his  own  choice.  Likewise  the  tabus  of  their  gods  were  many 
and  the  devotee  would  go  to  a  great  length  in  carrying  out  the  fancied  desire 
of  his  patron  deity.  The  god  of  one  fisherman  would  tabu  black,  for  example, 
and  in  observance  of  the  tabu,  the  fisherman  would  have  nothinu'  black  on  liis  net 
or  canoe,  would  take  nothing  black  from  the  seas,  and  his  duliful  wife  woidd 
wear  nothing  black  upon  her  person  nor  allow  the  taltu  color  to  appear  even 
in  the  vicinity  of  her  home. 

The  business  of  fishing  was  carried  on  with  great  skill  and  those  engaged  in 
the  occupation  had  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  habits,  feeding  gi-ounds  and 
species  of  fish  in  the  sea  round  about  the  islands. 

Fish  nets  were  made  in  various  forms  for  various  pur]ioses.  They  Averc 
netted  of  a  twine  manufactured  by  twisting  the  fiber  of  the  olona  to  form 
■cordage,  most  remarkable  for  its  durability.  As  a  substitute  in  certain  cases, 
cord  made  from  the  cocoanut  fiber  was  used,  though  it  was  by  no  means  as 
flexible  or  durable  as  the  former.  The  olona  grew  in  a  semi-culti\ated  state,  in 
the  mountain  valleys,  where  abiuidant  rainfall  was  assured.  The  bai-k  was 
gathered  from  the  young  shoots,  which  were  stripped  and  hackled  w  itli  a  scnipei- 
made  of  tortoise  shell  or  bone. 

Nets  of  various  sizes  and  patterns  were  designed  I'or  \ai-ious  pui-poses,  as 
were  various  fish  hooks,  ])oisons,  trai)s  and  the  like.  A  few  of  these  will 
a  fuller  treatment  in  a  chapter  devoted  to  Hawaiian  lish  and  lisliiiit^'. 

Salt  ]\Ianufacti'ke. 

Salt  was  an  important  article  among  the  Hawaiians  and  they  were  adept 
in  the  manufacture  of  a  coarse  salt  from  the  sea  water.  Two  methods  were  em- 
ployed:     One,  that  of  putting  the  water  in  shallow  scooped-out  stone  dishes 


74  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

to  evaporate ;  the  other,  by  impounding  the  sea  water  in  small  shallow  ponds 
and  collecting  the  residue  as  the  water  evaporated.  Salt  Lake,  on  Oahu,  also  was 
an  important  source  of  supply. 

The  foregoing  w^ere  the  principal  productive  occupations  that  consumed 
the  four  to  six  hours  a  day  that  the  ancient  Hawaii  ans  devoted  to  labor.  It  is, 
however,  not  to  be  presumed  that  these  were  the  only  pursuits  in  Avhieh  they 
could  engage.  Certain  districts  and  settlements  became  famous  for  their  peculiar 
wares  and  products.  Occasional  fairs  or  markets  were  held  at  which  the  pro- 
ducts and  articles  of  manufacture  of  one  district  were  exchanged  for  those  of 
another,  and  a  crude  sort  of  barter  was  thus  in  vogue  by  which,  recognizing 
the  importance  of  specialized  skill,  or  by  utilizing  special  natural  advantages, 
the  wants  and  necessities  were  supplied,  so  that  food,  clothing,  ornaments,  uten- 
sils and  tools  might  be  had  by  all. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

TOOLS,   BIPLE^IENTS,   ARTS   AND   AMUSEMENTS    OF   THE    HA- 

WAIIANS. 

The  Hawaiians  at  the  time  of  their  discovery  by  white  men  were  still  in  the 
stone  age.  The  absence  of  iron,  copper  or  any  of  the  metals  in  a  workable  form 
was  a  serious  handicap  to  their  development.  Stone,  bone  and  wood  w^ere  the  ma- 
terials at  their  disposal,  and  from  them  they  were  forced  to  construct  such  tools 
as  they  could  devise. 

Implements  of  Stone,  Bone  and  Shell. 

Of  the  simpler  tools  made  use  of  by  the  natives,  none  was  of  more  value 
and  importance  than  was  the  stone  adz.  It  w^as  formerly  in  general  use 
throughout  the  whole  group,  as  it  was  throughout  the  most  of  Polynesia.  In 
Hawaii  adzes  were  made  in  various  shapes,  weights  and  sizes,  for  various  pur- 
poses, but  the  principle  Avas  the  same  in  all  and  consisted  in  the  securing  of  a 
cutting  or  bruising  edge  of  stone  that  might  be  held  in  a  convenient  form 
for  use  as  a  hand  tool. 

The  hardest,  most  compact  clinkstone  lava  was  selected  for  the  liit  by  the 
ancient  adz  maker.  The  rough  stone  was  patiently  worked  into  form  by  chip- 
ping, splitting  and  grinding.  When  at  last  the  proper  shape  was  secured,  the 
bit  was  bound  to  the  handle,  (usually  made  from  a  branch  of  the  ban  tree),  by 
means  of  a  cord  made  of  cocoanut  or  olona  fiber. 

In  certain  cases,  the  bit  was  used  without  the  addition  of  a  handle.  For 
heavy  work,  as  the  felling  of  trees,  the  shaping  of  canoes,  or  the  framing  of 
the  house  timbers,  large  adzes  were  recpiired,  and  there  are  some  in  existence 
that  weigh  several  pounds.  For  more  exacting  work,  as  in  carving  their  hideous 
idols,  or  finishing  and  mending  the  umekes,  fine  chisels  were  needed,  and  ex- 
amples are  extant  that  are,  in  effect,   carving  sets  in    which  simple  forms  of 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  11 

gouo'es,  cliiseLs,  aud  the  like  can  easily  be  recognized.  Aiiiung-  their  iiuplenients 
they  had  sharpening  stones  made  of  hard  phonolite,  which  were  used  to  give  an 
edge  to  their  tools,  or  as  polishing  stones.  Some  of  these  were  boulders  and 
were  permanently  located,  while  others  were  smaller  and  could  be  taken  about 
as  rquired.  The  saw-like  teeth  of  the  shark  were  used  as  tools  in  many  ways, 
where  cutting,  scraping,  and  sawing  edges  were  required.  One  of  the  most 
curious  of  their  tools  was  the  rotary  or  pump  drill.  The  staff,  tipped  with  a 
slender  piece  of  hard  lava  or  a  Terebra  shell,  was  fitted  with  a  crude  fly-wheel 
and  a  bow-like  device,  which  caused  it  to  spin  back  and  forth.  This  simple 
device  was  convenient  for  boring  the  innumerable  holes  required  to  accom- 
modate the  cord  that,  for  want  of  nails,  was  used  in  fastening  all  kinds 
of  objects  together.  Hand  stones  for  hammers,  stone  files  for  making  fish 
hooks  of  bone,  scrapers  of  bone  and  shell,  stones  for  smoothing,  fine  pumice, 
coral  grit  and  other  fine  materials  for  polishing,  w^ere  all  tools  commonly  found 
in  an  artisan's  kit.  The  oo  or  digger,  a  long  staff  of  hard  wood,  was  almost 
the  only  tool  of  husbandry,  while  in  net  manufacture  the  simple  and  widel}' 
used  seine  needle  and  mesh  gage  were  practically  the  only  tools  employed. 

As  we  think  of  the  endless  variety  of  tools  necessary  to  perform  even  the 
most  ordinary  task  in  our  own  more  complex  civilization,  it  seems  incredible 
that  the  patient  Hawaiian,  with  such  exceedingly  simple  tools  at  his  command, 
could  have  utilized  the  materials  of  his  environment  to  such  splendid  purpose. 
The  wonder  of  their  achievement  grows  when  we  contemplate  not  only  the 
variety  and  amount  of  their  handicraft,  but  the  neat  and  substantial  character 
of  their  work — a  trait  for  Avhich  the  ancient  Hawaiians  are  .justly  famed. 

Ornaments  of  Feathers. 

Ornaments  wrought  from  the  feathers  of  birds  Avere  among  their  most 
valuable  possessions.  Among  their  handicraft,  especially  such  as  had  to  do 
with  adornment,  nothing  made  by  them  surpassed  in  elegance  their  feather 
capes,  helmets,  cloaks,  leis,  kahilis,  and  feather  pa 'us  or  dresses.  So  handsome 
were  they  that  their  possession  was  almost  entirely  limited  ti^  the  alii  or  ]ier- 
sons  of  rank,  or  those  of  special  distinction. 

The  most  valuable  of  all  were  the  feather  cloaks  oi'  robes  of  state,  which 
were  indeed  priceless  insignia  of  rank.  The  most  valuable  were  made  en- 
tirely of  the  rich,  golden-yellow  feathers  of  the  very  rare  and  now  extinct 
native  mamo.  A  robe  in  the  Bishop  Museum  that  was  the  property  of  Kame- 
hameha  I,  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  the  feathers  of  the  mamo,  and  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  Museum's  chief  treasures.  As  the  arrangement  of  the  cloak 
was  always  such  that  additions  could  be  made  from  time  to  time,  it  is  not  to  be 
M'ondered  that  this  beautiful  robe  of  state,  which  occupied  over  one  hundred 
years  ^  in  making,  should  be  valued  at  as  high  a  figure  as  a  million  dollars, 
when  the  amount  of  labor  involved  in  the  gathering  of  the  raw  material  from 
whieli  it  was  made  is  taken  into  account.  As  a  substitnti^  for  the  rarer  golden- 
yellow   mamo    feathers,    certain    more   common    y(^Ilow    I'ealhers    from    the    tiow 


''■  Nine    generations. 


bo 

n 


c« 

bJO 

OH     , 

.9    1 

'» 

OD 

QJ 

? 

OC 

5j 

>H 

1 

§  1 

^ 

J3      ! 

a 

5 

;g 

"^ 

-< 

^ 

■^ 

s/ 

ac 

S 

•  ^ 

■^ 

>^ 

^ 

_2 

^ 

^^ 

Cm     ' 

ro 

OJ 

Oj 

«      Tl 


t— 1      r3  =»- 


■-;      iyo; 


■j2  = 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLP].  77 

equally  rare  oo  were  used  by  the  old  llawaiians.  The  feath(M's  of  other  hirds 
as  the  iiwi.  apapane,  ou,  koae  and  iwa  were  used  in  eoniljination  with  the 
foregoing  or  in  various  other  ways,  in  the  different  articles  mentioned,  that 
chiefs  and  those  who  could  atford  tiiem  might  have  ca]:)cs ;  but  the  ycHow  feathers 
were  reserved  for  royalty  only.  The  ground  work  for  the  capes  and  cloaks  was  a 
fine  netting  made  of  the  native  oloua  ;  to  this  the  feathers  were  1iriiil\-  fastened  in 
such  a  way  as  to  overlap  each  other  and  form  a  smooth  and  utiifonii  surface. 

The  Kahili. 

The  kahili,  a  fly  brush  or  plumed  staff  of  state,  Avas  the  emblem  and  embellish- 
ment of  royalty  and  was  held  in  the  time  of  which  we  write,  solely  as  an  adjunct  of 
the  alii.  A  few  of  these  curious  feather  plumes  were  of  enormous  proportions, 
there  being  records  of  some  that  were  borne  on  poles  thirty  feet  in  length.  The 
plume  was  composed  of  feathers  arranged  in  bunches,  bound  on  stems,  which 
were  attached  to  the  central  staff  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  loose,  fluffy, 
cylinder-shaped  head,  sometimes  two  or  more  feet  in  diameter  l)y  three  or  four 
feet  in  length.  The  handle  Avas  occasionally  made  of  alternate  rings  of  ivory 
and  tortoise  shell.  In  some  instances  the  bones  of  the  famous  alii  slain  in 
battle  were  placed  on  the  stem  as  trophies  of  victory  or  as  savage  ornaments. 
However,  the  kahili  handle  was  commonly  made  of  a  stout  spear-like  shaft  of 
kauila  wood.  IMany  of  the  smaller  kahilis  were  definitey  used  for  the 
purpose  of  fly  flaps  and  are  thought  to  be  the  form  from  which  the  hn-ucr  and 
more  ornamental  ones  were  evolved. 

Their  helmets,  which  were  exceedingly  picturesque  and  striking  ornaments, 
were  generally  worn  by  the  chiefs  on  state  occasions.  They  were  made  of 
wicker  work  of  the  aerial  ieie  roots,  covered  with  the  feathers  of  several  species 
of  the  birds  mentioned,  red  and  yellow  being  chiefly  used,  and  were  extremely 
variable  in  form. 

Hideous  effigies  of  the  powerful  war  god  Kukailimoku  -  were  made  of 
wicker  work  and  feathers,  like  tlie  helmets,  and  were  usually  supjilied  with 
staring  pearl-shell  e.yes  and  hoi'ri])le  gi'inuing  mouths  set  i'<iun(l  with  dogs' 
teeth.  We  are  told  tluit  not  more  than  a  dozen  of  these  cufious  feather  gods 
have  been  preserved  in  various  museum  collections. 

Leis. 

The  feather  lei  was  the  simplest  form  of  feather  work  wi-ouuht  by  the 
llawaiians,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  roya!  couutei'pni'l  of  the  more  com- 
mon and  perishable  garlands  made  of  flowers,  nuts  and  seeds.  The  flower 
and  feather  leis  were  twined  through  the  hair  or  sluna-  gracefully  around 
the  necks  of  both  sexes,  and  seem  to  have  had  but  little  real  sJLiiiiHeauee  other 
than  to  gratify  a  taste  for  ornament.  Dui'abie  leis  were  also  made  of  such 
objects  as  sea  and  land  shells,  lioars'  tusks  and  dried   fi'uits. 

An  ornament  much  worm  b\-  the  chiefesses  was  a  neeUlaee  that  consisted  of 


^  Ku  =  a  god:   ka;lini'iku  =  t<)-take-tlif-isl;n:(l. 


~  o 


-   -Jl 

_'  ^ 
7:  o 


-^  a 
^  o 


* 


a: 

U          7:         '-H 

cc 

&: 

^   ?,   bL 

^ 

J5 

b£'~  — 

<t: 

•^5 1 

c 

£  s  00 

<1 

^^  i 

^ 

t — 

H^ 

._r        ^    -r^ 

HH 

ii^   2 

-J 

—    '/-   ;: 

IT 

—  '--.S 

"—1 

~  t:  "3 

r^-. 

—  _c 

~ 

r  >; 

-ff^ 

.  5'x 

a:  -t^ 

^ 

-1^    y. 

— 

^    -  -)•' 

^  ■" 

Op 

— '      —     c^ 

=  2  ^ 
~  S  s 

-t^    ,  ri 

.=  6W 

Mi 

■^-  0  M 

-+H  2-2 

CD    5  H 

—  -!«S 

^  ^ 

^     =    ° 

—    — 

~     "1  ° 

^  ■::  a 

w      U 

-H    rr    J2 

.::  r=  a) 

tx  So 

r-     0 

ri  "k 

—              r; 

■^   T"   +- 

"^    C« 

-1^   C 

'     —    0 

^^       —      r- 

~    0 

rz  « 

u« 

^  s 

:s5 

THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  79 

many  strands  of  finely  braided  hnman  hair  on  which  was  snspended,  as  a 
pendant,  a  mnch-prized  ornament,  the  palaoa,  made  from  the  tooth  of  a  whale 
or  walrns.  These  were  tabn  to  all  below  the  rank  of  chief.  Necklaces  of  ivory 
beads  were  also  prized;  bracelets  of  shells,  especially  the  pipipi,  and  of  whale 
ivory,  were  worn,  fastened  on  the  back  of  the  wrist  with  a  small  cord  of  olona. 
Boars'  teeth  were  also  used  as  bracelets.  A  beautiful  amber  tone  was  tiiven 
to  many  of  the  ivory  ornaments  by  wrapping;  them  in  ki  leaves  and  exposing 
them  for  considerable  time  in  the  heavy,  strong'  smoke  of  sug-ar-cane. 

Medicine  op  the  Hawaiians. 

Of  the  practice  of  medicine  and  the  use  of  medicinal  herbs  among  the 
ancient  Hawaiians,  but  little  is  known  further  than  that  it  Avas  a  matter  of 
worship  rather  than  the  practice  of  a  healing  art.  It  seems  that  superstition 
was  the  principal  element  combined  with  vegetable  substances  and  crude  sur- 
gery. The  doctors  were  a  distinct  class  of  priests  who  worshipped  certain  gods 
from  whom  they  were  supposed  to  have  inherited  their  knowledge  of  medicine. 
They  were  regular  in  the  practice  of  their  art  in  that  they  exacted  offerings 
for  the  god  of  medicine  before  they  would  undertake  a  cure,  and  then  forbade 
certain  articles  of  food  to  the  sick.  As  a  matter  of  fact  they  seem  to  have 
had  considerable  knowledge  of  the  medicinal  properties  of  herbs  though  they  were 
by  no  means  uniformly  successful  in  their  prescription  and  use.  They  followed 
a  crude  form  of  external  diagnosis  for  internal  ailments.  They  were  adept 
in  the  use  of  rubbing  and  manipulation  to  alleviate  soreness  and  minor  ills. 
They  set  limbs  with  some  skill,  reduced  inflammation  by  the  use  of  herb 
poultices  and  made  use  of  the  pulp  of  the  calabash  gourd  vine  as  a  cathartic. 
Patients  were  held  over  the  smoke  of  specially  prepared  fires  for  certain  ail- 
ments, were  steamed  over  hot  stones  for  others,  and  so  on  through  a  long  list 
of  practices  that  were,  no  doubt,  useful  in  securing  to  the  patients  the  satisfac- 
tion of  feeling  that  they  Avere  at  least  doing  something  for  their  ailments.  From 
the  natural  history  point  of  view  their  practice  of  medicine  adds  much  interest 
to  the  study  of  the  botany  of  the  islands,  for  a  surprisingly  large  number  of  na- 
tive plants  Avere  Avell  knoAA-n  as  specifics  for  different  diseases,  and  to  this  day 
frequent  allusions  are  made  l)y  the  natiA^es  to  the  uses  of  A^arious  plants  by  tlie 
old  kahuna  doctors. 

Implements  of  Warfare. 

Although  Avar  Avas  an  important  A'ocation  Avith  the  ancient  HaAvaiians, 
there  being  a  certain  period  of  the  year  set  apart  during  AA'hich  it  might 
properly  be  engaged  in,  the  implements  AA'ere  fcAV  and  simple.  They  consisted 
chiefly  of  spears,  jaA'elins,  daggers  and  clubs  made  of  tough  Avood  and  AA^ere,  as 
a  rule,  smoothly  polished.  They  liad  no  armor  other  than  the  gourd  masks 
Avorn  by  the  canoe  men.  The  IlaAvaiian  Avarriors  preferred  to  fight  dressed 
in  their  malos  only.      As  a  substitute  for  the  shield,  a  device  of  Avhich  they  ap- 


x 

a 

« 

t< 

sq 

IC 

Q 

^ 

O 

r-^  ^ 

a 

s 

M 

X 

H 

E^ 

sq 

< 
h3 

X 

Oi 

tj 

k- 

t. 

o 

w 

Z 

^^ 

0 

:^ 

h^l 

«? 

a 

0^ 

Q 

s 

o 

I 


THE  HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE.  81 

peared  to  ])e  ignorant.  Ilicy  used  tlieir  stout  spears  in  \v;ii-dinii'  ott'  blows. 
These  were  made  of  lieavy  solid  wood  ]i('i-fectly  straiuht  in  form  and  were 
twelve  to  twenty  feet  in  length.  'riicir  J;i\cliiis  were  smaller,  l)eing  about 
six  feet  in  length  and  were  i)rovided  with  i)laiii.  ai'rnw-slnipcd.  or  harl)ed 
heads  which,  though  dull,  were  effective  when  lliinist  against  the  bare  skin  of 
the  enemy.  The  next  most  important  of  their  weapons  were  stout  clubs  of 
various  sizes  and  forms  made  of  wood,  stone  or  hone.  With  these  they  were 
able  to  deal  a  powerful  hhiw.  Their  dagger-like  sword  was  from  sixteen  inches 
to  two  feet  in  length  and  was  frequently  pointed  at  both  ends.  This  weapon 
was  supplied  with  a  string  of  olona  by  which  it  was  suspended  from  the  wrist. 
Another  form  of  sword  liad  a  saw-like  edge  set  with  a  fev/  shark  teeth.  The  bow 
and  arrow  in  a  diminutive  form,  although  used  l)y  the  alii  in  the  royal  spoi-t 
of  shooting  rats  and  mice,  was  never  made  use  of  in  warfare;  instead,  slings 
manufactured  of  human  hair,  braided  pandanus  or  cocoanut  cord  were  the  im- 
portant weapons  of  defense.  AVith  them  they  were  able  to  hurl  the  smooth 
egg-shaped  pebbles  which  they  prepared  with  special  care,  witli  gi-e:it  force  and 
accuracy.  The  canoe  breaker,  made  for  naval  warfare,  was  simpl\'  a  round  stone 
tirmly  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  rope.  This  could  be  whirled  about  the  head 
and  thrown  with  sufficient  force  to  smash  the  thin  shell  of  the  enemy's  canoe. 

The  instruments  made  use  of  in  hand-to-luiud  eneounlers  wei-e  knives  titted 
witli  one  or  two  shark's  teeth;  disemboweling  Aveapons  were  made  by  fastening 
a  single  shark  tooth  firmly  in  a  short  stick  of  wood,  so  arranged  as  to  be  carried 
concealed  in  tlie  hand,  until,  in  an  unguarded  moment,  it  eonld  sudileidy  be 
made  use  of  with  fatal  effect.  A  rarer  weapon,  used  in  seeui'ing  victims 
for  human  sacrifice,  was  a  stout  cord  in  a  slip-noose  form,  that  was  firmly 
fastened  to  a  knob-like  handle.  In  use  the  noose  was  stealthily  Ihi-own  over  the 
head  of  the  intended  victim  and  hauled  taut  fi-om  the  reai-  by  tlie  knob,  the  back 
of  the  victim  usually  biMiig  liroken  in  the  attack  that  followed. 

Wliile  tlie  natives  were  industrious  and  skilled  in  the  pnrsnits  of  peace, 
expert  in  their  primitive  arts  of  war,  and  an  exceedingly  religious  i)eoi)le.  they 
found  much  time  for  anuisements  and  devised  many  gam(>s  suited  to  b(4li  chil- 
dren and  adults,  from  which  they  derived  much  enjoyinent. 

The  Hula. 

The  hula  was  tlu^  form  of  diversion  most  commonly  indnlLicd  in.  .\11  of 
every  age  and  character  took  part  in  it.  It  was  not  so  much  a  dance  in  the 
usual  sense  of  the  term,  as  a  form  of  i-elii^ions  sei-vice  in  which  acting  in  gesture 
and  movement  was  made  use  of  in  developing  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  song: 

DKSCRrrrioN    of   Plate. 

1.  Hawaiian  youth  standing  on  tlic  svirf  board  \v^Vii  hoc  naln].  2.  Showing  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  board.  3.  Racing  in  the  surf  at  Waikiki;  Dianioml  Head  in  the  back- 
ground. 4.  An  outrigger  canoe  (waa)  showing  the  outrigger  (aina)  of  wiliwili  wood  anti 
the  connecting  bars  [iako]  of  hau  and  the  gunwale  [inooj  of  ulu.  The  jiaddh's  [hoe]  are  of 
koa  and  kauila  wood.  5.  Two  single  canoes  on  the  licadi.  Tlic  hull  of  thi'  canoe  is  always 
made  of  a  single  koa  log. 


82  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

which  the  gestures  accompanied.  Like  everything  else  the  Hawaii ans  did  it  was 
made  the  subject  of  extensive  religious  ceremonies  and  was  accompanied  by  an 
intricate  form  of  worship  in  which  Laka  was  the  chief  goddess.  Naturally 
there  were  many  forms  of  the  luila,  some  of  them  extremely  lewd.  The  latter 
class,  unfortunately,  have  been  used  more  than  any  other  single  thing  to  spread 
the  fame  and  infamy  of  Hawaii,  and  create  an  erroneous  and  distorted  im- 
pression of  the  Hawaiian  race.  Yet  it  should  be  understood  that  their  dances 
were,  in  the  main,  entirely  chaste ;  but,  unfortunately,  some  of  them  were  in- 
tended for  the  gratification  of  the  baser  instincts  and  it  is  these,  under  the  en- 
couragement given  by  a  certain  class  belonging  to  our  own  European  civiliza- 
tion, that  are  most  frequently  seen  in  our  own  times. 

The  dancers,  who  were  usually  though  not  always  women,  wore  the  pa'u,  or 
hula  skirt,  about  their  waists,  with  wreaths  of  flowers  about  their  heads  and 
shoulders.  Occasionally  dogs'  teeth  anklets,  Jiogs'  teeth  bracelets  and  Avhales' 
teeth  ornaments  were  worn  by  the  participants.  The  performers  stood  or  sat 
singly,  or  in  companies,  according  to  the  hula  being  given,  usually  staying  in 
one  place  and  moving  their  body  and  limbs  in  perfect  time  and  in  keeping  with 
the  sentiment  of  the  accompanying  chant,  which  was  accentuated  with  the  various 
sounds  produced  by  a  series  of  primitive  musical  instruments.  It  is  a  curious 
fact  that  almost  all  the  Hawaiian  musical  instruments  were  made  use  of  in  the 
performance  of  the  hula.  Naturally  the  most  important  instruments  were  those 
calculated  to  mark  the  crude  intervals  of  time  in  their  chanted  songs.  The 
large  drums,  some  of  them  three  feet  in  height,  with  half  that  diameter,  made 
of  hollow  cocoanut  stems  over  which  shark  skin  heads  were  stretched,  were  played 
l)y  rapping  with  the  finger  tips  and  were  especially  prized.  Other  drum-like 
instruments,  with  astonishing  resonance,  were  made  from  large  bottle  gourds, 
two  of  which  were  joined  ])y  inserting  the  neck  of  one  within  the  other. 

Musical  Instruments. 

To  produce  the  sound  desired,  the  gourd  instrument,  held  in  the  hand  by  a 
loop,  was  dropped  on  the  padded  fioor  of  the  house  and  at  the  same  time  beaten 
with  the  palm  of  the  hand,  thus  varying  the  sound  to  accord  with  the  action 
and  feeling  of  the  accompanying  song.  The  deep  base  of  the  larger  drums  was 
supplemented  by  the  rattle  of  lesser  drums  made  from  cocoanut  shells  with  shark 
skin  heads,  or  by  rattles  of  small  gourds  partly  filled  with  dry  seeds.  Other 
rattle  instruments  were  made  by  splitting  a  long  joint  of  bamboo  for  half  its 
length,  to  form  small  slivers,  so  that  the  free  ends,  in  response  to  the  lively 
motion  from  the  hands  of  the  player,  produced  a  curious  swishing  sound.  A 
still  more  primitive  instrument  was  made  of  two  sticks  of  hard,  resonant  Avood 
which  were  struck  together. 

The  most  ambitious  musical  instrument  of  the  ancient  Hawaiians  and  one 
requiring  unquestioned  skill  in  its  manipulation,  was  the  nose  flute.  To  make 
the  nose  flute,  a  long,  single  joint  of  bamboo  was  used.  One  end  was  left  closed 
by  the  joint   and  three  small   holes  bor(^d   along  the  up]ier  side,   one  near  the 


THE  TTAWAIIAX  PEOPLE.  83 

closed  end,  the  other  two  about  a  third  of  +lie  distance  from  either  end.  In 
playing,  the  instrument  was  held  so  that  the  end  hole  was  squarely  under  the 
right  nostril.  The  sound  produced  was  modified  by  the  finger  holes  to  give  five 
notes,  which  might  be  varied  at  the  pleasure  of  the  performer. 

A  similar  instrument  was  the  love-whistle  or  kiokio,  made  of  very  small 
gourds  in  which  three  holes  were  pierced.  The  method  of  playing  tliis  tiny 
instrument  was  similar  to  that  of  the  nose  flute.  Another  instrument  sometimes 
used  to  accompany  the  mele,  was  based  on  the  principle  of  the  Jew's  harp. 
It  was  made  of  a  short  stick  of  bamboo  slightly  bent  in  sucli  a  manner  as  to 
hold  the  three  strings  of  olona  fiber  taut.  In  use  one  end  of  the  instrument 
was  placed  in  the  open  month  Avhich  served  as  a  resonator  for  the  feeble  tones 
produced  by  striking  the  strings  with  the  fiimers  or  with  a  baiiil)oo  splinter  as  a 
plectrum. 

Boxing  the  National  Game. 

Returning  to  their  festivals  and  games,  for  there  were  many  in  which 
strength,  skill  and  chance  played  an  imj)ortant  part,  we  find  boxing  was,  per- 
haps, the  national  game.  It  was  regulated  b.y  certain  rules,  uiiii)ires  were  ap- 
pointed, the  victor  defended  the  ring  against  all  comers,  the  conqueror  receiving 
the  highest  honors.  A  great  crowd  of  all  classes  usually  attended  their  games 
and  sports,  and  wild  excitement  and  much  hilaritj^  prevailed.  In  many  of  the 
important  contests  between  the  followers  of  various  chiefs,  not  infi-<M|uently 
death  was  the  result  of  blows  received. 

Wrestling  and  foot  racing  were  also  popular  sports.  It  is  recorded  tliat 
the  king's  heralds  were  frequentty  able  to  make  the  circuit  of  Hawaii,  a  distance 
of  three  hundred  miles,  over  exceedingly  rough  trails,  in  eight  or  nine  days. 

A  game  which  must  have  contributed  much  to  their  skill  as  warriors,  in 
their  form  of  Avarfare,  was  one  in  which  spears  were  thrown  a  short  distance 
at  the  body  of  the  contestant — to  be  parried  by  him.  The  more  skillful,  it  is 
said,  were  able  to  ward  off  a  numl)er  of  spears  at  once.  Mock  fights  with  stones, 
spears  and  other  missiles,  were  also  indulged  in. 

The  Primitive  Bowling  Alley. 

A  favorite  amusement  was  one  Avliich  consisted  in  bowling  or  rolling  a 
smooth  disk-like  stone  over  a  track  especially  prepared  for  the  purpose,  with 
sufficient  skill  to  cause  the  stone  to  pass  between  two  sticks  di'iven  a  few  inches 
apart  at  the  opposite  end  of  what  may  be  termed  a  primitive  bowling  alley. 
The  game  had  many  variations,  one  being  to  excel  in  bowling  the  longest  distance. 
Still  another  modification  of  this  game  had  as  its  object  the  breaking  of  the 
opponent's  bowling  stone.  Amusements  of  precision,  like  the  al)(n-e,  hnl  to 
great  care  being  exercised  in  the  selecting  of  the  material  and  the  employment 
of  much  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  their  ulu  or  olohu  stones.  The  best  were 
preferably  perfect  disks  in  shape,  of  hard  lava  stone,  or  coral  rock,  and  were 
three  or  four  inches  in  diameter  by  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  with  an  average 
weight  of  about  one  pound.     They  were  slightly  thicker  in  the  center,  gradually 


<    - 

^     z 


TTTE  HAWATTAX  PEOPLE.  85 

thinning'  sliulitly  toward  the  edge  of  tlie  stono.  While  tliis  was  the  usual  form, 
otlici's  that  were  perfect  spheres  are  in  existence  that  iiicasiifc  over  seven  inches 
in  tUanieter  and  weigh  as  nmcli  as  twenty-two  ])onnds. 

A  sport  which  was  justly  popular  with  all  chisses  was  what  might  tie  called 
"summer  tobogganing."  It  consisted  in  slidiim'  down  hill  over'  carefully  pre- 
pared slides,  a  few  yards  in  width,  on  a  long,  douhle-i-uniier  sled.  There  are  a 
number  of  these  slides  that  are  still  jioiiited  out  as  favorite  coast ini:  places  of 
ancient  times.  Any  smooth  mountain  slope  of  sufficient  steepness  would  serve 
the  purpose.  The  only  complete  sled  in  existence  is  in  the  l>islio])  Museum. 
The  two  runners  of  this  one  are  each  just  over  eleven  feet  in  length  and  are 
three  inches  apart.  They  are  firmly  fastened  to  the  narrow  frame.  The  native 
tobogganer  would  lie  fiat  upon  this  curious  sled,  the  papa  holua,  and  give 
it  a  push  with  his  foot,  to  start  it  off.  During  the  decent  it  would  fi'cMpiently 
gain  an  immense  velocity,  and  the  sport,  wliile  exhilarating,  iiuist  ]\;wo  been 
accompanied  with  great  danger  to  life  and  limh.  Several  of  the  old  slides  are 
more  than  a  half  mile  in  length,  one  on  the  town  side  of  Diamond  Head  ran  far 
out  on  the  plain,  and  another  still  longer  one  is  to  be  seen  from  King  street,  at 
the  opposite  end  of  the  city  of  Honolulu. 

Gambling. 

]\[any  of  their  sports  and  games  were  more  properly  games  of  chance. 
Gambling  in  various  forms  was  indulged  in  by  all  classes  in  the  natural  state 
of  their  civilization.  Seldom  did  they  enter  into  serious  contests  without  an 
accompanying  bet  of  some  sort,  so  that  food,  clothing,  ornaments,  cro])s.  wives. 
their  daughters,  and  even  the  bones  of  their  bodies  after  death,  were  wagered 
on  the  outcome  of  some  simple  contest. 

In  addition  to  those  already  described,  cock  fighting  was  also  nnich  affected 
in  the  ancient  times,  and  was  a  game  of  chance  of  rare  interest.  The\-  also 
played  a  game  resembling  checkers  on  a  flat  lava  stone,  divided  into  numerous 
holes  or  scpiares,  using  black  and  white  stones  for  the  men. 

Surf  Riding. 

A  favorite  -game  in  which  women  engaged  v.ith  much  skill,  consisted  in 
hiding  a  pebble,  the  noa.  which  Avas  held  in  the  hand,  under  one  of  five  piles  of 
tapa.  It  was  for  the  opi)osing  side  to  guess  in  which  pile  the  stone  was  left, 
striking  the  pile  selected  with  a  rod  tipped  with  feathers.  There  were  also  many 
children's  games,  such  as  Hying  kites,  cat's  cradle  and  juni|»inL:  the  I'ojte.  lint 
the  sports  ])ar  excellence  in  which  the  chiefs  and  connnon  pe<i|)le.  both  old  and 
younu'  indulged,  wei-e  those  which   had  to  do  with  the  wondei'Tul  sui'f  i^u'  which 

Description   of   Pl.^te. 

1.  Hawaiian  girls  jtlaitinjj  lauhala  mats.  2.  Spear  jiraetice  (from  an  old  tlrawiug). 
3.  Sheet  of  copper  formerly  affi.xed  to  a  coeoanut  tree  at  Kealakekua  Bay  marking  the  spot 
where  ('a])tain  f'ook  mot  his  death  February  14,  1779.  4.  Captain  Cook's  numiiment  at 
Kealakekua  Bay.  This  monument  was  ereet(>d  by  the  British  Government  about  fifty  years 
after  the  death  of  the  great  explorer  at  a  spot  as  near  as  possilde  to  the  place  where  he  fell 
when  killed  by  the  natives.     5.    Two  old   Hawaiiaiis  at  home. 


86  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

the  islands  are  far-famed.  Being  excellent  swimmers  from  their  youth  the  na- 
tives were  as  a  race  devoid  of  fear.  They  would  leap  from  high  precipices  into 
the  foaming  surf  below,  fifty,  sixty  and  seventy  feet;  and  it  is  still  common  to 
see  the  swimmers  and  divers  in  the  harbor  leap  one  after  another  from  the 
bridge  or  from  the  life  boats  of  the  largest  ocean  steamers.  But  riding  the 
surf  with  the  surfboard  was  and  is  still  the  favorite  amusement,  and  an  art  in 
which  the  Hawaiians  always  exhibited  wonderful  skill  and  dexterity.  For 
this  amusement  a  plank,  preferably  of  koa  wood,  known  as  a  surfboard,  was 
used.  It  was  a  coffin-shaped  plank  averaging  about  ten  feet  in  length  by  a 
foot  and  a  half  in  width,  though  they  were  occasionally  eighteen  feet  or  more 
in  length,  and  from  that  ranged  down  to  very  small  ones  for  children.  Some 
were  made  of  the  very  light  wiliwili  wood.  They  were  always  made  with  great 
care  and  were  kept  smoothly  polished.  The  swimmer,  with  his  board,  would 
gradually  work  his  way  out  through  the  shallow  water,  over  the  fringing  coral 
reef  to  where  the  high  rollers  rise  over  the  outer  reef  and  follow  each  other 
in  rapid  succession  over  the  table-like  reef  toward  the  shore.  The  more  terrific 
the  surf,  the  greater  the  pleasure  to  those  skilled  in  the  sport,  a  form  of  recreation 
that  is  enjoyed  in  these  modern  and  more  strenuous  times  by  natives  and  foreign- 
ers alike. 

Selecting  the  proper  kind  of  wave,  the  surf-rider  would  get  his  board  under 
way  by  paddling  furiously  with  his  hands  and  feet.  At  the  proper  moment,  mount- 
ing a  high  wave  he  throws  himself  on  the  board  just  as  it  is  seized  by  the  force 
of  the  on-rushing  water.  Skillful  manipulation  is  required  to  manage  and  keep 
the  board  just  abreast  of  the  crest  of  the  towering  wave,  which,  if  everything 
goes  as  planned,  carries  the  swimmer  and  his  board,  at  race-horse  speed,  clear 
into  the  shallow  water  at  the  beach. 

In  this  manner  they  disported  themselves  for  hours  at  a  time,  returning 
again  and  again,  often  standing  erect  and  gracefully  poised  on  their  boards  as 
they  were  wafted  in  on  the  bosom  of  the  foam-capped  wave.  Surf-riding  ex- 
tended to  canoe  racing  in  which  the  principle  just  indicated  was  even  more 
elaborately  applied. 

Strong  crews  of  picked  men  would  man  their  best  type  of  racing  canoes 
and  pull  out  to  where  the  surf  began  to  rush  over  the  reef.  There  amid  the  rush 
and  dash  of  the  sea,  each  crew  would  await  the  signal,  when  the  race  would 
begin,  each  man  paddling  furiously,  until  the  canoes  were  caught  by  the  waves, 
and  amid  wild  shouts  of  exhilaration,  scarcely  audible  above  the  ocean's  roar, 
the  successful  crew  would  reach  the  shore,  claiming  the  race,  to  the  unbounded 
joy  of  all. 

Thus  we  have  hastily  passed  in  review,  the  life,  the  customs  and  the  culture 
of  this  splendid,  though  vanishing  race.  We  have  seen  how,  though  isolated 
as  they  were  from  their  own  kind,  they  developed  a  natural  civilization  well 
adapted  to  their  needs  and  their  peculiar  environment.  We  can  now  approach 
the  natural  history  of  the  animals  and  plants,  and  the  land  itself,  with  a  better 


THE  HAAVAIIAN  PEOPLE.  87 

understanding'  of  its  iiicniiiti^^  to  the  natives  and  a  livelier  appreciation  of  other- 
wise unimportant  elements  which  have  long  been  (Iclcrniiiiing  factors  in  the 
lives  of  these  people. 

We  can  now  lietter  understand  the  changes  and  modifications  which  have 
been  wrought  on  the  Avhole  by  the  introduction  of  another  race  that  has  trans- 
planted hither  the  animals,  the  plants,  the  industries  and  the  arts  of  a  more 
aggressive  and  far  different  civilization. 


o 


C3 

< 


-J 

Jo 


< 
< 
< 

c* 
0 

in 
0 
Z 
< 

J. 

3 

0 

-^ 

J 

icr  •? 


-f 


s 


T 


1% 


jAl 


«  »> 


-< 
J 


«i1 
•> 


^ 


X 

q 
z 

'SI 


•VI 


<11 


Natural  History  of  Hawaii. 


SECTION    TWO 

GEOLOGY,  GEOGRAPHY  AM)   TOPOGRAPHY   OF   THE   IIAWAIIAX 

ISLANDS. 

CHAPTER  VTIT. 

COMING  OF  PELE  AND  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  LOW  ISLANDS  OF 

THE  GROUP. 

Pele's  Journey  to  Hawaii. 

There  is  perhaps  no  better  way  to  begin  an  account  of  tlic  natnivil  history 
of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  than  ])y  recounting  an  Hawaiian  legend  that  tells  of 
the  coming  of  Pele,  that  powerful  mytliieal  deity  of  fii'c  and  Hood,  fctircd  aii.l 
respected  by  all  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  grouj)  as  the  source,  as  well  as 
the  end,  of  all  the  wonderful  volcanic  phenomena  with  which  they  were  familiar. 

In  the  beginning,  so  one  version  of  the  legend  runs,  long,  long  ago,  before 
^^hings  were  as  they  now  are,  there  was  born  a  most  wonderful  child  called  Pele. 
Hapakuela  was  the  land  of  her  birth,  a  far  distant  land  out  on  the  edge  of  the 
sky — away,  ever  so  far  away  to  the  southwest.  There  she  lived  with  her  parents 
and  her  brothers  and  .sisters,  as  a  happy  chih!.  until  she  had  gi-owii  to  woman- 
hood, wlien  she  fell  in  love  and  was  married.  But  ere  long  licr  husband  grew 
neglectful  of  her  and  her  charms,  and  at  length  was  (Miticcd  away  from  her 
and  from  their  island  home.  After  a  dreary  ]ieriod  of  louiiini:-  and  waitim:  for 
her  lover,  Pele  determined  to  set  out  on  the  ])(M'ih)Us  and  nncci'tnin  jo\n-iii'y  in 
quest  of  him. 

When  the  time  came  foi-  tlie  journey  lier  ])arents.  who  must  have  been  very 
remarkable  people  indeed,  made  her  a  gift  of  the  sea  to  bear  her  canoes  upon.  We 
are  told  that  among  other  wonderful  gifts  Pele  had  ]iower  to  pour  foiMh  tlie 
sea  from  her  forehead  as  she  went.  So.  when  all  was  in  renditiess.  sh.e  and 
her  ])rothers  set  forth  together,  singing,  making  soniis.  jind  sailing  -on.  (tn,  on 
over  the  new-made  sea — out  over  the  great  unknown  in  the  dii'ectioii  of  what 
we  noAv  know  as  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

P>ut  in  the  time  of  which  the  legend  tells  the  islands  n\'  Hawaii  were  not 
islands  at  all,  hut  were  a  grouj)  of  vast  nnwatered  iiKMintains  standing  on  a 
great  plain  that  has  since  be'onie  the  ocean  ".^  tloor.  Tiiei-e  was  not  even  I'resh 
water  on  these  ni'nintains  until  Pele  bi-oULiht  it.  lint  as  she  journeyed  in 
search  of  her  hushand,  the  waters  of  the  sea  preceded  her.  coNcring  over  the 
bed  of  the  ocean.       It    I'ose  before  her  until   onl\-  tlie  tops  of  the  hiiihesi    inoun- 

7  89 


X 


<     % 

>    S 


ft 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  91 

tains  were  visil)le;  all  else  was  covered  by  the  mitrhty  delnj^e.  As  time  went 
on,  the  water  receded  to  the  present  level,  and  Ihus  it  was  that  the  sea  was 
l)rought  to  Ilawaii-nei.i 

From  her  coming  nnlil  now.  Pele  has  continued  1o  dwell  in  Ihe  ITawaiian 
Islands.  According  to  the  legend,  her  home  was  first  on  Kauai — one  oi 
the  northern  islands  of  the  group.  From  there  she  moved  to  JNlolokai  and  settled 
in  the  crater  Kauhako.  Later  she  removed  to  ^Nlaui  and  established  herself  in 
the  crater  hill  of  Pnulaina,  near  Lahaina.  After  a  time  she  moved  again  to 
Ilaleakala,  where  she  hollowed  out  that  mighty  crater.  Finally,  as  a  last  resort, 
she  settled  in  the  great  crater  of  Kilauea,  on  Hawaii,  where  she  has  even  since 
made  her  abode. 

In  this  way  Pele  came  to  be  the  presiding  goddess  of  Kilauea  and  to  rule 
over  its  fiery  flood,  and  from  those  ancient  days  to  the  present,  she  has  been 
respected  as  the  ranking  goddess  of  all  volcanoes,  with  power  at  her  command 
to  lift  islands  from  the  sea,  to  rend  towering  mountain  peaks,  to  make  the  very 
earth  tremble  at  her  command,  to  obscure  the  sun  with  stifling  smoke,  to  cause 
rivers  of  molten  rock  to  flow  down  the  mountains  like  water,  and  above  all  to 
keep  the  fires  forever  burning  in  her  subterranean  abode. 

This  interesting  legend  should  be  regarded  as  a  sincere  effort  of  the  Ha- 
waiian mind  to  account  for  the  presence  in  the  islands  of  the  primeval  power 
they  saw  in  the  volcano  and  to  explain  certain  fundamental  phenomena  of 
nature  which  surrounded  them  on  every  hand.  Here  were  the  islands,  here 
were  the  burning  mountains,  here  was  the  great  sea,  here  were  the  people,  the 
animals  and  the  plants.      Whence  came  they  all,  and  how  did  the}'  come  to  be? 

Legend  and  Science  Agree. 

With  all  our  boasted  science,  v/e  are  still  groping,  as  were  the  ancient  Tla- 
waiians,  seeking  an  explanation  of  the  beginning  of  the  islands,  and  of  the  iii;ir- 
velous  variety  of  life  which  they  support.  Li  the  search,  science  has  sub- 
.stiiuted  theory  for  legend,  and  observation  for  myth,  but  when  we  compare  the 
legendary  course  of  Pele  as  she  moved  her  home,  from  the  oldest  island,  Kauai, 
to  the  young  island,  Hawaii,  with  the  theory  that  geologists  have  workej  out 
to  account  for  certain  basic  facts  in  the  evolution  of  the  grouj).  w(^  are  sur- 
l)rised  to  find  that  legend  so  closely  accords  with  the  modern  accei)ted  theory 
of  tile  succession  in  time  ot  the  extinction  of  the  volcauie  fires  that  marked 
the  completion  of  one  island  after  anothei-,  until  Hawaii  alone  can  boast  of  the 
possession  of  the  eternal  fires. 


1  All  Hawaii. 


Description  of  Plate. 

1.  ]\li(l\v:iy  Island;  looking  from  sand  islet  towards  groon  islet,  showing  tlie  characteristic 
vegetation.  '2.  Showing  the  cable  station  on  Midway  Island.  Note  the  growth  of  sand  grass 
(Ci/)toJon  (Incti/lon)  in  the  foreground.  ."?.  View  on  Ocean  Island  showing  the  formation  of 
sand  hills  under  the  protection  of  the  low  bushes  (Scwvula  Kocnigii).  4.  Hut  built  on  green 
islet  by  Japanese  bird  poachers.  5.  Midway  Island  home  of  Capt.  Walker  and  family,  who 
were  shipwrecked  on  the  island  in  T^S7  and  spirit  fourteiMi  months  there  before  being  rescued. 
(The  hut  has  since  been  burned). 


~   iJD  » 

X    bX)+^ 

•-  .:;  'tj 

C  —    0 

bJC'  ^ 

cS    c   '^ 

C     -■  T 

S^-5 

~  -t  ^ 

■4-> 

1 —        m 

;;    .  ffl 

SO^   , 

•2  ^ 

^5: 

=  =  t< 

-   ^    0    I 

^   =i   ' 

-i^     ^    S-( 

i 

/=    ;   C8 

.S^-2f 

"^  e  "* 

--  i^  « 

^  t*  ?- 

^-  ^  —* 

"*--*-* 

^ 

=    C    1 

z 

<; 

-^ 

•     .    0)    > 

a: 

^  5?  s 

.-i     p    (D 

z 

X    ^_i  jj 

^~"   Tj   ■*-* 

<i 

•—     K 

a; 

1<c 

l>^ 

^ 

<1 

^    ^  -^ 

1 — ' 

"S  X  =^ 

z 

"J& 

■_ 

O           0 

^   -^                     T- 

X 

-^J       — '        ^ 

> 

1 

>^ 

—                         « 

r^ 

*"      —        t. 

"~" 

-              =         '% 

> 

?! 

^^'^  «0    . 

-^   bJD 

r- 

?  p  c 

-> 

=  '^  ■: 

~ 

~    „   M 

h— 

bx  0  =t; 

^       iH       C 

5  =*H 

"^^1 

U  bX-^ 

.—    '-;. 

^    ^    0 

-*     r-  -P    , 

•W      p—        ^ 

C^           <-- 

!;  K  J* 

■ —     a;  r^ 

o 

?^<; 

K 

^,    .    1 

c  5  *"  • 

5-    O   P 

=          C 

—    0    = 

X   >^ 

5  c; 

^  a 

— ■   SCc 

=  tx 

"K     Ci 


GEOLOGY  AND  T01>()(iTJAIMI Y  ()F  HAWAII.  93 

Geographic  Positiox  of  the  Tsi.axds. 

Considering'  the  Hawaiian  Islands  in  relation  to  each  other  and  to  tiic  rest 
of  the  world,  we  find  this  wonderful  group  of  mid-Pacific  islands  to  he  made  up 
of  twenty-one  islands  and  a  number  of  other  small  islets  that  are  contiguous 
to  the  shores  of  the  larg(n-  ones.  For  the  sake  of  convenience,  the  group,  which 
stretches  for  about  2.000  miles  from  southeast  to  noi-thwcst.  has  been  divided 
into  the  leeward  or  northwest,  and  the  windward  or  inhabited  chain.  In  the 
leeward  islands  are  grouped  eight  low  coral  islands  and  reefs,  and  five  of  the 
lowest  of  the  high  islands.  Beginning  at  the  western  extremity,  the  low  Lironp 
includes  Ocean  Island,  ten  feet  high;  Midway  Island,  fifty-seven  feet  higli; 
Gambler  Shoal,  Pearl  and  Hermes  Reef,  Lisiansky  Island,  fifty  feet  high; 
Laysan  Island,  forty  feet  high,  and  Maro  and  Dowsett  Reefs. 

These  are  probably  the  tops  of  submerged  mountains  that  have  had  tlieir 
summits  brought  up  to  or  above  the  surface  of  tlie  ocean  by  the  combined 
action  of  the  hardy  reef-building  corals,  the  waves,  and  tlie  transporting;  jiower 
of  the  wind.  The  wind  has  had  an  important  ])ai't  in  their  final  form,  since  it 
has  gathered  up  the  dry  saiul  left  above  the  ordinary  action  of  the  wave  and 
piled  it,  as  at  Midway,  in  the  center  of  a  secure  enclosure,  formed  by  an  encircling 
coral  reef,  or  as  at  Laysan.  to  form  a  sand  rim  about  an  (devated  coral  lago;)n. 

Lying  between  the  group  of  low  islands  and  forming  a  coiuiecting  link 
with  the  high  or  inhabited  group,  are  five  islands,  the  lowest  of  the  high  islands. 
They  form  a  transition  group  between  the  coral  and  the  volcanic  islands  and  a 
second  division  of  the  leeward  chain,  and  are  made  up  of  Gardner  Island.  170 
feet  high;  French  Frigates  Shoal,  120  feet  high;  Xecker  Island.  800  feet  high; 
Frost  Shoal,  and  Xihoa  or  Bird  Island,  1)03  feet  high. 

Together  with  the  low  islands,  they  form  the  leeward  chain  of  thirteen 
islets,  reefs  and  shoals  that  have  a  combined  area  of  somethinu  o^•el•  six  sijuare 
miles,  or  about  four  thousand  acres.  With  the  exception  of  .Midway,  which  is 
the  relay  station  for  the  Commercial  Pacific  Cal)le  Company's  wii-e  across  the 
Pacific,  they  are  uninhabited  at  the  present  time.  The  entire  cliain.  with  the 
exception  of  Midway,  has  been  set  aside  by  the  fedei-al  goverinnent  to  form  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  Bird  Reservation,  wliich.  taken  collectively,  foi-nis  tlie  largest 
and  most  populous  bird  colony  in  the  world. 

To  many  these  remote,  shimuK^'ing,  unitdinl)ited  islands  are  de\-oid  of  intei-- 
est ;  to  the  naturalist,  however,  every  si|uai'e  foot  of  ihe  siii-face,  and  all  the 
life  that  iidia])its  them,  has  a.n  interesting  story  to  tell.  'I'he  u-eolo^ist  finds 
in  th(Mn  subjects  of  the  greatest  interest  and  importance.  The  thrilling 
story  of  their  up-buildini:'  through  ceutui'ies  by  tiie  tireless  activity  of  the 
tiny  animal,  the  ct)ral  polyp,  that  by  natui'e  is  endowed  with  the  mxsterions 
l)ower  of  extracting  cei'tain  elements  in  solution  from  the  sea  water  and  lilth* 
by  little  transforming  them  into  a  reef  of  solid  linie-stone  niasoiii-y.  whicli.  in 
time,  becomes  the  foundation  of  inhal)ited  land    is  indeed  most   wonderful. 


94  NATURAT;    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

As  the  formation  and  growth  of  coral  islands  and  reefs  has  been  a  subject 
profound  enough  to  engage  the  attention  of  such  thinkers  as  Darwin,  Agassiz, 
Dana,  Wallace,  and  a  score  of  others,  it  is  small  wonder  that  these  coral  islands, 
which  gem  the  surface  of  our  summer  seas,  are  invested  with  \dtal  interest  for 
those  who  feel  a  scientific  concern  in  them  and  who  are  permitted  to  study  them. 

Ocean  Island. 

The  leeward  chain  furnishes  interesting  examples  of  the  various  tj-pes  of 
coral  islands.  Ocean  Island,  the  extreme  western  end  of  the  Hawaiian  chain, 
lies  in  178°  29'  45"  west  longitude,  and  28°  25'  45'^  north  latitude,  and  is  almost 
at  the  antipodes  from  Greenwich,  and,  as  it  lies  in  the  northern  limit  of  the 
coral  belt,  it  furnishes  an  excellent  example  of  a  circular  barrier  atoll  in  mid- 
oc(?an.  The  coral  rim  surrounds  and  forms  a  barrier  alwut  four  small  sand  islets 
and  is  approximately  sixteen  miles  in  circumference.  The  rim  is  broken  for  a 
mile  or  more  on  the  western  side,  but  the  lagoon  enclosed  is  too  shallow  to 
admit  the  entrance  of  sea-going  ships.  Over  this  low  coral  rim  the  curving  line 
of  white  breakers  beat,  forming  a  snowy  girdle  about  the  low  islets  that  lie  pro- 
tected w^ithin. 

Midway  Island. 

]\lidway  Island  is  fifty-six  miles  to  the  east  of  Ocean  Island,  and,  like  it, 
is  made  up  of  a  low  circular  coral  rim  or  atoll,  six  miles  in  diameter,  averaging 
five  feet  in  height  by  twenty  feet  in  width,  which  is  open  to  the  west.  Like  Ocean, 
it  has  one  fair-sized  sand  islet  and  one  that  is  covered  with  shrubbery.  These 
islets  lie  in  the  southern  part  of  the  circle,  about  a  mile  apart,  and  are  utilized  as 
stations  by  the  cable  company.  The  coral  rim  encloses  an  area  of  about  forty 
square  miles  of  quiet  water  which  attains  a  depth  of  eight  fathoms.  The  island 
was  discovered  in  1859  by  Captain  Brooks,  A\ho  took  possession  of  it  for  the 
United  States.  Attempts  to  utilize  it  as  a  coaling  station  were  abandoned  after 
a  single  trial ;  but  in  1902  it  was  successfully  occupied  by  the  cable  company, 
and  has  since  been  regularly  visited  by  vessels  carrying  provisions  and  supplies. 

Just  prior  to  my  visit  in  19U2,  which  preceded  the  arrival  of  the  cable  by  a 
few  months,  the  island  had  been  visited  and  devastated  by  a  party  of  poachers 
engaged  in  securing  birds'  feathers  for  millinery  purposes.  The  dead  bodies  of 
thousands  of  birds,  ruthlessly  slaughtered  by  them  for  their  wings  and  tails, 
were  thickly  strewn  over  both  islets.  The  reports  made  at  the  time,  by  the 
writer,  to  the  State  Department  and  various  officials  in  AVashington,  was  the 
first  step  in  the  long  campaign  that  finally  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  Bird  Reservation. 

Gambier  Siioal. 

Gambier  Shoal  is  a  circular  atoll  lying  al)Out  half  way  between  Midway  and 
Pearl  and  Hermes  Reef.  The  latter  is  an  irregular  oval  atoll,  about  forty  miles 
in  circumference,  which  encloses  a  dozen  small  islets  of  shifting  sand.      It  was 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOCJ  R  A  PI  I V  OF  1 1 A  \VA  II.  93 

discovered  in  1822  l)y  two  \vlialin<i'  vessels,  Ixdli  of  wliicli  were  wrecked  mi  the 
reef  the  same  niiiht  within  ten  miles  of  eacli  otlier.  thus  giving  the  reef  its 
double  name,  and  establishing  a  record  for  the  locality  tlinl  lias  served  as  a 
danger  warning  to  mariners  even  to  the  present  day. 

Lisiansky,  discovered  in  1805  by  a  Ru.ssian.  for  whom  i1  is  iuiiikmI.  is  a 
small  oval  island  composed  mostly  of  coral  sand.  It  is  alxuit  two  miles  by 
three  miles  in  extent  and  is  surrounded  by  shallow  water,  but  is  w  ithcnit  a  central 
lagoon.  Like  I\Iidway  and  Laysan,  it  has  been  visited  by  hied  poachers  from 
time  to  time.  In  1905  a  party  of  Japanese  were  found  on  the  island  engaged 
in  killing  birds  for  the  millinery  trade.  It  was  estimated  by  the  officers  of  the 
U.  S.  Revenue  Cutter  Thetis,  who  arrested  the  otTenders,  that  they  had  killed  three 
hundred  thousand  birds  during  the  season. 

Laysan. 

Laysan  Island  was  an  American  discovery,  made  in  1828,  and  named  by  the 
captain  for  his  vessel.  It  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Hawaiian  Kingdom 
and  later  proved  to  be  a  rich  guano  island.  For  years  it  was  leased  to  a  firm  in 
Honolulu,  which  removed  thousands  of  tons  of  valuable  fertilizer  from  it. 
Laysan  is  about  two  miles  long  by  a  mile  and  a  half  in  breadth.  The  wi'ilcr 
has  estimated  that  during  the  vear  1902  it  was  inhabited  bv  ten  million  sea  birds 
that  roam  over  the  central  north  Pacific  Ocean.  This  island  differs  from  those 
previously  considered  in  that  it  is  unmistakably  an  elevated  coral  atoll,  since 
it  holds  in  its  center  a  large  briney  lake,  that  has  its  surface  slightly  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  that  surrounds  the  island.  The  evidence  seems  to  indicate 
that  what  was  a  low  atoll  at  some  remote  period,  possibly  during  the  late  Pliocene, 
was  elevated  and  transformed,  so  that  the  atoll  became  a  lake  in  mid-ocean 
surrounded  by  a  ring  of  coral  sand.  The  island  is  in  tui'n  practicallx'  sur- 
rounded by  a  coral  reef  with  here  and  there  an  opening  of  sufficient  size  to 
admit  a  small  row  boat. 

The  harbor  is  on  the  southwest  side  and  aff'ords  a  safe  anehorage  in  the  lee 
of  the  island.  The  island  has  been  more  or  less  continuously  inhahited  foi-  a  num- 
ber of  years,  and  has  been  visited  on  several  occasions  by  natni'alists,  so  that  its 
fauna  and  flora  have  been  more  fully  studied  and  the  island  made  more  widi'ly 
known  than  any  of  the  other  islands  in  the  leeward  chain.  In  anothei-  con- 
nection the  remarkable  bird  po])ulation  for  which  Laysan  is  justly  famous  has 
been  referred  to  at  some  length. 

The  guano  deposits  have  been  very  extensively  w(wkeil  and  ma\-  now  be 
regarded  as  ])ractieally  exhausted.  The  beds  were  located  on  the  inner  slopes 
of  the  sand  rim  of  the  island  at  each  end  of  the  lake  m-  l.mtton.  Oi-i^inally 
they  were  from  a  few  inches  to  two  feet  in  thickness  and  \ai'ied  lii-cally  in  ilie 
percentage  of  phosphate  of  lime — the  valualiic  i)i-oi)ci-ty  Uw  which  they  were 
worked.  The  bones  and  eggs  of  the  birds  whose  excrement,  in  eomhination 
with  the  eoral  sand,  formed  the  rich  calcium  plmsphate  or  guaim  fertilizer,  were 


fl 


—    a! 


o 
> 


^1 


-  c 


:7-! 

"  o 

-  S 

Y, 

s  ^ 

— 

rr     * 

X 

ci'ti 

— 

C 

?: 

'.    '^ 

<; 

^-X. 

r'    c5 

X 

S    O 

— 

5^ 

— ^ 

—       (— ■ 

X. 

£  0 

<- 

— • 

-    cS 

—  o 

X 

*^  m 

I-^ 

■=■   05 

r  -1 

r,-^ 

r  6B 

— 

--iH   _C 

W 

c 

T.S 

^ 

■r  !S 

Ti 

nao 

L-       r  -* 


^  Si 

—  c 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  97 

often  found  in  these  beds  in  a  semi-fossilized  stnte,  pointing-  to  the  wi\y  in  which 
similar  fossils  have  been  embedded  elsewhere  in  nnich  older  deposits. 

The  rate  of  deposition  of  this  valuable  fertilizer  is  necessarily  very  slow  and 
is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  l)ird  ]ioi)nlation.  While  it  continues  to  be  dc- 
])osited,  the  amount  is  small  as  the  colony  has  been  seriously  intcrfciTcd  with 
owing  to  the  slaughter  of  the  greater  number  of  the  large  al])atr()ss,  w  Inch  doubt- 
less have  always  been  the  chief  factors  in  guano  production  in  llicsc  waters. 

^laro  Reef  was  also  the  discovery  of  an  American  whaling  ship  in  ]82().  It 
is  a  rough  quadrangular  wreath  of  white  breakers,  about  tliii'ty-tivc  miles  in 
circumference,  with  no  land  in  sight. 

Dowsett  Reef  is  ])ut  thirteen  miles  south  of  l\Iaro,  and  like  it.  is  evidently 
a  young  reef  as  compared  with  Laysan,  since  only  a  few  rocks  are  awash  here 
and  there  above  the  breakers.  It  was  named  for  Captain  Dowsett  of  the  whal- 
ing brig  "Kamehameha."  whose  vessel  struck  on  the  reef  in  1872. 

Gardner  and  P^'rench  Frigates  Shoal. 

Coming  next  to  the  second  division  of  the  leeward  chain,  we  tlnd.  with  tiie 
possible  exception  of  Frost  Shoal,  which  is  thirteen  miles  southwest  of  Xihoa, 
that  they  are  no  longer  wholly  of  coral  formation.  Gardner,  the  first  of  these 
islands,  is  a  cone-shaped  rock  170  feet  high  by  600  feet  or  more  in  diameter. 
There  is  a  small  island  lying  a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  the  main  roek,  but 
deep  water  comes  up  close  to  the  main  island  on  all  sides,  and  vertical  sea  clitfs, 
sixty  or  seventy  feet  high,  surround  it  on  all  sides.  It  vras  discovered  1)\  an 
American  whaler  in  1820,  l)ut  has  seldom  been  visited  since.  This  is  the  first 
exposed  evidence  of  volcanic  rock  to  be  met  within  the  chain,  and  is  of  special 
interest,  since  it  is  more  than  700  miles  east  and  south  of  Ocean  Island, 
and  is  at  least  600  miles  northwest  of  Honolulu.  Such  facts  give  the  reader 
an  idea  of  the  magnificent  distances  one  encounters  in  traveling  through  the 
length  of  the  Hawaiian  group.  It  also  emphasizes  the  extent  and  magnitude 
of  the  chain  of  volcanic  mountains  submerged  in  the  central  north  Pacific,  of 
which,  according  to  the  legend  of  Pele's  coming.  ])reviously  related,  and  the 
opinion  of  learned  geologists,  only  the  tops  of  the  tallest  peaks  are  expostHl. 

The  Fr(Mich  Frigates  Shoal-  is  about  thirty  s(|uai-e  miles  in  exti'ut  and 
was  discovered  by  the  great  navigator.  La  Perouse.  in  ITSii,  ;ind  by  him  named 
for  the  two  French  frigates  under  his  conunand.  A  striking  \-olcanie  i-ock, 
120  feet  high,  rises  from  the  lagoon,  which  is  filled  with  growing  reefs  and  shift- 
ing sand-])anks.  The  surrounding  reefs  form  a  bai'i'iei-  about  the  voleanii-  imint 
within  and  is  perhai)s  the  b(\st  example  of  this  form  (tf"  i-eef  in  tlie  lirou]). 

Necker  Island. 

Necker  Island  was  discovered  in  17S(i.  duriiiL;  the  snme  expedition  that 
ni;ide  the  French  Frigates  Shoal  first  known  to  the  world.  It  was  named  by 
the  discoverer  for  the  ureat  French  statesman  and   financier  who  convened  the 


-  Not   Frigate   as   usually   written. 


98  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAAVAII. 

French  States-General  in  1781).  The  ishmd,  as  shown  by  the  steep  sea  cliffs, 
is  the  remains  of  a  soil-capped  volcanic  crater,  that  is  about  300  feet  high, 
three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  length,  by  500  feet  in  width,  at  the  widest  part.  It  is 
surrounded  by  shallow  water;  there  being  an  extensive  shoal,  principally  on 
the  south  side. 

This  island  and  near-by  Nihoa,  or  Bird  Island,  are  of  special  interest  as 
they  were  visited  in  ancient  times  hy  hunting  and  fishing  parties  from  Kauai, 
who  made  th?  journey  to  it  in  their  outrigger  canoes.  As  Necker  is  250 
miles  distant  from  the  nearest  inhabited  island,^  the  journey  thither  would 
seem  to  be  one  not  to  be  lightly  undertaken.  But  as  the  island  was  one  of  the 
few  sources  of  supply  of  the  coveted  frigate  and  tropic  bird  feathers  much  used 
in  their  feather  work,  the  journey  seems  to  have  been  made  more  or  less  regu- 
larly. 

The  level  portion  on  top  of  the  island  of  Necker  is  more  or  less  covered 
with  a  number  of  curiously  formed  stone  enclosures,  which  may  have  been 
temples,^  in  Avhieh  have  been  found  several  remarkable  stone  images,  fifteen 
inches  or  more  in  height.  These,  together  with  a  number  of  curiously  formed 
stone  dishes  with  which  they  were  associated,  are  now  in  the  Bishop  ^Museum. 
They  are  of  such  unusual  design  and  workmanship  as  to  make  them  appear 
relics  of  some  race  other  than  the  Hawaiian.  However,  as  the  Hawaiian  is  the 
only  race  known  to  have  visited  these  remote  islands  at  so  early  a  period,  and 
as  they  were  by  nature  a  very  religious  people,  there  still  remains  the  possi- 
bility that  the  relics,  including  the  stone  enclosures,  if  not  of  their  making, 
were  at  least  known  to  and  probably  made  use  of  by  them. 

Nihoa. 

Nihoa  completes  the  list  of  the  leeward  uninhabited  islands  of  the  Ha- 
waiian group.  It  is  150  miles  east  of  Necker  and  120  miles  northwest  from 
Niihau,  the  nearest  inhabited  island.  It  is  the  highest  island  in  the  leeward 
chain,  its  summit  being  a  pinnacle  at  the  northwest  end  which  rises  900  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  island  is  about  a  mile  in  length  by  2000  feet  in  breadth, 
which  gives  it  an  area  of  250  acres.  It  is  unmistakably  the  eroded  remains  of 
a  very  ancient  and  deeply  submerged  crater,  the  outer  slopes  of  which  have  been 
worn  away,  leaving  only  a  portion  of  the  familiar,  hollowed,  volcanic  bowl. 
The  materials  of  which  it  is  composed  are  similar  to  those  of  the  high  islands, 
and  there  is  every  evidence  that  it  is  even  more  ancient  than  Kauai. 

Dr.  Sereno  Bishop,  who  visited  it  in  1885  as  the  geologist  of  a  party,  headed 
by  the  then  Prnicess  Liliuokalani,  declared  the  island  to  be  a  pair  of  clinker 
pinnacles  out  of  the  inner  cone  of  a  once  mighty  volcanic  dome,  which  has  been 
eaten  down  l)y  wind  and  rain  for  thousands  of  feet  during  unreckoned  ages. 
From  the  large  number  of  basaltic  dikes  which  cut  the  island  from  end  to  end. 
he  was  led  to  infer  that  Nihoa  is  the  result  of  an  extremely  protracted  period 
of  igneous  activity.      Perhaps  this  hoarj^  remnant  of  the  past  may  at  one  time 

•■'  Xiihau.         *  Heiaus. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  HAWAII.  99 

have  been  a  stately  island,  like  tliose  of  Uic  inhabited  fii'diip  with  wliidi  we  ;ire 
familiar,  tliiit  throngh  snl)mergence  and  erosion.  li;is  been  reduced  jilmost  to  sea- 
level. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  INHABITED  ISLANDS :  A  DESCRIPTION  OF  KALAi  AND  NlillAL^ 

Hawaii-nei:   Position  of  the  Inhabited  Islands. 

The  wonderful  group  of  high,  inhabited,  volcanic  islands  over  the  forma- 
tion, or  at  least  the  completion,  of  which  the  Hawaiians  believed  Pele  presided, 
consists  of  the  islands  of  Hawaii,  Kahoolawe,  ]\Iani,  Lanai,  ]\[olokai,  Oahn,  Kauai 
and  Niihau,  together  with  several  smaller  islands  scattered  about  them.  Taken 
collectively  they  form  the  Hawaiian  group  as  it  is  generally  understood,  or  as 
the  natives  expressed  it,  "Hawaii-nei,"  meaning  all  Hawaii.  They  are  an- 
chored far  out  in  the  middle  of  the  north  Pacific,  under  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and 
extend  in  a  northwesterly  direction  from  Hawaii,  the  southern  most,  to  Niihau, 
a  distance  of  about  400  miles.  Honolulu,  the  capital  and  principal  port  of 
the  Territory  of  Hawaii,  is  located  on  Oahu.  The  position  of  the  Territorial 
observatory  in  the  capitol  grounds  in  Honolulu  is  in  W.  long.  157°  18'  0" 
and  N.  lat.  21°  18'  02",  and  is  at  a  point  about  fifty  miles  north  and  west  of  the 
geographical  center  of  the  inhabited  group. 

Like  most  volcanic  islands,  the  Hawaiian  Islands  lie  in  a  nion>  or  less 
straight  line;  or  to  be  more  exact,  in  two  nearly  parallel  lines,  and  ;ire  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  superimposed  over  a  great  crack  in  the  t)cean's  floor,  and 
b}'  others  to  rise  from  a  submerged  plateau. 

Looking  more  broadly  at  the  gronp  in  its  relation  to  \\w  rest  of  the  worhl. 
we  find  the  islands  situated  at  the  cross-roads  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  21(»(i  niih's 
southwest  from  San  Francisco  and  eleven  days'  journey  by  tlie  fastest  train  and 
ship,  from  New  York.  They  are  planted  far  out  in  the  deep  bine  watei's  of  the 
Pacific  and  are  the  most  isolated  islands  in  the  world.  It  is  twelve  to  eighteen 
thousand  feet  down  to  the  ocean's  floor  on  all  sides  of  the  group,  and,  as  h;is 
already  been  said,  it  is  believed  that  all  of  the  islands  are  the  exposed  sum- 
mits of  gigantic  mountains  that  rise  more  or  less  abruptly  from  the  very  bed 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

This  chain  of  fantastically  sculptured  Aolennie  monnlain  peaks,  is  inn(h'  np 
of  fifteen  great  craters,  of  the  first  magnitude,  all  of  wliieli  ;it  one  time  or  another 
have  been  active.  All  but  three  of  them.  howe\-ei'.  have  been  dead  and  extinct 
for  centuries,  perhaps  thousands  of  centuries.  Fortunately  all  thi-et'  of  the 
active  volcanoes  are  located  on  Hawaii,  the  southei-ninost.  and  undoiilitedly  the 
youngest  island  of  the  group. 

Since  Honolulu  is  oi'dinai'ily  the  point  of  ai'i'ival  and  depai'ini'e  foi'  ti'ans- 
Pacific  steamers,  as  well   as  inter-island   boats,   it    is  well   to  make   it    the  center 


I 


\ 
*>    \ 


^cv^/ 


,-1" 


\ 

/ 

UJ- 

1 

«f 

/ 
/ 

.si* 

€0 

-  "  . 

!              / 

-  ■.    — i 1 — 

ui 

'.•-& 


Ci-  - 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  1 1. \  WAIT.  101 

from   which   to   study,   in   some   ddnil.    Ilic    iiuiiu    Licoornpliic.   topographic   and 
geologic  features  of  the  group. 

NlIHAU. 

To  the  udi'tliwest  of  Honolulu  lie  the  islands  of  Niiluiu  and  Kniiai.  Th-' 
former,  the  farther  removed  of  the  two,  is  in  a  iioii li\vcs1ci-ly  dii-cclion 
from  Honolulu  and  is  in  line  with  the  islaiuls  niciitioncd  in  atiolhcr  cha])ter  as 
forming  the  leeward  chain.  It  is  seventeen  miles  west  of  Kauai  from  w  hidi  it  is 
separated  by  a  very  deep  ocean  channel.  It  is  about  eighteen  iiiih-s  loni;  by 
eight  miles  in  width,  at  the  widest  part,  and  has  an  area  of  ninety-seven  square 
miles.  The  highest  portion  attains  an  elevation  of  about  l'-U)()  feet  above  sea 
level. 

The  island  consists  of  a  high  central  section  called  Kaeo,  surrt)unded  by  a 
plain  on  three  sides.  On  the  north  and  west  sides  it  is  the  highest  and  it  is  here 
that  steep  cliffs  occur  where  the  high  land  joins  the  summit  flat.  The  higher 
part  is  irregular  and  of  a  basaltic  origin,  but  is  without  the  sharp  peaks  that 
characterize  some  of  the  larger  islands.  A  large,  natural  i)()iid  near  the  center 
of  the  island  and  several  smaller  ponds  and  artificial  reservoirs  are  found  in 
various  sections. 

While  Niihau  shows  evidence  of  great  erosion  it  is  evident  that  its  niodei-ate 
height  and  small  size  has  prevented  it  receiving  the  abundant  rainfall  which 
has  been  an  important  factor  in  aging  its  larger  companions. 

A  large  part  of  the  island  is  low,  apparenth^  of  coral  or  leolian  origin, 
and  is  the  inhabited  section.  The  island  is  noAV  utilized  as  a  great  sheep  ranch, 
there  being  extensive  areas  of  grass  land,  especially  suited  to  grazinii.  Per- 
haps 150  natives,  mostly  comparatively  new  arrivals,  now  iidialtit  the  ishind, 
and  together  with  the  old  inhabitants,  all  told,  are  but  a  renuiant  of  the 
thousand  sturdy  Hawaiians  who  made  it  their  home  less  than  seventy  years 
ago.  The  island  is  noted  in  the  gi'oup  as  the  one  on  which  is  found  the  famous 
sedge  from  which  the  natives  vreave  their  serviceable  soft  grass  mats,  althouizh 
the  same  plant  occurs  in  suitable  localities  on  all  of  the  islands.  The  beaches 
are  strewn  with  beautiful,  though  small,  sea  shells,  known  as  Xiihau  shells. i 
which  are  strung  into  long  necklaces  called  Niihau  leis. 

Near  Niihau  are  two  cinder  cones,  Kaula  on  llie  west  and  Lchua  on  tli  ' 
northeast,  which  form  small  detached  islands.  Prof.  llitchcocU  says,  '"The  hrst 
is  about  the  size  and  shape  of  Punchbowl,  cul  in  two  and  the  lower  half  destroyeil 
by  the  waves.  The  concentric  structure  of  Ihe  yellow  cinders,  nnich  lik'e  the 
lower  surface  of  Koko  Head,  is  wvy  ob\ioiis  Lehiia  a|i|)eai's  lo  he  a  similar 
renuiant,  less  eroded,  as  it  has  maintained  aliont  20(1  di'grees  of  its  cir- 
cumference instead  of  the  14(1  (lei:i-ees  of  Kan.la.  Both  these  crater  cones  have 
the  western  or  leeward  side  the  hiuhest.  l)ecause  the  ti'ade  winds  drive  the 
falling  rain  of  ashes  and  lapilli  in  the  direction  of  the  aii-  movement,  building 
up   a  compact   lamiujded    i)ile  of   material    to   leewai-d.       The  subseipient    ei-osion 


^  Coluiiihi-Un   rririiiiin. 


&c 


O     £ 

> 


M        S 


c 


3:  > 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  TTAAVATT.  103 

by  the  waves  fashion  a  ereseent-shnpcd  island  oponino-  to  tlio  winds  and  surges 
upon  the  northeast  side." 

Kauai — The  Garden  Island. 

Kauai,  next  to  the  smallest  of  the  five  large  islands,  seems  to  agree  with  Niihau 
in  age  of  formation.  In  fact,  it  is  suggested  tliat  some  great  force  has  lorn  the 
smaller  island  away  from  the  larger  one  without  disturbing  the  strata  of  either. 
It  is  nearly  circular  and  at  the  same  time  roughly  quadrangular  in  form. 
Excepting  the  ]Mana  tiats,  whicli  seem  to  be  uplifted  coral  reefs,  the  island 
could  all  be  included  within  a  circle,  with  a  radius  of  fifteen  miles,  using 
Waialeale,  the  highest  point,  as  the  pivot.  It  is  a  beautiful,  rich,  well-watered 
island  clothed  with  varied  and  luxuriant  verdure  and  as  such  is  often  spoken 
of  as  the  "Garden  Island"  of  the  group.  Disintegration  of  the  lava  has  pro- 
ceeded farther  here  than  on  the  other  islands,  a  fact,  taken  in  connection  with 
other  data,  as  indicating  that  the  volcanic  fires  died  out  first  at  this  end  of  the 
chain. 

The  coast  is  singularly  regular  in  outline,  there  being  no  extensive  ba\s  or 
pronounced  points  or  headlands.  Except  along  the  northwest  side  of  the  island, 
at  Napali,  where  there  are  fifteen  miles  or  more  of  picturesque  sea  cliffs,  the 
coast  lands  are  comparatively  low  and  flat.  The  shore-line  is  free  from  coral 
reefs,  presumably  owing  to  the  depth  of  water  near  the  shore.  In  general  the 
main  contour  of  the  island  slopes  rather  gradually  from  Ihc  summit  of  Wai- 
aleale, at  an  elevation  of  5250  feet,  down  to  the  sea,  though  ridges  and  correspond- 
ing vallej^s  radiate  spoke-like  in  all  directions. 

The  eastern  and  northern  side  of  the  island,  as  is  the  case  with  all  the 
islands,  has  been  drenched  by  tropical  rains  for  countless  centuries  with  the 
result  that  erosion  by  wind  and  rain  is  most  marked  on  that  side  of  the  island. 
The  original  slopes  on  the  windward  side  of  Kauai  have  been  almost  entirely 
eroded,  leaving  only  a  few  short  spur-like  ridges.  On  the  opposite  or  leeward 
side;  however,  the  erosion  is  not  so  marked  nor  so  far  advanced,  as  the  deep 
gorges  with  wide  level  spaces  between  them  indicate.  These  gorges  are  deep  and 
canon-like,  inland,  but,  as  they  near  the  sea-coast,  their  sides  become  less 
precipitous  and  finally  loose  their  character  as  the  valley  reaches  the  coastal 
plain. 

Waialeale  Mountain. 

Geologists  agree  that  the  central  dome  of  Waialeale  must  liaNc  Ix'cii  much 
higher  than  now,  and  that  the  disintegrated  lava  has  been  washed  from  its 
summit  to  form  the  rich  soil  that  makes  up  tlie  coastal  plain.  The  effects  of 
erosion  have  been  considered  as  perhaps  the  best  evidence  of  the  age  of  the  Ha- 
waiian mountains,  and  this  great  mountain  worn  to  the  core  with  its  oiic-tiiin' 
lofty  central  crater  eaten  down  to  form  a  slimy  bog  on  its  siuninil.  points  to  the 
great  antiquity  of  the  island  under  consideration.  The  gnawing  action  of  wind 
and  rain  leaves  only  the  more  resistant  ridges,  as  the  old  mountain  is  thus  slowly 


■^-fc:-^ 


< 


01 

<! 

CM 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRA IM  I Y  ( )F  IIA  WA 1 1.  105 

eaten   away.       This   has   progressed   on   Kauai    until   only   the  skilled   geologists 
can,  in  fancy,  reconstruct  its  orio'inal  dome-like  outlines. 

Everywhere  in  the  group,  hut  especially  on  Kauai,  is  found  cxci'llfnt  ex- 
amples of  one-time  solid  rocks  which  are  passing  into  fertile  soil  through  the 
ordinary  agencies  of  disintegration.  In  its  earlier  stages  the  new-formed  soil 
is  open  and  porous  like  a  gravel  bed.  In  this  condition  it  absorbs  large  quanti- 
ties of  moisture  which  rapidly  seep  away  from  the  surface.  The  j)ower  of 
lava  soils  to  retain  moisture  varies  with  th(>  mechanical  state  of  the  soi!  and 
the  amount  of  org-anic  matter  it  contains.  While  the  soil  under  cultivation  on 
Kauai  is  very  fine,  and  for  that  reason  retains  water  reasonably  well,  it  is,  in 
most  cases,  very  red  in  color,  indicating  that  it  has  not  been  discolored  by  the 
impregnation  of  vegetable  acids,  which  in  the  forests  and  beds  of  valleys  is 
very  liable  to  produce  a  characteristic  l)lack  soil. 

Lava  Soil. 

Generally  speaking  the  soil  on  Kauai  is  everywhere  good,  but  is  light  and 
open,  and  requires  much  irrigation  to  make  it  fertile.  The  constant  cultivation 
of  the  land  does  much  to  improve  the  soil,  and  by  the  addition  of  carefully  com- 
pounded fertilizer  and  an  abundant  supply  of  water,  enormous  yields  of  sugar- 
cane are  secured.  The  growth  of  various  crops  atfect  the  soil  ditferently,  as 
they  remove  from  it  varying  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and 
lime,  which  are  the  principal  elements  required  by  plants  as  food.  Careful 
experiments  have  shown  that  the  amount  of  these  elements  removed  varies 
greatly  even  with  the  different  varieties  of  cane  that  are  grown  in  tlie  islands. 
As  a  result,  the  care  and  proper  fertilization  of  tlie  soils  of  the  grouji  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  scientific  study. 

While  the  main  central  dome  on  Kauai  is  the  most  conspicuous  natural  fea- 
ture, there  are  other  important  elevations.  The  Hoary  Head  range,  which 
extends  down  to  the  coast  at  Nawiliwili  Bay,  may  be  considered  as  part  of  the 
backbone  of  the  main  mountains.  The  highest  point  on  this  ridge,  llaupu,  is  2080 
feet ;  but  between  this  point  and  the  central  dome  the  ridge  is  much  lower, 
forming  a  pass  for  the  Government  road  from  Lawai  to  Lihue. 

Secondarv  Volcanic  Cones. 

A  number  of  secondary  volcanic  cones  on  Kauai  are  important  in  the  general 
topography  of  the  island.  The  largest  of  these  is  Kilohana  crater,  wliieli  i-i.ses 
from  the  level  Lihue  plain  to  a  height  of  1100  feet.  The  ejecta  from  this  cone 
has  been  thrown  over  the  country-side  roundabout  within  a  ladius  ol'  jour 
or  five  miles.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Koloa  are  several  small  secondary  vol- 
canic cones  within  the  radius  of  a  finv  miles.  The  lava  emitted  by  them  was 
black  and  of  a  peculiar  ropey  type.  Along  the  sea-sliore  the  sen  watei'  forces 
its  way  under  the  surface  and  is  often  expelled  through  holes  .-iiid  opou- 
ings  in  the  lava  in  this  vicinty.  At  favorable  seasons  the  water  spouts  high  in 
the  air,  forming  great  fountains  tei-med  "sixjutin;,'  horns.'' 


<: 

:; 

•^ 

.i 

>■ 

z: 

^— V 

ro 

^^ 

X 

p^ 

o 

r,"i 

i^U 

h:: 

■« 

'I 

1— 1 

< 

C^ 

> 

z 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  107 

A  great  central  forested  bog,  or  morass,  extends  for  miles  aloip.;'  Ilic  top 
of  the  precipice  M^hich  bounds  the  Wainiha  Valley  on  llic  northeast.  Il  slopes 
gradually  to  the  southwest,  and  provides  the  nalui-al  storage  reservoir  for  tlic 
headwaters  of  the  Waimea,  Makaweli  and  Ilanapepe  rivers.  This  l)og  forms 
one  of  the  least  known,  most  dangerous  and  thoi-onghly  inaccessible  regions  in 
the  entire  Hawaiian  group.  The  writer,  with  an  experienced  native  guide, 
spent  three  weeks  in  the  region  in  the  spring  of  1900.  and  amid  chilling  rains 
and  bewildering  fogs  made  an  expedition  extending  through  I'oui-  (la\s  over 
miles  of  quaking  moss-grown  bog  to  a  point  designated  l)y  the  guide  as  tlic; 
summit  of  Waialeale.  We  were  never  out  of  the  dense  fog  during  the  expedi- 
tion, and  that  v.^e  returned  to  our  camp  and  to  civilization  at  all  has  always 
seemed  little  short  of  the  miraculous. 

In  many  sections  the  thin  turf,  which  covered  the  quagmire  beneath,  wouhl 
tremble  for  yards  in  all  directions  at  every  step,  and  too  often  at  a  fals(^  stei) 
from  the  proper  route,  would  give  way,  plunging  us  hip  deep  in  the  mire.  Our 
chief  concern  was  to  locate  reasonably  solid  ground,  a  necessary  precaution  that 
entailed  many  weary  miles  of  wandering  in  the  weird  moss-grown  wilderness, 
with  attendant  hardships  and  hazardous  experiences  that  are  still  vivid  in  memory. 

Canons  of  Kauai. 

The  numerous  valleys  and  eafions  of  Kauai,  and  their  attendant  streams 
have  justly  been  celebrated  for  their  beauty  and  grandeur.  Waimea  is  one  of 
the  tinest,  since  it  has  cut  its  way  between  perpendicular  walls  which  are  several 
thousand  feet  in  height  at  the  head  of  the  stream.  The  scenery  along  the 
Makaweli  and  Olokele  canons,  tributaries  of  the  Waimea  system,  and  the 
Wainiha  gorge,  is  the  equal  of  the  most  rugged  and  magnificent  mountain 
scenery  anywhere  in  the  world,  and  well  repays  the  traveler  for  the  effort  made 
to  view  it. 

The  great  Hanalei  Valley,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  island,  is  note- 
worthy for  its  scenery,  its  waterfalls  and  its  stream,  which  is  the  lai'gest  rivei-  in 
the  group,  being  navigable  by  small  boats  for  about  three  miles.  Wailua  and 
Hanapepe  are  beautiful  valleys,  made  more  beautiful  by  their  sphMulid  wnter- 
falls.  Several  of  these  streams,  notably  Hanalei,  aiul  the  TTana|)epe  stream 
opposite  it,  give  evidence  of  being  drowned  valleys,  as  in  each  case  a  bro;id  inter- 
vale extends  for  a  considerable  distance  inland. 

The  Napali  Cliffs. 

The  region  of  Napali,  on  the  northwest  side  oi'  tiic  ishuid,  is  difficult  of 
access  and,  unfortunately,  is  seldom  seen  by  the  traveler.  The  section  is  given 
over  l)y  nature  to  a  series  of  short,  deep  amphitheater-shaped  gulches  that  show 
marks  of  profound  erosion,  leavinu-  the  reuion  with  some  of  the  most  ;i\ve- 
inspiring  scenery  on  the  islands.  Returning  from  ;i  cruise  down  the  leewjii'd 
chain,  the  writer  luid  an  opportunity  to  view  the  woiuh'rful  scenerj^  of  Napali 
at  its  best,  from  the  vantage  point  of  the  deck  of  the  vessel,  at  close  range  under 


lOS  NATIKAL    HISTORY    OF   HAWAII. 

th.'  most  I'jivoralili'  cniHlit ions.  The  l;ite  afternoon  sun  was  lighting  the  bold 
headlands  and  tlif  fanlaslic  rjoi-d-lik.-  valleys — in  a  way  to  accentuate  every  detail 
of  tlie  singularly  eliariiiing  and  heautifid  i)anoramic  view.  The  splendor  of 
Kalalau  valley,  the  largest  and  perhaps  the  most  wonderful  of  them  all, — a  val- 
le\  of  i-randtMii",  golden  light,  i)urple  shadows,  and  sunset  rainbows, — was  a 
welcome  change  aftei-  the  dailx  monotony  of  the  open  sea  on  a  long,  lonely, 
though  l!a['i>\   voyage. 

The  Barking  Sands. 

Among  the  iiatui-a!  features  of  Kauai  of  considerable  geologic  interest 
should  he  mentioned  the  l)arking  sands  of  ]\Iana.  Tlioy  consist  of  a  series  of 
wiiul-hlown  sand  hills,  a  half  mile  or  more  in  length,  along  the  shore  at  Nahili. 
The  bank  is  nearly  sixty  feet  high  and  through  the  action  of  the  wind  the 
mound  is  constantly  advancing  on  the  land.  The  front  wall  is  quite  steep. 
The  white  sand,  which  is  composed  of  coral,  shells  and  particles  of  lava,  has 
the  |MM-iiliai'  |ii-o[)ert\,  when  very  dry,  of  emitting  a  sound  when  two  handfuls 
are  clapped  together,  that,  to  the  imaginative  mind,  seems  to  resemble  the 
harking  of  a  dog.  When  a  horse  is  rushed  down  the  steep  incline  of  the 
mound  a  curious  sound  as  of  subterranean  thunder  is  produced.  The  sound 
varies  with  the  dem-ee  of  Jieat,  the  dryness  of  the  sand  and  the  amount  of  friction 
emi)loyed;  so  that  sounds  varying  from  a  faint  rustle  to  a  deep  rumble  may  be 
produced.  Attempts  at  explaining  this  rare  natural  phenomenon  have  left 
nnich  of  the  m_\ster\-  still  unsolved.  However,  the  dry  sand  doubtless  has 
a  resonant  qiudity  that  is  the  basis  of  the  peculiar  manifestation,  which  dis- 
appears when  the  saiul  is  wet.  That  the  barking  sands  are  found  in  only  a 
couple  of  the  driest  localities  in  the  group  is  also  significant.  Much  of  the  shore- 
line of  Kauai,  for  example,  is  lined  with  old  coral  reefs  that  have  partly  dis- 
integrated into  sand  that  forms  the  beaches.  This  sand,  as  a?olian  deposits,  is 
often  carried  inland  for  considerable  distances,  and  though  composed  of  the  same 
material,  it  has  none  of  the  peculiar  (lualities  of  the  sand  at  Mana. 

Spouting  Horn — Caves. 

The  blow  hole,  or  spouting  horn,  is  a  familiar  natural  curiosity  fairly  com- 
mon in  the  islands.  Famous  ones  at  Koloa,  mentioned  above,  have  long  been 
objects  of  interest  to  travelers.  At  half-tide,  particularly  during  a  heavy  sea, 
the  larger  ones  throw  up  foiuitains  from  openings  five  feet  in  diameter,  that 
often  rise  as  a  colunui  of  water  and  spray  fifty  or  sixty  feet  in  height.  The 
sound  of  the  air  as  it  rushes  through  the  small  crevices  is  most  startling  to  the 
spectator,  who  feels  the  rocks  beneath  his  feet  tremble  as  shrill  shrieks  and  various 
uncanny  noises  are  produced  by  the  wild  rush  of  the  water  into  the  cave  below 
hnn.  These  caves  are  usiiall\  bubbles  in  the  lava  stream,  or  sometimes  they 
are  formed  by  the  washing  away  of  the  loose  pieces  of  rock  underlying  the  more 
solid  outer  crust  of  the  old  lava  fiow. 

The  caves  in  the  cliffs  of  Haena  are  among  Kauai's  ntmierous  places  of 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPO(  IK  A  P 1 1 V  OF  1 1 A  \VA  1 1 .  109 

geologic  interest.  Two  of  these  are  at  sea  level  and  are  (illed  willi  walciv 
In  one  the  water  is  fresh,  in  the  other  it  is  salt.  In  many  plaees  the  roof  of  the 
caves  are  encrnsted  with  mineral  deposits,  sometimes  several  inches  in  thick- 
ness. The  lower  eaves  can  only  be  entered  at  certain  tides  and  under  favor- 
able conditions.  However,  they  are  known  to  be  old  biva  conduits  and  evi- 
dently extend  back  into  the  cliff  for  some  distance. 

In  several  places  in  the  yroup,  but  notal)ly  in  llaiuipepe  Valley,  coluimijir 
basalt  occnrs.  These  cnrions  prisms  are  from  ten  to  eighteen  inches  in  dia- 
meter with  sides  from  five  to  seven  feet  in  length.  .  They  are  rude  six-sided 
columns  which  ai)pear  to  be  due  to  the  peculiar  contraction  (tf  tlic  lava,  usually- 
under  pressure,  as  it  cools. 


CHAPTER  X. 

ISLAND  OF  OAIIU. 

For  obvious  reasons  the  formation  of  Oahu,  the  metropolis  of  the  group, 
has  received  much  attention  from  various  observers,  with  the  result  that  its 
topography  and  geology  are  better  known  than  is  the  case  with  any  of  the  other 
islands. 

A  Laboratory  in  Vulcanology. 

Only  a  few  of  the  more  striking  physiographic  features  of  the  island  can  be 
referred  to  here,  but  it  is  a  fact  that  on  Oabn  the  student  of  natural  phenomena 
has  a  veritable  open-air  laboratory  in  vulcanology,  stored  with  splendid  speci- 
mens, showing  practically  every  phase  that  results  from  volcanic  activity  and 
erosion. 

Oahu  is  about  fifty-four  miles  long  by  twenty-three  broad  in  i1s  greatest 
right  angle  dimensions.  It  has  an  area  of  5.985  square  miles,  with  a  coast  line 
of  177  miles,  and  has  its  highest  mountain  peak  4,030  feet  above  the  sea.  In 
outline  it  forms  a  four-sided  kite-shape  figure  in  which  the  foui-  points  miiilil 
be  said  to  correspond,  in  relative  position,  to  the  stars  in  the  Southern  t'ross. 
Kaena,  the  northwest  point  of  the  island,  is  at  the  top  of  the  cross;  Makapuu, 
the  southeast  point,  is  at  the  bottom.  Kahnku  Point,  at  the  northeast,  and 
Barber's  Point,  at  the  southwest,  correspond  with  the  I'ight  and  left  hand  stai-s 
in  the  astral  figure.  The  shore-line  of  the  island  which  connects  these  four  main 
points  is  more  irregular  in  outline  than  that  of  any  othei-  island  in  the  i:r(iui>. 
a  fact  which  has  given  to  Oahu  its  valualile  harboi-  facilities. 

HUXOLL'LU    HaKBOH Ph;AHL    Haki'.ok. 

Beginning  with  Honolulu  Harbor,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Xuuanu 
stream,  and  about  midway  along  the  soutliern  side  of  the  island  bet  ween  .Mal<a- 
puu  and  Barber's  Point,  we  find  the  most  inip(>rtan1  hai-l>oi-  in  the  Lii'nnp.  It  is 
formed  bv  a  sight  indentation  of  the  coast-line  and  is  |)rott'cted  by  a  coral  reef 


o 

"^ 
o 

Q 


hi! 

o 

111 
< 


0^ 


-«JHB*BBE2_ 


GEOLOGY  AXl)  TOl'OGKAPliY  OF  HAWAII.  Ill 

that  extends  across  the  exposed  sea-side.  Tliroii^h  tlie  reef  an  entrance  has 
been  kept  open  bv  the  waters  from  Xunann  and  the  adjoining  stream,  which, 
being  fresh,  prevents  the  growth  of  the  coral.  This  natural  entrance  to  the 
harlior.  which  has  since  been  deepened  and  strengthened,  was  taken  advantage 
of  by  the  natives  and  by  foreign  vessels  that  visited  ihc  islands  until,  in  time, 
the  village  on  the  shore  grew  into  a  prosperous  city.  The  harbor  derived  its 
name  not  from  the  harbor  itself,  but  from  a  small  district  along  the  Xuuatiii 
stream  a  mile  from  the  mouth, — "a  district  of  al)imdant  calm,"  or  "a  pleasant 
slope  of  restful  land,"  that  received  its  name  in  turn  from  a  chief  called 
Honolulu,  whose  name  was  formed  by  a  union  of  two  words,  'bono,'  abund- 
ance, and  'lulu,'  peace  or  calm;  hence  to  speak  of  Honolulu  as  a  haven  of 
abundant  peace  and  calm  is  but  to  transfer  to  the  harbor  a  poetic  descriptive 
name  derived  from  the  adjacent  land. 

Along  the  coast  a  few  miles  to  the  west  is  tlie  entrance  to  Pearl  Har- 
bor, which  is  an  enclosed  body  of  water  made  up  of  two  main  divisions,  known 
respectively  as  East  and  West  Lochs,  the  latter  being  much  the  larger  of  the  two. 
They  combine  to  form  a  channel  which  also  carries  fresh  water  sufficient  to  keep 
open  a  passage,  through  the  protecting  coral  reef,  to  the  sea.  This  great  land- 
locked harbor  is  now  being  developed  by  the  Federal  government,  by  dredging 
and  fortifying  its  channel,  with  a  view  to  making  of  it  a  great  naval  base  for  the 
United  States,  as  Avell  as  the  finest  and  safest  harbor  in  the  Pacific.  On  the 
opposite  or  windward  side  of  the  island  are  located  Kaneohe  Bay  and  Kahana 
Bay,  both  with  extensive  coral  reefs  across  their  mouths.  The  former,  a  large, 
beautiful  sheet  of  water,  is  partially  enclosed  on  one  side  by  ^lokapu  Point,  and 
on  the  other  by  Kualoa  headland,  but  unfortunately  it  is  filled  with  submerged 
coral  islands,  rendering  it  inaccessible  except  to  small  vessels.  Waialua  Bay.  on 
the  northwest  shore,  while  formed  by  a  pronounced  curve  of  the  coast-line,  is 
in  reality  little  more  than  an  open  roadstead  where  small  coasting  vessels  can 
anchor  and  find  shelter  from  the  northeast  trades  that  have  full  sweep  down 
that  coast.  Other  beautiful  bays  of  much  geologic  interest  and  significance 
occur  at  various  points.  Among  them  should  be  mentioned  Waimea,  a  few  miles 
beyond  Waialua,  Laic  and  Kailua  bays  on  the  windward  coast,  and  Hanauma 
and  Waialae  bays  between  Honolulu  and  Makapuu  Point  on  the  south  coast. 

The  Koolau  and  Waianae  Mountains. 

Turning  to  the  land  itself  we  find  the  island  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
nearly  parallel  mountain  chains.  The  Koolau  Range  str(4ches  for  thii-ty-sev(Mi 
miles  along  the  northeast  or  windward  side  of  the  island  and.  extendinu'  fi-oni 
Kahuku  to  ]\rakapuu  points,  forms  the  longest  range  of  mountains  in  the  Ha- 
waiian group.  Along  the  southwest  side  extends  the  AVaianae  Range,  wliich  is 
about  one-half  the  length  of  the  range  along  the  opposite  side  of  the  island. 

Without  doubt,  the  Waianae  Range  is  the  dlder  oi"  the  two.  and  with  Kaaia. 
the  highest  point  on  the  island,  as  its  central  (igure.  the  range  furnishes  topo- 
graphic features  of  prime  importance.      Geologists  believe  this  group  of  moiui- 


D 

z; 


-a1 


<1 

X 

H 

z; 
z; 


GEOLOGY  ANT)  TOIM)GRAPlIY  OF  TIAWATT.  113 

tains  to  correspond  in  age  witii  the  central  dt)nie  of  Kauai  and  that  an  enormous 
amount  of  erosion  has  left  but  the  skeleton  of  a  vast  dome  that  was  much  liigher 
and  more  symmetrical  than  its  tiine-scarred  outline  would  now  suggest. 

It  is  thought  that  it  was  long  after  the  Waianae  Range  ^  was  formed  as  a 
separate  island,  before  the  Koolan  Range.-  ])egan  to  hudd  itself  uj)  aliove  the 
sea  to  form  an  annex,  as  it  were,  to  the  original  island  which  had  Kaala 
as  its  center.  Thus,  according  to  Dana  and  o1her  geologists,  Oahu  was  formed 
as  a  volcanic  doublet — the  work  of  two  volcanoes  whose  adjacent  sides,  by  lava 
tlows  and  by  erosion,  have  been  united  in  the  ])lains  of  Wahiawa,  but  whose 
forms  have  been  so  eroded  that  the  exact  position  and  extent  of  tlicii-  craters 
has  not  been  indicated  with  certainty. 

The  Pali. 

The  magnitude  of  the  second  crater  is  perhaps  best  appreciated  from  the 
historic  landmark  and  pass  through  the  Koolau  Range  known  as  the  Pali,  a  word 
signifying  in  Hawaiian,  a  steep  precipice.  The  Pali  is  approached  from  Hono- 
lulu by  a  road  five  or  six  miles  in  length  that  ^\inds  up  the  floor  of  Nunanu  Val- 
ley until  at  an  elevation  of  1,207  feet,  with  the  peak  of  Lanihuli,^  on  the  left, 
and  Konahuanui."^  the  highest  peak  in  the  Koolau  Range,  on  the  right,  it  sud- 
denly ends  in  a  vertical  drop  of  70(1  feet.  Several  miles  of  almost  vertical 
basaltic  clitfs, — the  eroded  walls  of  this  vast  crater — stretch  away  on  either 
hand.  The  Pali  is  truly  Oahu's  scenic  lion.  It  is  a  na.tural  wonder,  that  as  a 
genuine  surprise  has  nothing  to  equal  it  in  all  the  world.  From  its  sheer  edge, 
the  splendid  panoramic  view  of  the  windward  side  of  the  island  is  spread  out  at 
the  observer's  feet — a  view  of  rugged  mountains,  of  cliffs,  of  country  side,  of 
quiet  bays,  of  coral  strands,  and  of  the  open  sea  that  has  beggared  the  descriptive 
powers  of  the  most  gifted. 

Here  the  observer  comes  to  appreciate  not  only  the  stupendous  constructive 
power  of  nature  that  has  called  the  island  into  being,  but  also  those  destructive 
agencies  Avliich,  through  countless  centuries  have  been  tearing  down  the  solid 
rock,  disintegrating,  transporting  and  distributing  it  according  to  well-established 
natural  laws. 

With  its  long,  vertical  crater  wall  standing  abreast  of  the  noi-theast  trade 
winds,  and  with  the  elevation  and  other  conditions  favorable  to  l)ring  about  an 
abundant  rainfall,  the  Koolau  range,  on  the  leeward  side,  especially,  has  l)een 
furroAved  from  end  to  end  into  a  series  of  deep  lateral  valleys,  separated  from 
each  other  by  nearly  parallel  ridges  that  are  conspicuous  and  significant  fea- 
tures of  the  general  topography  of  the  island.  Tlie  lai'ger  and  more  iiiii>oi-taii1 
of  these  valleys  and  ridges  have  a  genei'al  southwestei-ly  Ireud.  The  si  reams 
which  rise  in  the  section  between  the  Koolau  ami  the  Waianae  chain,  however, 
are  deflected  by  reason  of  thi-  high  plateau  nt  Wahiawa  so  that  pari  of  them 
enter  the  sea   at  Waialua.  while  others  join   in   the   Hwa   disti'ici    of  ttie   island 


'  Fornied   l)y   an   elliptic   crater.       -The   remains   nf   an   eloiiKiited   crater.  ^  2275   feet  -"SIO.}   feet. 


114  XATLKAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

an.l  liiid  tli.-ir  outlet  to  the  oee.-iii  lluoii-h  the  L-reat  Pearl  Lochs  already  men- 
tioned. 

The  windward  side  sliows  plainly  the  full  force  of  drenching  rains -^  and 
the  cutting  winds.  Tor  the  seaward  surfaces  are  everywhere  deeply  eroded  and 
the  disinteural rd  lava  removed,  leaving  a  series  of  amphitheaters,  narrow 
l>i-nninntory-like  outlying  ridges  and  clitt's  that  mark  the  more  resistant  cores  of 

the  solid  rock. 

The  erosion  of  the  Kaala  dome  is  not  so  easily  understood  since  the  greater 
excavations  are  on  the  west  side,  while  the  slopes  which  are  to  windward,  that 
is  towards  the  Koolau  range,  are  more  gradual.  But  as  the  Waianae  Moun- 
tains are  conceded  to  l;e  much  older  than  the  opposite  range  it  is  presumed  that 
the  conditions  wliicii  exist  now  are  much  modified  from  those  that  were  in  effect 
when  the  AVaianae  Range  was  first  eaten  down. 

Smat.lkr  Ijasai.tic  Ckaters  and  Tuff-Cones. 

While  the  main  ranges  already  discussed  are  of  first  importance  in  the 
topograi)hy  of  the  island,  the  later  volcanic  manifestations,  especially  of  the  series 
of  basaltic  craters  and  tuff-cones  that  mark  the  close  of  volcanic  activity  on 
Oahu.  form  striking  objects  in  the  general  contour  of  the  island. 

The  tuft'-eones  are  the  most  numerous  and  conspicuous,  several  being  in  view 
from  llonolidu.  Of  these  Diamond  Head,  or  Leahi,  the  famous  landmark  often 
spoken  of  as  the  sphynx  of  the  Pacific,  is  the  most  noticeable.  As  the  traveler 
approaelies  tile  island  for  the  first  time  Diamond  Head  with  its  imposing,  rugged 
outline  is  sui'e  til  attract  attention;  often,  too,  it  is  the  last  parting  glimpse  oi 
Diamond  Head  from  the  distance,  as  the  voyager  leaves  the  island  behind,  that 
brings  the  full  i-ealization  to  mind  of  all  that  it  typifies  of  the  life  in  a  tropic 
land  that  has  so  fascinated  him  that,  wander  wlun'e  he  will,  Oahu's  shores  seem 
always  to  call  liim  back  again. 

Diamond  Head. 

Diamond  Head  rises  in  bold  relief  from  the  shore-line  beyond  Waikiki,  to 
the  lieiLilit  of  7()1  feet.  While  its  sharp  outline  may  seem  to  suggest  to  some  the 
ajipi-opriate  and  accepted  popular  name  by  which  the  point  is  known  far  and 
wide,  the  name  was,  in  fact,  derived  from  the  excitement  created  through  the 
discovery  by  sailors  at  an  early  day  of  small  calcite  crystals '^  that  they  thought 
to  be  diamonds. 

This  cratei"  mountain  looks  from  the  outside  to  be  solid  rock,  but  in 
reality  it  is  a  great  hollow  oval  tuff-cone,  4,000  by  3,300  feet  in  its  diameters, 
with  its  elongation  in  the  direction  of  the  trade  winds.  Owing  to  the  ejecta 
being  carried  hy  the  prevailing  winds  when  the  crater  was  in  eruption  the 
southwest  side  of  this  and  of  similar  cones  on  the  island  is  considerably  higher 
than  is  the  opposite  side.  Inside  the  crater  the  walls  slope  gently  to  the  center, 
w^here,  near  the  eastern  wall,  during  the  wet  season,  there  is,  or  at  least  there 


■"■  'llip   annual  rainfall    at    the    Pali    usually   exceeds    150    inches.  «  Sfju  f,,   )jp  ],,,(i  ,-,„.  ,1,^  gathering. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAAVAII.  115 

was,  a  small  fresh  water  lake.  200  feet  above  the  sea,  thnt  was  frequented  ])y  wild 
fowl  at  the  proper  season. 

Dr.  Sereno  E.  Bishop  made  Diamond  Head  the  basis  of  a  study  calculated 
to  show  the  brief  time  required  for  the  completion  of  tuff-cones  of  similar  form. 
He  concluded  that  such  a  cone  "could  have  Ixmmi  crcati'd  only  hy  ;m  cxti'cmely 
rapid  projection  aloft  of  its  material,  comi)leted  in  a  few  liours  at  the  most, 
and  ceasing  suddenly  and  finally."  Taking  into  account  the  extreme  regularity 
of  its  rim  and  the  uniform  dip  and  character  of  its  crater  he  i)r()ceeded,  with  a 
mathematical  calculation,  to  estimate  that  the  18,000,000,000  cubic  feet  of  ma- 
terial that  forms  its  mass  could  have  been  raised  to  approximately  12,000  feet, 
and  dropped  into  its  present  position  in  two  liours'  time,  and  he  was  inclined  to 
increase  the  velocity  of  the  ejecta  and  reduce  the  time  to  perhaps  one  hour 
Other  geologists,  however,  are  very  likely  to  question  the  soundness  of  the  con- 
clusions drawn  by  Dr.  Bishop  since  there  is  unmistakable  evidence  that  it  was 
in  eruption  a  number  of  times  with  intervening  periods  of  repose. 

Punchbowl  Hill. 

Punchbowl  Hill,  with  a  form  which  suggests  its  name — lies  just  back  of  the 
city  and  is  498  feet  high.  It  is  similar  to  Diamond  Head  in  form  and  structure 
and  has  in  its  outer  wall  on  the  town  side,  numerous  seams  filled  with  calcite. 
Much  can  be  learned  of  the  geology  of  the  vicinity  by  the  study  of  the  cone 
itself  and  from  the  phenomena  about  it.  Other  tuff-cones  are  Tantalus,  Salt 
Lake,  and  Koko  Head ;  there  are  still  others  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  island  at 
Kaneohe,  as  well  as  at  the  south  end  of  the  Waianae  ]\Iountains  at  Laeloa. 
Some  of  the  cones  in  the  latter  region,  however,  are  small  basaltic  craters,  as 
are  also  the  one  on  Rocky  Hill  in  ]\Ianoa  A^alley,  and  the  two  small  craters, 
IMuumai  and  Kaimuki.  on  the  ridge  l)ack  of  Diamond  Head,  to  the  east  of  Hono- 
lulu. 

Elevated  Goral  Reefs. 

Almost  the  entire  shore-line  of  Oahu  shows  more  or  less  evideiiee  of  elevated 
coral  reefs.  In  the  vicinity  of  Honolulu  these  reefs  form  the  foundation  on 
which  much  of  the  city  it  built.  The  elevated  reefs  are  most  extensive,  how- 
ever, in  the  vicinity  of  Pearl  Lochs,  where  they  are  intinuitely  associated  with 
the  sedimentary  deposits,  volcanic  flows,  decaying  rock  and  volcanic  ash.  It  is 
thought  by  Professor  Hitchcock  and  others  that  this  series  of  deposits  began 
in  the  Pliocene  period  and  that  it  and  the  older  layers  beneath  may  be  a  base  on 
v.hich  the  ejections  that  formed  the  volcanic  island  began  to  accumulate  as 
indicated  on  Plate  75.  The  region  about  Pearl  Harbor  is  one  of  much  geologic 
interest,  but  is  far  too  complicated  in  eharacter  to  l)e  readily  interpreted  by  the 
casual  visitor.  Features  of  general  interest,  however,  are  that  in  many  places 
as  many  as  nine  or  ten  stratified  deposits  may  he  seen  in  a  vertical  cut  of  forty 
or  fifty  feet,  and  that  in  the  region,  beds  from  one  to  tlii-ee  or  four  feel  thick,  of 
large  oyster  shells  (Ostrea  retusa)  are  exposed,  far  inland.  Aeeoi-ding  to  tlie  in- 
vestigations of  Professor  Hitchcock,  "the  Pliocene  area  of  Oahn  eoineides  very 


"  N  ^  "  >,,  03  =0  ^  ;:  .£   P 

a  g  ^  ^.-  ^  22  H  "3  J 

«:   c  ■t:   S-.  C'  ^   a,    2  ^  :^  = 

•5c '-^       ~  eq  -^  .2  c  -S  g  .5 

/—     ^_     ?i_i     r^     -^     J     '-•        ~^     •  i-H     t-             — '        'U 

7'orac:'0;Sajcd-*<i>aJ 

< 

o  —       --is        <K       .^  jo  •-(-) 

t:    r   1;               ^    05    •«  -^  r—  ^ 

o 

.^    — 1  d    -^    a    a>    ^    S  j:^         •'- 
^'   ^  a  --2  ^    .-.  ii    ■»;■   -    "   2 

§ 

a=    «         cS    0=  ^  ..    ?S'  ■*"  '+^    J; 

P 

1 — 1            !»   ^^  JT;     :*     ^     "^     *^     '-< 

a,    p.        CSk*"^; 

M 

•2  ^  ^  2  ^  £  2  ^  s:  1 -S  S 

s 

l-H 

=  ~rt  «.2  ^-?  g  S^  5  ^ 

^ 

^^          otHO/i^oSnS^^o 

p- 

-»^    »2    cc'    Oj    ai    ^    jH  „      «    03    <^ 
•p         ^    t«    C    C    ^  ="  ^-^^          <1^ 
•^   •"   03  -5   cc   •-    g    =J  .2   p     -  o 

=    -    cd  /-^.S    M    £    r    ,^    r    rt    ^ 

CO 

Ch 

-^H  f3  -^  p  s  »    ,  -5  -::  —  -5  i5 
=  ^  ^^  *  i  -2'  g  0  »:  5  s 

=  5  S  5,-^  g^-  oj.;; 

"          cC„         —  coo          (I 

^   2  .2  £-  S  -a   ^"  "^  ce  2  ^   0 

~    C  ^=    »:■    0    »=    2S      ^         S    <=>    S 

'"'  "^    ^         ' — '    '^'Z    '^    •"    —  '~    z,  -H 

i3£5  g^.^  2^  S  p1^ 

fcc  c 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  117 

nearly  with  the  low  land  tract  utilized  for  cane  and  sisal  from  Barber's  Point 
to  Koko  Head;  perhaps  to  the  altitude  of  300  feet  entirely  around  tlie  island." 
Small  patches  of  the  rock  appear  at  AVaianae,  Waialua,  Kahuku  Plantation. 
Laie  and  other  places  on  the  northeast  coast,  the  highest  reef  being'  on  the  soutli- 
west  end  of  IMailiilii  at  120  feet  above  the  sea.  The  rock  is  also  extensively  dis- 
tributed beneath  the  surface,  as  is  developed  in  boring-  artesian  wells. 

Age  of  Oahu. 

Dr.  AV.  11.  Dall,  who  also  studied  the  deposits  in  the  vicinity  of  Pearl 
Harbor  and  Diamond  Head,  found  species  of  sea  shells  '•  seemingly  extinct, 
which  are  referable  to  the  Pliocene.  In  conclusion  he  says,  "that  the  reef  rock 
of  Pearl  Harbor  and  Diamond  Head  limestones,  are  of  the  late  Tertiary  age 
which  may  accord  with  the  Pliocene  of  West  American  shores  or  even  t)e  some- 
what earlier,  and  in  the  region  studied  there  was  no  evidence  of  any  Pleisto- 
cene "^  elevated  reefs  whatsoever.  It  is  probable  that  Oahu  was  land  inhabited 
by  animals  as  early  as  the  Eocene,  "which  period  preceded  the  Miocene,  and 
marked  the  opening  period  of  the  Cenozoic  era,  or  the  era  of  modern  life. 

Black  Volcanic  Sand. 

Over  much  of  the  region  about  Honolulu,  l)ut  especially  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Punchbowl  and  Tantalus  group  of  cones,  are  to  be  found  extensive  deposits  of 
black  ash,  a  volcanic  product  usually  formed  from  basalt  when  erupted  in  associa- 
tion with  much  steam.  The  maximum  thickness  of  the  deposits  is  exposed  at  tlie 
base  of  the  Tantalus  cone,  in  Makiki  Valley,  where  a  bed  twenty-five  feet  thick 
occurs.  This  coarse-grained  sand  has  found  many  uses  in  the  city ;  such  as  in 
making  sidewalks  and  grading  roads,  and  to  some  extent  as  sewers  in  the  early 
days,  while  recently  it  has  been  found  to  be  of  some  value  as  a  fertilizer  owing  to 
the  presence  of  potassium.  The  sources  of  the  deposits  referred  to  seems  to  have 
been  Tantalus  and  Punchbowl ;  but  iiractically  all  of  the  smaller  cones  liave 
given  more  or  less  volcanic  ash,  which  varies  in  fineness  and  color,  as  well  as  in 
amount,  in  each  eruption  and  at  different  times  during  the  same  eruption.  On 
Punchbowl  especially  this  ash  overlays  the  tutf,  and.  owing  to  the  prduounci'il 
weathering  of  the  latter,  it  seems  to  indicate  two  quite  distinct  ])erio(ls  of  activity 
from  the  same  source,  with  a  long  period  of  time  between  them.  Iti  tlic  first 
eruption  the  material  came  up  through  the  sea  as  tlie  diaracter  of  the  tnfV 
deposits  indicate,  while  the  later  eruption  or  eruj^tions,  including  the  ash.  the 
basalt-like  dikes  which  radiate  from  the  rim.  as  well  as  the  ('i!id('i--lik(>  beds  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  rim,  found  its  way  up  a  jiijie  witliin  llic  couf  t'l'niii  a 
deeper  source  of  basalt,  apparently  without  coming  in  contact  with  the  water  of 
the  sea  or  its  limestone  deposits. 

Limestone  is  also  abundant  about  the  crater  at  Diamond  Ih'ail.  at  Knko 
Head,  and  at  the  Salt  Lake  crater,  where  portions  of  the  old  reef  are  said  to  be 
present  on  the  inside  of  the  crater. 


Coriirs.    Ptii-jiiird.    Cliaiini    aud    Ostri'ii  ^  The  moi'i'   I'ccent   KliH'icr   iieriod. 


;< 


C^ 

a 

tf-J 

f<, 

r— 

,„,■ 

U 

*>- 

-^ 

r. 

■■  ■ 

o 

x 

> 

^H 

r  T 

o\ 

^ 

i— J 

■r 

w 

■s. 

X 


tx 


<    SE 


"  a! 
.  o 


0 
£1 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  HAWAII.  119 

A  matter  of  considerable  interest  has  been  brought  to  light  through  the  ex- 
cavations and  road-cuttings  about  the  base  of  Diamond  Head,  and  especially 
at  the  quarries  and  sand  pits  opened  there.  The  material  of  the  lower  slope  is  a 
talus  made  up  of  angular  fragments  from  the  slopes  above,  which  is  cemented 
into  a  brecciated  mass,  showing  clearly  that  none  of  the  angular  i)articles  have 
been  rounded  against  each  other,  or  by  the  action  of  water.  In  this  mass  have 
been  discovered  the  remains  of  land  shells  of  several  probably  extinct  species 
belonging  to  well-known  genera.  Dr.  Hitchcock  concludes  that  the  talus  breccia 
at  Diamond  Head  must  be  much  newer  than  the  date  of  the  eruption  of  the 
tuff,  since  it  is  composed  of  fragments  of  that  material  from  the  older  eruptions 
that  are  cemented  together  in  the  more  recent  talus.  Considerable  time  must 
have  elapsed  between  the  ejection  of  the  older  material  and  the  presence  of  the 
shell-bearing  animals  because  the  rocks  must  have  been  decomposed  sufficiently 
to  admit  the  growth  of  some  vegetation  on  which  the  mollusks  could  live.  From 
observations  made  in  the  same  vicinity,  and  data  gathered  elsewhere  a])()nt  the 
island,  but  principally  from  the  remains  of  the  marine  shells  distributed  inland 
over  its  surface,  the  same  authority  concludes  that  the  whole  of  the  island  of 
Oahu  must  have  been  subsequently  submerged  for  a  brief  period  to  a  depth  of 
two  to  three  hundred  feet,  presumably  during  the  Pliocene  period.  If  so,  it 
is  concluded  that  the  time  of  deposition  of  the  land  shells,  found  at  the  foot 
of  Diamond  Head,  will  be  fixed  at  a  period  sufficiently  remote  to  admit  enough 
time  to  have  elapsed  since  then  to  account  for  the  development  elsewhere  on 
the  island  of  the  related  and  varied  forms  of  land  and  tree  shells^  which, 
as  we  shall  find  in  another  chapter,  have  been  much  studied  by  many  zoologists, 
but  especially  by  the  world-renowned  evolutionist,  Dr.  John  T.  Gulick,  whose 
pioneer  work  in  that  important  field  of  science  has  added  so  much  th;;t  is  funda- 
mental to  our  understanding  of  the  great  laws  of  organic  evolution. 

Geologic  History  of  Oahu. 

In  the  preceding  pages  only  a  meager  outline  of  the  written  evidence  touch- 
ing on  the  more  salient  points  in  the  geologic  history  of  Oahu  has  been  at- 
tempted. Enough  of  the  wonderful  story  has  been  given,  however,  to  malvc  it 
appear  that  the  island  was  not  in  existence  in  its  present  form  at  the  beginning, 
nor  was  it  thrown  up  in  its  present  form  in  a  single  mighty  titanic  convulsion 
of  nature. 

Let  us  review  in  their  apparent  natural  order,  some  of  the  important  chap- 
ters in  nature's  history  of  Oahu,  for  the  facts  which  tell  of  the  hoary  events 
resulting  in  the  formation  of  this  wonderful  island,  with  its  charming  scenery,  are 
all  written  in  stone,  as  it  were,  and  may  be  read  by  those  with  skill  and  patience 
to  decipher. 

In  the  beiziniiing  the  long  Pacific  Ocean  swells  doubtless  rolled  wiUkmiI 
interruption  over  the  place  where  the  island  now  stands.  Just  how  hum'  this 
condition  lasted  we  can  never  know,  but  tlie  evidence  seems  sufficient  to  I'rofessor 


^  AchutineUidm. 


120  XATI'l^VL    HISTORY   OP^    HAWAII. 

lliti-lu-(.ck  and  Mtli.Ts  to  wniraiit  1lic  (-(>iirlusit>ii  that  deposits  of  the  Tertiary, 
IMM-lwips  the  Koceiie  period,  Un-m  the  fouiuhition  on  which  the  volcanic  mass  of 
tlie  nri-iiial  ishind  of  Kaala  was  formed.  These  eruptive  deposits  began  to  be 
laid  down  uudrv  water,  hiil  in  lime  the  cone  of  Kaahi  built  itself  above  the 
ocean  perhaps  three  thonsand  feet  higher  than  the  tallest  peak  of  the  Waianae 
Hanire  as  we  know  it  today.  In  ivality  the  range  is  but  the  remains  of  a  great 
.Ininc.  ni-.iv  or  less  symiiicl  ri.-al.  that  at  first  arose  above  the  waters.  By  the 
«'rosive  acticm  of  copious  i-aiiis  brought  then  as  now  from  over  the  sea,  it  was 
drcplv  eaten  away  on  all  sides  until  its  ancient  form  was  very  nearly  etfaced. 
Duriiii;  this  period  it  slowly  accumulated  a  stock  of  plants  and  animals  from 
other  reirions.  partly  from  othci'  islands  uenv  and  far  and  partly  from  the  distant 
continents  about  tlic  ocean. 

Subsefpiently  the  island  which  may  be  called  Koolau,  only  twenty  miles  to 
the  north,  was  developed  In'  a  succession  of  eruptions,  much  as  Kaala  had  develop- 
ed before  it.  until  its  lavas  and  the  soil  eroded  from  them  banked  up  several  hun- 
dred feel  al)out  the  fo(»1  of  the  older  adjacent  island-mountain,  uniting  the  two 
islands  into  one  and  forniiiig  the  plain  of  Wahiawa.  It  is  asserted  that  Koolau 
extended  fai'ltiei'  uoi'theast  than  at  present  and  that  the  active  center  of  the 
crater  iinist  have  been  beyond  the  foot  of  the  Pali. 

A.s  soon  as  conditions  became  favoi'a])le.  limestone  began  to  form  as  coral 
reefs.  prolialil\-  lii-st  about  the  older  island  and  later  about  them  lioth.  It  has 
continued  to  be  foi-med  to  the  ])resent  day  through  the  various  chemical,  physical 
and  1)io]ogic  agencies.  Artesian  well  borings  i"  and  other  sources  of  in- 
foiiiiation  have  revealed  data  to  prove  that  during  this  immensely  long  period 
the  sui'l'ace  III'  the  island  stood  much  higher  than  at  present. 

The  Pali  ci-ater  and  a  doubtful  crater  near  the  head  of  Xuuauu  Valley 
give  evidence  of  i)eriodic  activity  during  this  time,  such  as  the  eruption  of 
the  cellular  or  viscular  lava,  the  formation  of  olivine  laccoliths,  and  the  intrusion 
of  dikes  of  solid  basalt  that  tilled  in  ti.ssures  in  the  older  mass.  The  last  evidence 
of  activity  at  the  Pali  ai)pears  in  the  form  of  an  eruption  of  ash,  clinkers  and 
lava. 

About  this  time  Kapuai  ami  Makakilo  craters  in  the  Laeloa  region  at  the 
east  end  of  the  Waianae  Range,  and  perhaps  one  or  more  of  the  Tantalus 
craters,  weiv  formed.  Then  came  the  ejection  of  some  of  the  lavas  met  with 
in  the  sinking  of  artesian  wells  and  the  formation  of  certain  of  the  Laeloa 
craters,  also  those  at  Kaimuki,  Mauumai.  and  perhaps  Rocky  Hill,  though  Dr. 
Bishop  places  the  eruption  of  the  solid  basalt  which  completely  blocked  the 
mouth  of  Manoa  Valley  at  a  much  earlier  period ;  but  as  its  lower  end  extends  a 


10  por  example  the  famous  Keologic  land  mark,  the  Campbell  well,  at  the  west  base  of  Diamond 
Head,  after  penctratiiij;  the  surface  gravel  and  beach  sand  for  fiftv  feet  and  tufa,  like  Diamond  Head. 
for  2  70  feet,  entered  a  strata  of  "hard  coral  rock  like  marble"  .505  feet  thick.  Stratas  of  dark  In-own 
clay,  wu.shed  gravel,  and  deep  red  clay  were  below  and  overlaid  soft  white  coral  twenty-eight  feet  thick:  be- 
ginning at  1048  feet  below  the  surface,  stratas  of  stone-like  rock,  brown  clay,  and  broken  coral  were  next 
penetrated,  when  the  drill  entered  the  first  hard  blue  lava  at  a  depth  of  "122.3  feet.  A  thin  strata  of 
black  and  red  cla.v  was  passed  through,  and  the  boring  stopped  at  1500  feet,  after  entering  249  feet  into 
brown  lava.  Xumerous  other  wells  in  different  parts  of  the  island  show  similar,  though  varying,  evidence 
of  deeply  submerged  coral  beds  which,  as  they  form  onlv  at  or  near  the  surface,  bear  mute  testimony 
of  the  periodic  subsidence  of  the  island. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  121 

short  distance  over  the  elevated  reef  at  Moiliili,  Rocky  Hill  must  have  been  in 
eruption  after  the  reef  was  formed. 

Next  came  the  period  of  the  eruption  of  the  tuff  craters :  the  Salt  Lake 
group,  Punchbowl,  Diamond  Head,  Koko  Head,  the  Kaneohe  group  and  other 
smaller  craters  of  similar  character.  During  this  period  the  tuff  eaine  up 
through  coral  reefs,  the  land  as  we  know  it  being  submerged  in  the  region 
of  eruption.  Then  followed  a  long  period  of  decay  and  the  disintegration  of 
the  older  eruptions  and  the  newer  tuff-cones  of  sufficient  duration  to  produce 
soils  from  them.  This  period  culminated  in  the  discharge  of  ashes  from  Tantalus, 
Punchbowl,  Diamond  Head,  Koko  Head  and  other  members  of  this  group  of 
craters,  which  terminated  usually  in  a  more  or  less  extensive  shower  of  vol- 
canic stones.  Dikes  were  then  intruded  into  crevices,  cutting  Punchbowl,  Dia- 
mond Head,  and  the  coral  reefs  at  various  points,  notably  at  Kaena  Point, 
Kupikipikio  and  Koko  Head. 

Time  then  elapsed  for  the  accumulation  of  calcarious  talus  breccia  with 
soil  and  vegetation  on  the  lower  slope  of  Diamond  Head  sufficient  to  support 
several  species  of  land  shells.  Then  apparently  came  the  depression  of  the 
whole  island  during  which  time  the  ocean  encroached  on  the  land  above  its  present 
level,  submerging  the  low  lands  about  the  island.  This  comparatively  brief 
period  left  ocean  deposits  and  slight  wave  markings  about  the  new  shore  line, 
which,  when  the  island  was  again  elevated  to  its  present  level,  was  marked  by 
ocean-flooded  sand  dunes — over  which  more  recent  dunes  have  been  piled  by 
the  action  of  the  wind.  Lastly  comes  the  long  periods  of  disintegration,  the 
formation  of  surface  soil  and  finally  human  culture.  AVhile  geologists  may  dis- 
agree, and  there  is  much  ground  for  disagreement,  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
records  in  minor  matters,  all  are  agreed  in  the  main  points,  and  freely  state 
that  almost  inconceivable  time  has  elapsed  since  the  oldest  part  of  Oahu  first 
emerged  as  a  volcanic  island. 

Theory  of  the  Formation  of  the  Group. 

Among  the  various  theories  that  have  been  advanced  in  attempts  to  recon- 
struct the  past  history  of  the  group,  one  of  great  interest  and  significance  has 
recently  been  brought  forward,  in  a  very  concrete  form,  by  Dr.  Henry  A.  Pilsbry, 
that  has  as  its  basis  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  Hawaiian  land  shells. ^^ 

He  finds  this  interesting  portion  of  the  fauna  belonging  chictl.N'  to  a  l)rancli 
of  a  very  ancient  group  ^-  of  land  moUusks  that  are  distributed  on  various 
islands  of  the  Pacific.  As  there  is  a  marked  absence  of  modern  types  of  land 
mollusks — save  those  that  have  been  introduced  through  commerce — he  feels  that 
the  peculiar  fauna  cannot  be  considered  as  springing  from  accidental  intro- 
duction in  the  group  from  time  to  time  in  the  remote  i)ast.  By  analogy  the 
conclusion  is  arrived  at  that  "the  AvIiafineJlidce  had  already  differentiated  as  a 
family  before  the  beginning  of  the  Tertiary."    But  tlie  close  relationship  of  the 


11  Acfiatinellidoe.  i-  O ft h urethra. 


a 
o 


02 

c3 


a 
a 

•r-H 
rQ 


CO 


O     " 
O     - 


=H 


O 


a 
o 


o 

CO 


o 
a 


J3     O 

5  Ph 


^    ill 


f^ 


__     03] 


o    bill 

-a   a  r 


02 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  123 

genera  of  the  sub-family  Amastriiue  and  the  even  closer  rclatioiislii])  of  tlie 
genera  of  the  related  sub-family  AchatineUimt  "indicate  a  sudden  i-ejuvene.scence 
of  the  old  stock  in  comparatively  modern  ^^  time."  A  study  of  the  species, 
varieties  and  forms  extant  show  that  everywhere  intense  local  differentiation 
is  still  in  progress. 

Dr.  Pilsbry  concludes  that  "the  logical  geographic  l)()uiidaries  of  most  of  the 
species  of  AchaiineUida'  give  excellent  ground  for  the  belief  that  the  ju'eseiit 
distribution  of  all  the  larger  species  has  been  attained  by  their  oavii  means  of 
locomotion  and  that  unusual  or  so-called  accidental  carriage,  as  hy  ])irds,  drift- 
ing trees,  etc.,  has  been  so  rare  as  to  be  negligible.  No  evidence  whatever  of 
such  carriage  is  known  to  me. ' ' 

After  exhausting  the  possibilities  of  accidental  introduction  of  species  frcmi 
island  to  island,  the  conclusion  follows  that  all  of  the  important  islands  must 
have  been,  at  one  time,  connected  by  land,  and  that  distribution  of  the  an- 
cestral forms  of  land  shells  from  Kauai  to  Hawaii  was  effected  at  that  time. 

As  the  Hawaiian  chain,  from  Ocean  and  Midway  Islands  to  Hawaii,  a 
distance  of  1,700  miles,  rests  on  a  submarine  ridge,  the  greatest  depth  between 
the  islands  being  less  than  3,000  fathoms,  the  distribution  and  subsequent  isola- 
tion of  the  forms  on  the  islands  appear  to  be  in  accord  with  the  theory  of  sub- 
sidence of  the  ridge  supporting  the  entire  archipelago  after  wide  distril)ution 
of  the  land  forms  had  taken  place. 

From  the  affinities  and  the  geographic  relations  of  the  several  groups  of  hind 
shells  studied  our  authority  deduces  the  following  sequence  of  events,  the  be- 
ginning of  which  is  placed  probal)ly  in  the  Mesozoic,  possibly  in  Eocene  time. 

I.  "The  Hawaiian  area  from  northern  Hawaii  to  and  probably  far  be.yond 
Kauai  formed  one  large  island  which  was  inhabited  by  the  primitive  Amastriuce. 
This  pan-Hawaiian  land,  whatever  its  structure,  preceded  the  era  of  vul- 
canism  which  gave  their  present  topography  to  the  islands  and  ]>robMl)ly  d;ited 
from  the  Paleozoic."      (Plate  75,  fig.  1.) 

II.  "Volcanic  activity  built  up  the  older  masses,  subsidence  following, 
Kauai  being  the  first  island  dismembered  from  the  pan-llawaiian  area."  (Plate 
75,  fig.  2.) 

III.  "Northern  Hawaii  was  next  isolated  hy  formaticm  of  the  AU'nuihala 
Channel,  leaving  the  large  intermediate  island,  which  included  the  present  islands 
of  Oahu,  Molokai,  Lanai,  and  Maui."      (Plate  75,  fig.  3.) 

lY.  "In  the  eastern  end  of  this  Oahu-^Iaui  island  arose  certain  genera,^* 
while  another  ])eeuliar  genera  ^^  was  evolved  in  tlie  Avest  from  undoubted  nn- 
cesteral  stock. 

Y.  "The  Oahuan  and  the  ^Folokai-Lanai-^lauiau  areas  were  sundered  by 
subsidence  of  tlie  Kaiwi  Channel."  (Plate  75,  fiu.  4.  i  On  Oahu  the  niollusean 
fauna  bears  out  the  generally  accepted  theory  of  two  centers,  probaljly  two 
islands,  the  western  or  Waianae  and  the  eastern  or  Koolau  area.  Tii  each  area 
certain  genera  were  differentiated,  but  latei'.  in  the  later  Pliocene  or  IMeistoeene 


13  Tertiary.  i-*  LamiiicllK.  i»  Pterodiscus. 


124  NATl  HAL    lilSTOKY    OF    HAWAII. 

time  a  f..ivstt-.l  .•..n.KH-tiuii  was  e'stal.lished  l)"lwoen  the  two  Oaluian  centers  of 
evolnti.Mi.  f..n..in-  a  fannal  bridge  ^vhi.-h  mln.itted  of  the  mingling  of  the  two 
ishmd  I'aimas.  WhWr  Hie  hind  connection  endi-ivs  the  forest  has,  in  recent  time, 
become  extin.-l  an.l  tlnis  the  two  centers  are  again  isolated  so  far  as  forest- 
h)\iiii:  snails  are  concerned. 

Tni-ning  to  the  eastern  or  Molokai-Lanai-Mani  region  it  is  Dr.  Pilsbry's 
opini.m  that  the  elose  relali..nshi|.  of  their  fanna  indicate  that  they  formed  a 
sinude  island  up  to  late  I'li.n-ene  or  even  Pleistocene  time.  The  formation  of 
the  ciiannels  between  Molokai,  Lanai  and  !\lani  mnst  be  considered  as  a  very 
recent  event  since  they  stand  on  a  i^latfonn  wilhin  the  100  fathom  line  and  their 
fannas  are  very  closely  related. 

The  investigation  of  the  island  fauna  and  flora  as  conducted  by  various  ob- 
servers has  l)rought  out  facts  of  evolution  that  seem  in  full  accord  with  the  dis- 
niemlierment  of  the  various  islands  as  here  described. 

hi  addition  to  all  else  the  evidence  of  the  wonderfully  dissected  mountains, 
the  dcc|)ly  eroded  valleys,  the  submerged  coral  reefs  all  tend  to  bear  out  the 
l,r..ad  conclusion  that  the  group  has  evolved  by  the  submergence  of  a  single 
island,  and  that  the  isol;;tion  of  the  existing  islands,  with  their  peculiar,  yet  re- 
lated plants  and  animals,  have  been  formed  as  superimposed  volcanic  rem- 
nants on  tl Ider  and  dec|)ly  subsided  larger  bind  area. 

Dr.  Seivno  liishop.  discussing  the  geology  of  Oahu,  tentatively  offered  an 
estimate  of  the  leiii^th  of  time  that  must  have  elapsed  since  the  successive  events 
in  the  geological  history  of  the  island  took  place.  Such  estimates  of  geologic 
time  nnist  of  necessity  be  accepted  only  as  individual  guesses  and  the  personal 
factor  taken  into  acc(»niit.  but  they  have  their  value  for  those  less  skilled,  enabling 
them  to  form  a  rouiili  chronology  that  the  mind  can  in  a  measure  grasp. 

While  scientiiic  guesses  of  this  nature  are  valuable,  they  are  liable  in  each 
instance  to  fall  far  short  of  the  actual  time  involved.  Dr.  Bishop's  table  places 
the  time  of  the  emergence  of  the  AA^aianae  Range  as  a  volcanic  mountain  at 
one  million  years  ago.  The  emergence  of  the  Koolau  Range  is  placed  at 
eight  huiidi'ed  thousand  years  ago,  and  the  extinction  of  the  AVaianae  activity  one 
Inuidred  thousand  years  thereafter,  Avhile  the  extinction  of  the  Koolau  Range  is 
placed  live  hnmlred  thousand  years  back  in  the  past.  The  emergence  of  Laeloa 
craters  and  Rocky  Hill  are  both  placed  at  least  seventy-five  thousand  years  ago. 
Tlie  time  of  the  eruption  of  Punchbowl  is  given  as  forty-five  thousand  years  ago: 
the  small  Xuuanu  craters  twenty  thousand;  Diamond  Head  fifteen  thousand; 
Kainniki  twelve  thousand:  the  Salt  Lake  group  ten  thousand;  Tantalus,  seven  or 
eight  thousand,  while  the  eruption  of  the  Koko  Head  group,  the  last  of  the  im- 
portant tuff-cones  to  be  formed,  is  given  as  occurring  but  a  meager  five  thousand 
years  ago.  The  ant  hoi-,  however,  is  inclined  to  attribute  a  very  much  greater 
age  to  Oahu  than  that  indicated  by  Dr.  Bishop.  TIk^  fouiulation  for  sucli  a  belief 
is  based  largely  on  a  careful  physiographic  study  of  the  Waianae  Mountains.  It 
seems  obvious  that  the  deeply  eroded  valleys  of  the  Waianae  Range  were  practi- 
cally completed   as  they   are   now  before  the   slight    re-elevation   of   the   island 


_££. 


PLATE  31.     NUTANU    PALI. 

1.      Xuuaiiu    Pali    from    the    road    on    tlio    wiinlward    side    lookiiiji'    bai-k    towards    Lamlmli 
peak   (2781  feet);   on  the  left  of  th;i  road  is  Konaluiaimi    (310.")  feet);    the 
is  1214  feet  above  tlie  sea.     The  Pali  is  of  great  geologic,  historic  and  sceiiie  interest. 


road   at    tiie   Pali 


126  XATLKAL    ilLSTOKY    OF    HAWAII. 

bi-oii-lit  the  ancient  reefs  above  tlie  sea.  Tlu'se  ele'vated  reefs  contain  extinct 
fossils,  probably  those  of  Eocene  time.  The  dawn  of  the  Eocene  is  generally 
placed  by  ^aH)logists  at  four  million  years  ago.  How  much  older  then  must  be 
tlir  moimtain  mass  in  which  the  valleys  of  the  AYaianae  region  were  so  deeply 
carved  before  the  reefs  were  laid  down  across  the  emba^-ments  at  the  mouths  of 
their  valley  streams? 

Artesi.vn  Wells. 

Hcfci-ence  has  been  made  above  to  the  artesian  water  supply  of  the  island, 
and  the  important  geologic  facts  that  the  sinking  of  five  hundred  or  more  artesian 
wells  on  Oahu  has  brought  to  light.  The  wealth  of  water,  amounting  to  millions 
of  gallons  per  hour,  now  poui-ed  out  on  what  was  formally  in  many  places  semi- 
arid,  and  tlici-efore.  un|)i'o(hictiv(^  land,  has  been  the  prime  factor  in  the  modern 
development  of  the  agricnltural  resources,  not  only  on  the  island  under  con- 
sideration, bnl  all  the  islands  of  the  grou]),  where  conditions  favorable  to  the 
development  of  artesian  wells  are  found. 

The  erosion  of  the  sloping  volcanic  lava  flows  in  the  mountains  offers  condi- 
tions favoi-a])le  foi-  storing  in  the  ground  much  of  the  excess  of  the  copious 
precipitation  occurring  in  the  higher  altitudes.  As  we  have  seen,  the  strata  of 
igneous  cock  exposed  in  the  mountains  are  often  buried  several  hundred  feet 
beneath  the  surface  when  they  reach  the  costal  plain.  The  Avater  which  enters 
the  exjHjsetl  portion  of  the  more  porous  strata,  especially  when  the  water-bearing 
strata  lie  between  more  impervious  strata,  tends  by  gravity  to  flow  as  under- 
ground M'ater  down  to  the  lower  levels.  Eventually,  this  underground  stream 
descends  to  the  sea,  often  several  miles  distant  from  the  point  in  the  highlands 
where  it   was  taken  into  the  porous  rock  or  soil. 

ir  the  lower  ends  of  the  water-bearing  strata  open  into  the  sea  beneath  its 
surface,  the  fresh  water  gradually  forces  its  way  out  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
natural  conduit,  to  mingle  quietly  with  the  water  of  the  ocean,  or,  as  often  occurs 
about  the  shore  line  of  the  group,  to  l:)u1)ble  to  the  surface  forming  fresh  water 
springs  in  the  ocean. 

Owing  to  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  sea,  the  subterranean  water  moves  out 
nuich  more  slowly  than  the  surface  water  which  rushes  from  the  mountains  to  the 
sea  in  the  forin  of  rivers.  If  the  pressure  of  the  water  in  the  imderground  stream 
is  greater  tlian  tlie  pressure  exerted  by  the  water  of  the  sea,  the  stream  con- 
tinues to  flow  into  the  latter  as  fresh  water.  If  the  pressure  of  the  ocean  exceeds 
that  exerted  by  the  underground  waters,  the  two  waters  commingle,  and  brackish 
water  occui's  in  the  underground  basin.  So  long  as  the  fresh  water  level  in  the 
underground  stream  or  basin  is  maintained  at  a  level  above  sea-level,  the  water 
in  the  undergr-ound  sti-eam  or  l)asin  seems  to  remain  free  from  salt. 

An  appreciation  of  the  geologic  conditions  existing  in  the  strata  of  rock 
underlying  the  island,  and  the  need  of  a  more  abundant  water  supply,  led  to 
the  practical  utilization  of  this  great  natural  resource  through  the  development 
of  artesian  wells.      The  first  well  was  sunk  in   1879  by  James  Campbell  on  an 


GEOLOGY  AM)  T01'( )( i  H  A IM I Y  ( )F  1 1 A  W  A  1 1  127 

island  in  Pearl  Ilarlxu"  and  fi'csh  walt-r  was  secured  at  a  deplli  of  24(1  feet. 
The  uatui'al  principle  involved  in  I  he  fresh  water  S])i'inu'  and  esp(M'i;ill\-  the 
spring  in  the  ocean,  was  tui-ned  to  practical  account.  To  secure  water,  wells 
v/ere  driven  deep  enouuh  into  the  earth  to  puncture  the  iiioi-e  oi'  less  iiii|)er\ious 
strata  overlying  the  water-bearing  strata  beneath,  with  tlie  result  that  owinu-  to 
the  pressure  or  head  on  the  enipounded  water,  it  rose  in  the  well,  and  in  the 
lowei'  zone  about  the  island  often  overflowed  to  form  an  artilicial  spiini;-  or 
flowing  artesian  well.  The  principle  involved  in  wells  which  do  not  ovei'tlow 
is  the  same  as  that  in  those  that  do;  for  which  reason  all  deep  wells  are  now 
called  artesian.  Wells  in  which  the  water  is  raised  to  the  surface  In-  pumps  are 
liable  to  become  brackish,  through  excessive  ])umping,  while  those  which  flow- 
naturally  seldom  show  a  marked  change  in  the  amount  of  salt  carried  in  their 
waters. 

The  waterdiearing  stratuin  on  Oahu  at  the  sea-shore,  is  usually  found  to  be 
between  three  and  four  hundred  feet  below  tide  level,  and  is  usually  a  very 
porous  basalt,  capped  wdth  an  overlaying  impervious  stratum  usually  of  basalt. 
Wells  drilled  in  the  vicinity  of  Honolulu  at  an  elevation  above  forty-two  feet 
above  the  sea  have  to  be  pumped.  The  flowing  wells  are.  as  a  rule,  found  at 
the  lower  levels.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  in  this  connection  that  as  a  rule  the 
shallowest  wells  are  those  bored  about  the  ends  of  radiating  lava  i-idges  and 
that  usually  their  depth  increases  the  nearer  they  are  to  the  sea-coast.  Wells 
drilled  in  the  middle  of  valleys  are  usually  deeper  than  those  at  either  side. 
All  of  these  facts  taken  together  indicate  that  the  island  has  ])een  submei-ged 
to  considerable  depth  before  the  subseciuent  elevation  of  the  raised  coral  reef 
on  the  costal  plain  -AUmt  the  island,  and  that  the  reefs  were  laid  down  in  sub- 
merged valleys  that  wert'  already  dee[)ly  eroded  l)efore  the  reefs  were  formed 
in  them. 

In  several  places,  notably  at  Waianae  and  Oahu  plantations,  as  well  as  else- 
where in  the  group,  underground  streams  have  been  encountered  through  hori- 
zontal tunnels  driven  into  the  mountains,  and  the  underground  v/ater  sui)ply  has 
been  tapped  near  its  head.  The  tuiuiel  is  then  extended  to  the  right  and  left,  form- 
ing a  Y-shaped  drain,  which  brings  the  water  to  the  surface,  far  aboxc  possible 
contamination  with  sea  water.  Such  tuiniels  are  usually  driven  a1  altilude-,  sufli- 
cient  to  admit  of  distributing  the  watei-  by  gravity  ovei-  extensive  fields  well 
upon  the  slopes  of  the  mountain.  On  Maui  a  daily  t1o'.\-  of  six  million  Lialhins 
has  IjCfcU  secured  in  this  wa\-  at  an  elevation  of  2,()0()  feet.  The  woudei-ful  Waia- 
hole  tuiuiel  on  Oahu.  built  on  a  modifiejition  of  this  principle.  deliver~>  lwciit\- 
million  uallous  of  w-ater  each  t wenty-l'oui-  lioui's. 

Economic  PKonrcrs. 

Of  the  economic  products,  clays  are  the  most  important  and  are  found  on 
Oahu,  .Maui  and  Hawaii,  in  many  jtlaces.  in  \aryiiig  amoiuits.  A  number  of 
years  ago  a  brick  kiln  was  oi)ened  in  Nuiianu  X'alley  and  brick  of  fair  (piality 
was  manufactured.      Unfortunately,  the  attempt  was  abandoiietl  in.  a  short  time. 


o 

O 


p 


33 


> 

z; 


7i 

O 


o 

an 
a 

M 
o3 


r3 

a 
rf  SI 


at 

.  ol 

ffltll 


'   01 

Ah 
^1 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOCRAPTTY  OK  1 1. \  WATT.  129 

In  1910  steam  bricks  were  made  at  Moiliili  fr-om  imlviM-izcd  Inva  by  nii  ela])orate 
process,  but,  owinsz'  to  unexpected  chemicil  chaii.m's,  I  lie  l)i'icks  wci'c  found  to 
be  inferior  in  (luality,  and  the  process  and  product  altered  jil'ler  an  expensive 
experiment.  Lime  manufactured  from  coral  rock  bas  loim-  been  a  common 
commodity  in  the  islands,  but  it  has  never  been  considered  (juile  eijnal  1n  lliat 
manufactured  from  limestone  on  the  mainland.  Sandstone  of  a  fail-  (|iiality 
occui's  at  several  points  alxtnt  tbe  island.  St.  Andrew's  Cathedi-ab  in  Ibuiohilu, 
is  made  of  sandstone  imported  from  England  long  before  Hawaii  became  an 
integral  part  of  the  Ignited  States.  "When  a  few  years  ago  it  was  decided  to 
enlarge  the  cathedral,  the  import  duty  made  it  impractical)]e  to  go  to  tbe  same 
source  for  more  stone.  A  large  part  of  tlie  Thiited  States  was  luisnccessfully 
hunted  over  for  a  match  to  the  English  stone.  It  was  finally  found  neai-  P>ar- 
ber's  Point,  about  tv/enty  miles  from  the  cathedral  site.  This  h)cal  stone  is  ph'as- 
ing  in  color  and  durable  in  quality.  The  hard,  compact,  dai'k  l)luis]i-grey  basalt 
is  much  used  in  building  operations  whenever  cut  stone  is  reipiired.  A  lunu- 
ber  of  the  most  substantial  structures  in  the  islands  are  made  entirely  of  cut 
stone  derived  from  ciuarries  usually  opened  in  the  vicinity  of  the  particular 
structure  in  which  the  stone  is  used. 

]\Iuch  of  the  softer  grade  of  basalt  is  used  in  concrete  and  in  road  construc- 
tion. Beach  sand  is  also  used  in  mortar  and  to  some  extent  on  the  roads,  and 
as  road  dressing.  It  is  usually  mixed  with  coral  rock,  the  whole  being  rolled 
together  and  oiled  to  form  a  smooth  surface.  Sand  from  beds  in  the  neighl)or- 
hood  of  the  Waianae  Mountains  is  also  used  extensively  in  building  operations, 
but  being  formed  from  coral  and  shells  it  is  undoubtedly  inferior  in  quality 
when  compared  with  tbe  sharp  sand  brought  from  the  mainland.  Salt  is  still 
manufactured  on  the  island  by  evaporating  the  sea  water  in  shallow  ponds  along 
the  sea  shore,  but  the  main  supply  is  imported.  The  use  of  the  loose  rough  field 
stone  or  "moss  stone"  has  recently  come  much  into  vogue  for  foundation  and 
trim  work  and  has  added  much  to  the  rustic  as  well  as  permanent  appearance 
of  the  bungalow  homes,  in  the  building  of  whicii  it  is  being  exlensively  nse.l. 

This  already  lengthy  chapter  on  the  geology  of  Oalui  wonld  be  inconq)lete 
without  some  brief  reference  to  a  few  of  the  more  interesting,  though  minor, 
natural  features  of  the  island  which  are  obiects  of  interest  to  residents  and 
tourists  alike.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  iiunierous  natural  caves 
formed  in  the  volcanic  rock.  One  at  the  west  end  of  .Judd  street,  a  portion  of 
which  was  once  used  as  a  burial  cave,  extends  back  for  several  Innulred  feet  by 
a  winding,  narrow  passage.  Other  l)urial  caves  are  found  above  the  roail  at 
AVailupe  Valley,  and  beyond,  while  along  the  sea  coast,  beyond  !\oko  lleiid,  are 
caves  in  which  several  interesting  stone  carvings  iiave  been  found. 

Points  of  Geologic  Interest  About  Oaiiit. 

The  coast-line  from  Koko  Head  to  Makapnu  Point  is  a  I'eiion  of  iinich 
gee>logic  interest,  with  spouting  horns,  olivine  crystal  beaches,  and  much  coast 
scenery.      The  dash  of  waves  against  the  exi)ose<,l  lieadlands  at   Koko  ITead  and 


oil 


—  S  iJD 


o    K    c3 
■-*-  —   o 


z    ?^  = 


Eh      .     o  . 


(S     Z  -^   &jD 
r-     "m'   5   '" 

z      _: 

f^      J  t  o 

~  ■^^    bo 

—      :;  C  O 


o 

X 

3 

^ 

3 

1—1 

-^ 

z 

s 

-- 

— 

~ 

■* 

a 

-< 

^ 

z 

a 

r< 

-*- 

"[^ 

"~" 

~ 

^ 

0 

''- 

— 

m 

./■    X   c3 
—  "^  ^ 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  131 

]\Iakapuu  Points,  are  features  of  an  excursion  thither  that  arc  always  much  en- 
joyed, while  the  picturesque  coral  bay  at  Ilaiiauiua,  and  the  unmistakable  evi- 
dence of  the  nature  of  the  formation  of  the  bay,  presents  a  variety  of  objects  well 
worthy  of  a  visit. 

Along-  the  coast,  beyond  Diamond  Head,  at  Waialae  Bay,  are  a  number  of 
fresh  water  springs  on  the  edge  of  the  ocean,  and  at  the  end  of  Black  Point 
is  a  sea  cave  with  a  large  hole  through  the  roof,  from  which  water  and  spray 
s])urt  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  the  air  during  rough  v/eather.  As  has  been 
intimated,  the  sea  slope  of  Diamond  Head  is  full  of  geologic  interest.  Along 
the  beach  line  sand  concretions,  caused  by  organic  acids,  may  be  seen  in  the 
process  of  forming  about  the  roots  of  plants  and  trees  which  penetrate  the  ex- 
posed beds.  Higher  up,  in  excavations  along  the  line  of  the  road,  similar  con- 
cretions may  be  found,  thousands  of  years  old,  in  wdiich  the  roots  that  formed 
the  center  have  been  completely  fossilized. 

Pot-holes  in  the  rock  along  tlie  reef  are  especially  numerous  on  the 
shore  at  this  point.  Many  of  them  are  three  feet  or  more  across,  and  well 
illustrate  this  peculiar,  rather  than  important,  feature  of  erosion.  The  scouring 
work  is  accomplished  1)\-  the  grinding  action  of  the  sand  rock  fragments  as  tools 
in  the  hands  of  the  waves.  The  coral  reef  between  Waikiki  and  the  mouth  of 
Honolulu  Harbor  is  a  complete  laboratory  in  reef  formation.  Seen  through 
a  watergiass  or  a  glass  bottom  boat,  the  growdng,  living  reef,  in  connection  with 
the  elevated  reef  farther  inland,  exhibits  the  present  side  by  side  with  the  dim 
past,  and  shows  every  phase  of  this  living  agent  that  has  i)layed  so  important 
a  part  in  the  geologic  history  of  the  group. 

A  half  day's  ramble  over  the  slopes  of  Punchbowl  and  down  along  the 
nearby  Nuuanu  Stream  will  reveal  excellent  examples  to  illustrate  a  hundred 
points  in  structural  and  dynamic  geology.  The  road  ui)  Xuuanu  Valley,  the 
Pali,  and  the  descent  over  the  floor  of  the  old  Pali  crater  to  the  sea-shore  on 
the  windward  side  of  the  island  exhibit  scores  of  points  of  interest  to  one  who 
cares  for  geology.  The  latteral  valleys  with  their  gauze-like  w'aterfalls;  ex- 
amples of  sub-aerial  erosion  at  the  Pali ;  the  splendid  dikes  displayed  in  the 
solid  rock  by  the  roadside;  the  vertical  walls  of  the  mighty  pit  itself;  the  living 
reef  at  Kaneohe;  these  and  a  thousand  features  like  them,  fill  the  mind  with  awe 
and  wonder,  and  the  careful  observer  is  surprised  that  so  much  can  lie  crowded 
into  a  cross-country  ride. 

The  windward  shore  of  the  island  at  Laie  exhibits  the  ccmibined  action  of 
the  sea  and  the  wind  in  ]uling  up  dry  sand  inland  into  mounds  thirty  or  forty 
feet  in  height,  and  of  the  effect  of  the  submergence  again  of  such  dunes  under 
the  sea  from  whence  they  originally  came  and  from  Avhich  they  have  again 
been  lifted  up.  At  Kahana  we  have  an  excellent  example  of  a  drowneil  valley. 
At  Kaliuwaa  is  a  valley  of  awe-inspiring  grandeur;  so  nari'ow  and  deep  is  it 
that  it  forms  a  dark,  narrow  passage-way  cut  into  the  solid  mountain  that  is 
shut  in  with  inaccessible  vertical  w^alls,  nearly  a  thousand  feet  in  height.  Down 
these  basalt  walls  clear,  cold  mountain  Avater  has  cut  out  siiiooDi  cliannels  so  re- 


132  XATLKAJ.   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

iiiarkaltlf,  in  I'act  that  they  seem  to  liave  been  the  handiwork  of  the  gods, — and 
indeed,  tliey  were  regarded  and  worshipped  as  such  hy  the  ancient  inhabitants. 

At  Kahukn  the  elevated  coral  reef,  filled  with  eaves,  and  th(^  interesting  fea- 
tures associated  with  thcni.  fnrnisli  an  object  entirely  woi'thy  of  a  separate 
expedition. 

The  estuaries  of  tlic  "Waiuiea  and  the  AVaialua  streams  are  the  main  points 
of  interest  along  the  nortlr.vest  end  of  the  island.  Returning  to  the  city  by 
way  of  AVahiawa,  the  v,-iiulward  side  of  Waianae  and  the  long  parallel  valleys 
t»f  tile  lee  side  of  the  Koolau  Range  may  ];e  studied  to  advantage,  and  the  relative 
age  of  the  two  chains  observed. 

The  Salt  Lake  crater  is  a  feature  of  much  interest  since  here  is  formed  a 
lake  three-quartei's  of  a  mile  from  the  sea,  enclosed  within  a  high  tuft'  rim  and 
entirely  cut  ot'i'  from  tlu^  sen.  which  is  more  salt  than  the  sea  itself.  To  the 
student  of  natnr.il  history  Salt  Lake,  with  its  uplifted  and  shattered  coral  reefs, 
salt-impregnated  walls,  and  other  unusual  features,  is  a  point  of  more  than 
ordinaiw  interest.  Along  the  line  of  the  Oahu  railway  numerous  cuts  expose 
till'  strata  of  the  complex  section  about  the  Pearl  Lochs  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Laeloa  craters.  Farther  on,  the  lowering  walls  of  Kaala,  with  its 
abrui)t  precipices  and  narrow  buttresses,  may  be  observed  from  the  train  as  it 
winds  along  tlie  coast  line.  Objects  of  special  interest  ar*^  the  n;itural  bridge 
and  the  giant  basalt  boulders  along  the  coast,  and  the  'high  reef  in  the  neigh- 
liorhood  of  Waianae. 


CHAPTER  XL 

ISLANDS  OF  .MOLOKAI,  LAXAI.  .MAUI  AND  KAIIOOLAWE. 

The  five  islands  lying  to  the  southeast  of  Oahu  may  all  be  seen  from  the 
decks  of  the  inter-island  steamers  in  nuikinu  the  journey  to  Hawaii — a  journey 
usually  made  by  ti-avelers  in  order  to  visit  ^.ladame  Pele  in  her  abode  in  the 
heart  of  the  living  volcano  Kilauea. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  when  atmospheric  conditions  are  favorable  the  outline 
of  the  nearest  of  these  islands,  namely  ]\Iolokai,  Lanai  and  :\Iaui,  may  be  plainly 
seen  from  the  rim  of  the  crater  of  Diamond  Head  or  Koko  Head.  Although  no 
one  has  probabl\-  been  able  to  do  so,  it  is  not  improbable,  as  asserted  by  Dr. 
Titus  :Munsen  Ooan,  that  from  the  high  peak  of  Kaala,  if  visual  conditions  were 
favorable,  the  high  peaks  on  all  of  the  inhabited  islands  could  be  seen  through 
a  telescope. 

]MOLOKAI. 

Since  on  the  actual  journey  to  the  volcano  the  mystical  islaiul  of  Molo- 
kai  comes  first  to  view,  it  nuiy  be  well  to  know  that  it  is  l)ut  tweuTv-three  miles 
from  Oahu  and  that  it  lies  directly  between  that  island  aiul  Maui.  It  extends 
as  a  long  narrow  island  almost  due  east  and  west   for  fortv  miles,   but   it   is 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPH Y  i)V  IIAAVAIT.  l.v^^ 

only  tell  miles  in  width  ;it  its  widest  ]);\r\.  It  is  roiiiihly  feclnnuuhir  in  rnrrn 
and  has  an  area  of  Iwo  liuiidrcd  and  sixly-niic  s(|iiare  niih's. 

Like  Oahn,  it  hears  uiiinistakahie  e\idenee  of  heiii^-  I  he  I'esull  of  sevei'al 
[)ei'i()ds  of  volcanic  activity,  and  it,  too,  is  formed  hy  the  jniielion  of  two  vol- 
canic mountains  of  which  the  western  crater  JNIanna  Loa.^  an  eminence  lit  lie 
more  than  a  hill,  is  far  the  older.  The  eastern  end  of  the  island  is  much  hi^iher, 
attaining  at  Kamakua  peak  an  altitude  of  4,958  feet.  The  highland  between 
the  two  points  mentioned,  while  less  extensive,  has  been  built  up  in  iiinch  1  he 
same  manner  as  the  region  between  the  two  gronps  of  mountains  on  Oahn. 

The  island  from  the  north  presents  a  more  or  less  verlical  face  of  vary- 
ing height  which  rises,  as  a  line  of  cliffs,  usually  from  a  very  narrow  level 
plain.  From  the  high  backbone  of  the  island  in  the  eastern  end,  several  deep, 
beautiful  valleys,  with  gaunt  finger-like  lateral  ridges,  run  down  to  the  sea. 
The  most  prominent  point  along  the  northern  coast  is  formed  by  the  wedge- 
shaped  peak  of  01okui,2  which  has  its  sea  end  formed  ])y  a  wall  rising  all  but 
perpendicularly  from  the  sea  to  almost  the  extreme  height  of  the  mounlaiii. 
The  deep  balloon-shaped  valleys  of  Wailau  ami  Pelekunu  almost  surround  this 
point  and  form  its  almost  inaccessible  walls  inland.  The  whole  section  has  ])een 
deeply  eroded  and  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  pictui'esipie  districts  of 
the  entire  group.  The  vertical  sea  cliffs  and  the  great  amphitheater-shaix'd  val- 
leys, set,  as  they  are,  directly  across  the  ])ath  of  the  northeast  trade  winds,  are 
almost  constantly  drenched  with  heavy  tropical  rains.  l^nfortunately  this 
abundant  supply  of  water  is  still  allowed  to  tiow  to  the  sea  uncontrolled,  while  the 
opposite  end  of  the  island,  with  its  thousands  of  acres  of  rich,  deep-red  tillahle 
soil  lies  parched  and  barren. 

Halaw.s.  Valley. 

The  eastern,  and  consequently  the  most  remote  end  of  the  island,  is  occu- 
pied by  smooth,  high  bluffs  toi:)ped  with  a  table-land  that  is  cut  1hrouL;!i  by 
the  valley  of  Halawa.  This  valley  is  one  of  great  isolation  and  primitive 
beauty.  Its  purple  cliff-like  walls  terminate  abi-uptly  a1  the  head  of  the  gorge 
in  a  vertical  precipice,  over  which  jxjur  two  streams  di-awn  from  the  rain-soaked 
uplands.  The  Halawa  waters  reach  the  tioor  of  the  valleys  by  monster  leaps, 
foi-ming  ]\roaula  Falls;  the  other,  the  llipuapua  stream,  forms  a  siimie  silvei-y 
thread  from  top  to  bottom  of  tlie  cliff.  The  ceaseless  tund)lc  and  roai-  of  these 
falls,  the  delicious  freshness  of  the  breeze,  the  song  of  the  feaiiess  nati\-e  birds, 
the  abundant  vine-swung  tropical  verdure,  the  sim])le  I'l'ieiidly  hospitality  of  the 
natives,  the  morning  and  eveniuu  I'ainltows  tliat  span  the  falls,  the  sweep  df  the 
sand-rimmed  bay,  the  traiujuil  scene  of  life  aloni;'  the  ri\-ei'.  the  peace,  the  |)leut\\ 
the  contentment  of  it  all,  blends  again  in  memoiw  as  1  wi'ite,  as  not  many  years 
ago  it  did  in  reality  to  foi'ui  a  |)icture.  a  pictui'c  of  bliss,  such  as  I  would  iiaint 
v.'ere  I  gifted,  and  call  the  ''Island  \'ale  .\\aloir"  an  eai'thly  pai'adise  within 
the  w'estern  sea. 


'  1382   feet.  "  4600  feet. 


< 
< 


O 

o 

X 


Z 


< 

kr^ 
^ 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  135 

The  southeastern,  aud  partienlarly  the  southern  part  of  the  ishmd,  is  broken 
l)y  a  number  of  parallel  ridges  and  vallevs.  As  the  valleys  are  many  of  them  but 
two  or  three  miles  in  length  the  streams,  which  have  tlicir  source  in  the  cloud- 
wrapped  peaks  that  form  the  dividing'  line  of  the  ishnul.  are  cool  and  beauti- 
fidly  clear.  In  nmny  of  these  valleys  inay  still  be  seen  tlie  remains  of  the  old 
orange  and  breadfruit  groves  for  which  Molokai  was  one  time  famous.  The 
heads  of  the  valleys  often  end  in  almost  vertical  and  deeply  eroded  precipices. 
Several  of  the  valleys,  as  INIoanui,  have  a  number  of  large  caves,  which  were  used 
extensively  in  olden  times  as  burial  caves. 

The  valley  of  Mapulehu  is  the  largest  valley  on  the  south  side  of  the  island. 
Having  steep  funnel-shaped  sides  and  being  opposite  the  great  rain-soaked  valley 
of  Wailau,  it  is  especially  subject  to  torrential  rains. 

The  nearby  harbor  of  Pukoo,  well  to  the  eastern  end,  aud  the  harbor  of 
Kaunakakai,  near  the  center  of  the  island,  are  the  principal  ports  of  call  on 
the  southern  side  of  JNIolokai.  They  are  both  formed  by  openings  in  the  wide 
coral  reef  which  extends  along  the  greater  part  of  the  island. 

The  Leper  Settlement. 

Unfortunately  the  whole  of  this  island  of  ^Molokai  is  known  as  the  "Leper 
Island."  In  reality  only  the  low  shelf-like  promontory  of  Kalaupapa  which 
jets  out  into  the  sea,  a  distance  of  three  or  four  miles,  at  a  point  about  the 
middle  of  the  island  on  its  northern  side,  is  in  any  way  included  in  the  area  set 
apart  by  the  Territory  for  the  isolation  and  care  of  those  suffering  witli  this 
disease. 

The  settlement  forms  a  colony  inhabited  by  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand 
persons,  most  of  whom  are  lepers.  The  colony  is  completely  cut  off  from  the 
rest  of  the  island  by  clilfs  fifteen  hundred  or  more  feet  in  height,  the  steep  sea- 
face  of  which  is  called  Kalawao.  The  plain  or  shelf  of  Kalaupapa  is  crossed  by 
several  lava  streams  of  more  recent  date  than  have  been  found  elsewhere  on 
the  island.  So  it  is  not  unlikely  that  this  section,  as  stated  in  tlic  legend  of  Pele 
previously  mentioned,  was  the  last  point  on  ]\lolokai  to  feel  the  influence  of  vol- 
canic fires. 

Lanai  and  Kahoulawe. 

Lanai  is  in  plain  view  from  both  ^Molokai  and  ^Ijiui.  b(  ing  only  nine  miles 
west  from  the  nearest  point  of  the  latter  island. 

From  the  vessel  as  it  passes  through  the  channel  between  the  islands  it  ap- 
pears as  a  single  volcanic  cone,  that  doubtless,  owing  to  the  protection  fur- 
nished bv  the  nearbv-island  to  windward,  has  suffered  but  sliuht  erosion,  thougli 
its  sides  are  here  and  there  furrowed  by  small  gulches,  down  one  of  which  there 
runs  a  small  stream.  It  has  an  area  of  139  square  miles  and  the  principal  peak, 
which  is  well  Avooded,  is  given  as  3,400  feet  in  heii^Iit.  It  rises  from  near 
the  southeastern  end  and  slopes  rather  gradually  to  the  northwest,  where  abrupt 
declivities  are  found.     Steep  cliffs  also  occur  along  the  southwest  shore  where 


■mm 


O 


f^     S 


Ch  ai 


o 

03 


O    -M 
S 


o        -^ 


p 

5  "^ 

b— 1 

^    '-' 

a2 

o  5i 

c  •-"< 

S    O 

Q 

•;=^ 

P2 

<i1 

-5  2 

o 

G 

^  fl 

z; 

tl  "^ 

i»^ 

"  > 

^ 

^  .2 

r   > 

o 

'V^ 

w 

Eh 

02      . 

fe^ 

-M 

^-s, 

o 

&I  s 

02 

.«   M 

H 

^  2 

Z 

2  S 

cc 

<1     >    ^ 

-^    ^  2 
i.2  '* 

aj  'eg  e8 

2  ""W 

;;  o 


o 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HA^VAII.  137 

they  are  often  three  or  four  hundred  feet  in  height.      Tt  ai^peai's  that  ticitlicr 
Lanai  nor  Kahoohiwe  have  e\'er  been  carefully  studied  In-  g(^()l()gists. 

Kahoolawe,  the  smallest  of  the  inhabited  islands,  is  about  twelve  miles 
long  and  has  an  area  of  sixty-nine  square  miles.  Owing  to  its  slight  elevation,^ 
and  the  fact  that  it  lies  in  the  lee  of  ]\Iaui,  whose  high  mountains  wring  the 
rain-clouds  dry,  the  surface  shows  but  little  wash  and  is  almost  level.  There 
being  no  important  streams  or  springs  on  the  island  it  has  never  been  con- 
sidered of  much  value.  In  consequence  it  has  l)een  given  over  to  a  few  goats, 
sheep  and  cattle  that  roam  over  its  barren  red  lands  at  Avill.  Plans  have  been 
considered  by  the  Territorial  government,  however,  which  contemplate  refor- 
esting the  island,  as  an  experiment  in  conservation,  with  a  view  to  securing 
scientific  data  on  the  increasing  and  storing  of  water  through  the  agency  of 
plant  growth. 

Like  Lanai,  the  island  of  Kahoolawe  has  high,  steep  sea  cliffs  on  the  lee 
shore.  Enough  of  the  underlying  strata  is  exposed  to  foster  the  belief  that 
neither  of  these  small  islands  was  ever  more  closely  connected  with  each  other 
or  with  the  nearby  and  larger  island  of  ]Maui  than  they  are  now  unless  it  was 
l)y  their  normal  slopes,  now  hidden  beneath  the  sea.  The  larger  island  of  ^laui 
is  separated  from  the  smaller  of  the  two  islands  by  seven  miles  of  placid  water 
known  as  the  Alalakeiki  channel  which,  together  with  the  Auau  channel  between 
Lanai  and  j\Iaui,  forms  the  ^laui  channel;  a  waterway  which  no  doul)t  has  been 
formed  by  the  subsidence  of  all  three  islands  just  mentioned. 

]\Lvri,  THE  Valley  Isle. 

It  is  the  custom  to  regard  ]\Iolokai,  Lanai,  Kahoolawe  and  INIaui  as  form- 
ing a  natural  group  of  islands,  there  being  about  the  same  distance  between  the 
nearest  points  on  the  neighboring  islands  of  Molokai  and  Oahu  ^  in  the  north- 
west, that  there  is  between  the  nearest  points  of  IMaui  and  Hawaii  ^  at  the 
southeast  end  of  the  central  cluster  of  islands,  the  combined  area  of  which  is 
placed  at  7,289  square  miles.  Maui  is  the  largest  island  in  the  middle  group 
and  is  the  second  largest  in  size  of  the  inhabited  islands.  However,  it  is  con- 
siderably less  than  one-fifth  the  size  of  Hawaii,  which  boasts  of  its  area  of  4,015 
square  miles. 

To  the  mere  traveler  Maui  is  but  a  synonym  for  the  name  of  the  gi-eat 
extinct  crater  which  forms  one  of  the  chief  objective  points  of  his  round-the- 
world  journey.  But  to  the  geologist  the  splendid  double  island,  aptly  named 
the  Yalley  Isle,  is  no  less  interesting  in  its  topography  and  history  than  Kauai 
or  Oahu  are. 

Like  Molokai  and  Oahu,  it  has  been  produced  from  two  distinct  centers  of 
volcanic  activity.  West  ^laui  with  its  highest  peak"  corresponds  in  ag"  ^vith 
the  western  group  of  mountains  on  Oahu.  As  on  Oalni,  the  advanced  disintegra- 
tion, shown  by  the  deep  wonderful  valleys  dissected  into  its  mass,  makes  it  un- 
mistakably the  older  end  of  the  islaiul.  In  fact  it  has  every  (evidence  of  being 
as  old  as  Kauai,  the  Waianae  Range  on  Oahu,  the  western  end  of  ?»Iolo]\ai,  or 
the  Kohala  mountains  on  Hawaii. 


3  1472   feet.  *  23  miles.  ^  26  miles.  "  Piiu   Kukui.   5788  feet. 

10 


J38  XATIKAL   HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

Iao  Valley. 

As  has  been  tlic  case  on  the  other  ishmds.  this  volcanic  pile  has  snffered 
its  deepest  erosion  on  the  northeast  tiank.  Exposed  to  the  trade  winds,  the 
jrreat  awe-inspiring  valley  of  Iao.  with  its  head  a  vast  amphitheater  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  monntain,  has  been  so  wonderfully  eroded  that  it  is  indeed  difficult 
to  fed  it  has  been  formed  solely  by  the  chisel  of  the  elements. 

Kising  on  every  hand  about  "The  Needle,"  an  isolated,  nearly  inaccessible 
pinnacle,  standing  hundreds  of  feet  above  the  floor  of  the  valley— are  almost 
vei-tical  verdni-e-covered  walls  of  basalt.  They  rise  al)ruptly  for  more  than 
four  thousand  feet.  Over  and  al)(mt  the  toj)  of  the  highest  peaks  cluster  and 
frolic  the  down-like  clouds  that  so  often,  without  apparent  provocation,  gather 
into  a  lowering  pall  from  which  pours  torrents  of  cold,  pelting  rain.  Within 
an  liour  their  waters  will  tiood  and  choke  the  babbling  gorge  stream,  until  it 
rushes  down  to  the  sea  in  an  irresistible  torrent. 

Few  ai'e  the  visitors  who  have  seen  the  grandeur  of  Iao  who  are  not  willing 
to  compai-e  it  favorably  with  the  more  famous  valley  of  the  Yosemite.  But 
those  who  have  mastered  the  ditfieulty  of  the  ascent  and  who  have  once  looked 
down  from  the  summit  of  Puu  Kukui  into  the  head  of  Iao  Valley,  and  the 
e(pial!y  wonderful  valleys  of  Waihee  and  Olowalu.  are  unstinted  in  their  praise 
of  tile  wild  scenery  that  stretches  away  from  their  feet  in  all  directions — to  the 
ocean,  to  llaleakala.  and  to  the  snow-capped  mountains  of  Hawaii.  Those 
travelers  who  can  take  the  circumstances  that  surround  each  into  account  and 
compare  the  grandeur  of  the  Valley  Isle  with  the  grandeur  of  the  Yosemite 
never  fail  to  rearrange  the  list  of  America's  great  natural  wonders  in  a  way 
most  eomplimeiitary  to  this  island  wonder,  which,  unfortunately,  too  few  have 
as  3'et  been  piixileucd  to  visit. 

The  suinniii  of  Puu  I\ul<ui  is  made  up  of  an  extensive  bog  which,  as  a  great 
monntain  reservoir,  receives  and  stores  the  Avater  that  flows  down  the  lee  or 
Lahaina  side  of  the  mountain.  As  a  matter  of  fact  no  fewer  than  eight  canons 
radiate  in  all  <lirections  from  the  central  portion  of  west  ^Nlaui,  at  least  five  of 
them  being  notahle  for  their  size.  The  Avliole  summit  of  this  western  end  of 
the  island  is  c()i)iousl\-  supplied  with  water.  It  is  therefore  well  wooded, 
although  the  lowei-  slopes,  especially  on  the  southwestern  side,  are  dry  and 
barren.  Along  the  shore  the  costal  plain  is  composed  of  rich  red  soil  v.-ashed  from 
the  mountains.  When  ai-tificially  watered  and  under  cultivation  it  is  most 
productive. 

In  its  outline  the  island  of  :\raui  has  often  been  compared  to  the  head  and 
bust  of  a  woman.  West  Maui,  the  head,  with  the  face  looking  to  the  southwest; 
the  lowland  joining  the  portion  just  described  to  the  larger  eastern  end  of  the 
island,  forms  the  neck,  with  Kahului  Bay  at  the  back  of  the  neck  and  ]^faalaea 
Ray  forming  the  hollow  beneath  the  chin. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  139 

IIaleakala. 

The  giant  crater  of  Haleakala,  easily  the  largest  extinct  crater  in  the  world, 
rises  as  a  shoulder  from  the  center  of  the  portion  fonuiug-  the  bust  of  our 
figure,  to  the  sublime  height  of  10,032  feet.  Besides  being  the  feature  of  the 
topography  of  ]\Iaui,  since  it  covers  an  area  six  times  as  large  as  west  ]\laui, 
it  furnishes  to  the  world  a  single  striking,  clean-cut  example  of  the  awful  power 
in  nature  which  can  rock  continents  on  their  foundations  and  lift  np  islnnds  in 
the  midst  of  tlie  sea,  until  their  tops  are  lost  above  the  clouds. 

The  low  plain  forming  the  neck  or  isthmus  between  the  eastern  and  western 
extremities  of  the  island  is  almost  level  and  is  al)Out  six  miles  in  length,  by  seven 
or  eight  in  width,  at  the  narrowest  part.  There  seems  every  reason 
to  believe  that  this  portion  of  the  island  was  at  one  time  a  waterway, 
and  that  then  the  older  and  the  newer  ends  of  the  island  were  sepa- 
rate. Later  this  shallow  channel  was  filled  by  flows  from  Haleakala  which  have 
been  added  to  by  wash  from  the  highlands.  The  sand  dunes  near  AVailuku 
are  two  hundred  feet  high  and  contain  only  fragments  of  coral  and  sea  shells 
in  the  form  of  sand  particles  that  point  to  their  origin,  while  the  sand  hills 
nearer  the  shore  and  elsewhere  are  nndoubtedly  the  products  of  the  wind. 
Wind-blown  or  a'olian  calcarious  sand  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  building 
up  of  the  low  land  deposits ;  the  central  part  of  the  neck  being  only  156  feet 
above  the  sea.  In  the  sand  hills  along  the  shore  in  this  portion  of  ]\lani,  as 
elsewhere  in  similar  situations  in  the  group,  numerous  calcarious  concretions  and 
fossil  land  shells  are  found. 

The  trip  to  Maui  is  in  many  respects  the  most  interesting  one  in  the  islands 
to  the  traveler.  Naturally  Haleakala  "  is  the  chief  object  of  interest  to  the 
tourist  and  scientist  and  its  ascent  is  often  made  as  a  side  trip  on  the  journey 
to  or  from  the  active  craters  on  Hawaii.  In  plan  east  ]\Iaui,  which  is  formed 
solely  ])y  Haleakala,  is  roughly  triangular  in  outline,  with  the  crater  lying  well 
towards  its  eastern  angle.  The  windward  side  of  the  dome  being  w^ell  watered 
is  furrowed  by  numerons  canons  and  gorges.  Along  the  side  exposed  to  the 
weather  there  are  sixty  or  more  eroded  canons,  most  of  them  cjii'ryiug  fair- 
sized  streams,  in  a  distance  of  half  as  many  miles.  While  abundant  rains  fall 
on  the  eastern  or  Hana  end  of  the  island,  the  canons  are  wanting,  owiuu'  ])er- 
haps  to  the  resistant  nature  of  the  more  recent  lava  tiows  in  that  region. 

From  Hana  to  Kaupo  on  the  south  side  of  the  island,  the  slopes  are  cut  np 
into  numerous  gorges,  many  of  them  with  streams.  The  ravines  here  have  loug 
been  celebrated  for  their  riot  of  tropical  verdure,  but  as  the  trail  from  Kipahulu 


'The  Hawaiian  name  for  this  mountain,  meaning  the  "house  of  the  sun."  doubtless  finds  its  origin  in 
an  interesting  and  very  ancient  folk-tale  of  the  people.  According  to  the  legend  it  was  to  Haleakala 
that  Maui. — the  adventurous  son  of  Hina — went  to  capture  and  tame  the  sun.  The  ob,iect  of  the  exploit 
was  to  discipline  the  sun  in  its  course  and  make  it  go  more  slowly  in  order  to  give  time  for  the  drying 
of  the  bark  cloth  or  tapa  which  his  mother  made.  We  are  told  he  was  successful  in  capturing  the  sun 
by  ingeniously  snaring  its  rays  as  they  rose  one  by  one  over  the  top  of  the  mountain.  When  at  last 
sixteen  of  its  longest  rays  had  been  captured  the  sun.  begging  for  mercy,  was  hauled  down  to  earth  by 
Maui,  who  only  permitted  it  to  continue  on  its  course  wlien  an  agreement  had  been  made  that  the  sun 
should  go  more  slowly  ever  after  and  that  in  certain  seasons  the  days  should  be  longer  than  in  others. 
The  Rev.  Mr.  Forbes,  the  Hawaiian  Missionary,  who  first  published  the  legend,  asserts  that  it  was  this 
adventure  that  gave  the  name  to  the  mountain  which  should  properly  be  called  Alele-kala  (sun  snarer) 
and  not  by  the  more  poetical  name  Haleakala,  now  in  general  use. 


X  c 

^tr^ 

.  o 


< 
o 


o 


P  o 

Sd2 


s  o 

^^ 

?i  § 

^  O 

-^-■  LO  -2 

o 


'^c    ^ 


O    3    o 


K 


M 


sq 


r*':>i  o 

,:::;  ^    'I 
>   CS    ^ 

&^    d 
oj   ^    f. 

I — I    •«-( 

""^     1 1 

—    >.■-( 

rt  ^^ 

O    O  ^ 

=<^  a  ft 
°^  S 

•^  n  +^ 

=H  '-;  oJ 

<I  a 

t^  ^< 

^^  s 

^  ^=*  to" 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  141 

on  leads  up  and  down  over  the  points  of  the  ridges  the  road  is  a  difficult  and 
tedious  one  to  travel.  The  absence  of  important  canons  on  the  western  side 
of  Haleakala  seems  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  rain  clouds  are  relieved  of 
their  burden  on  the  opposite  slopes  of  the  mountain,  so  that  the  two  sides  when 
compared  furnish  interesting  examples  of  the  effect  of  wet  and  dry  climate 
on  the  same  mountain. 

The  Great  Crater  Described. 

The  trip  to  the  summit  of  the  mountain  is  usually,  though  not  always,  made 
from  Paia,  the  terminus  of  the  Kahului  railroad.  Paia  is  situated  on  the  north- 
western slope  and  can  be  easily  reached  from  most  of  the  landings  on  both 
]\Iaalaea  and  Kahului  bays.  As  no  better  conception  of  the  great  crater  and 
this  portion  of  the  island  can  be  formed  than  that  gained  from  making  the  ascent, 
it  is  proposed  to  follow  the  usual  route,  which,  from  Paia,  leads  to  Idlewild^ 
and  on  the  way  to  the  summit,  a  distance  of  about  twenty-two  miles. 

The  outer  slopes  of  the  crater  on  all  sides  are  quite  irregular,  ranging  be- 
tween eight  and  ten  degrees,  but  the  slope  is  a  trifle  steeper  on  the  northeastern 
side.  This  jnakes  the  ascent  an  easy  uphill  climb  that  it  most  deceiving.  The  lower 
western  slope  of  the  mountain  has  been  graphically  described  as  resembling  a 
whole  township  diversified  with  farms  and  woods,  valleys  and  hills,  resting  on 
its  elbows,  so  to  speak,  and  looking  out  over  the  broad  Pacific.  From  the  base 
of  the  mountain  one  can  look  up  to  the  cloud-line  and  often  get  a  glimpse  of  the 
summit  through  an  occasional  rift  in  the  clouds. 

At  Idlewild  ^  the  traveler  leaves  his  wheeled  conveyance  and  continues  the 
ascent  for  a  distance  of  eight  miles  on  horseback.  For  six  miles  the  trail  leads 
by  an  easy,  gradual  climb  through  grassy  pasture  land,  where  the  skylarks, 
stimulated  by  the  fresh,  cool  air  of  the  mountain  side,  often  mount  skywards, 
carrying  their  song  far  into  the  clouds. 

From  the  cloud-belt  on  to  the  summit  the  trail  becomes  rougher  and  steeper. 
The  grass  and  trees  of  the  lower  reaches  give  way  to  low,  scrubby  bushes. 
Entering  the  clouds  the  soft  white  fog  usually  obscures  everything  above 
and  below,  but  in  less  than  an  hour's  climbing  the  rough,  jagged  outline  of  the 
summit  appears,  floating  on  a  sea  of  clouds  as  the  traveler  emerges  into  the 
sunshine  again.  Often  the  world  below  is  completely  hidden  from  view ;  more 
often,  however,  the  blue  Pacific  may  be  seen  in  the  distance,  apparently  rising 
like  the  inner  side  of  a  vast  blue  bowl  until  it  joins,  in  some  mysterious  way, 
with  the  edge  of  the  bright  blue  dome  that  overtops  everything,  even  this  high 
mountain. 

From  the  favorable  places,  at  this  great  height,  much  of  the  outline  of  the 
island  may  be  seen,  spread  out  like  a  great  colored  map  lying  on  the  lap  of 
the  mountain.  West  Maui  appears  usually  above  the  clouds  as  the  detached 
summit  of  another  island  mountain. 

As  the  trail  ascends  it  winds  about  the  l)ase  of  more  than  one  sizable  crater, 


s  Olinda.  »  Elevation   4500   feet. 


o 

.   » 

:5 

— ■  t: 

' 

r    ~ 

-^ 

—    ~ 

*■> 

~    — 

h^ 

-      X 

—    —J 

-^ 

•^  %- 

-^ 

§ 

^ 

o         g 

D 

^^-  ^ 

O 

^^ 

=  ___     CS 

-^ 

"  ii  ;:; 

PS 

^2  ^ 

^f 

v--  !<  o 

^ 

o        ^ 

>    -^ 

^-^ 

s  ^  >> 

X 

^•■^'' 

<s 

13  S^g 

-^ 

0^,01 

^' 

S    o  '^ 

X 

o  ^  q 

^   -  =2 

„   a! 

^3 

1  ^ 

^i'       ■■? 

^^ 

-^^ 

.'-^  rt 

1^ 

~        o 

< 

S   >■■§ 

-1 
1— I 

l-H 

>_     K- 

j^     j;  00 

—     > 

-*^     > 

o  -S  e8 

C   rfj 

—  ^ 

2        ^ 

-^  ^_,  3 

"^  =  13 

2»^M 

=;  =3 

^    O  =H 

CS^    o 

+^    O  J<) 

7t    -^     ^ 

O         /3 

'  ■        -4-^ 

^    :t   GO 

*    t:  •-* 

~Z  +J 

-^    — 

5 

•    irH 

-*  f^ 

GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  143 

l)ut  in  (•(mii)firis(ui  these  seem  to  lie  mere  [)imi)les  on  tlie  back  of  tlie  'jii;aiitic 
Haleakala.  Taking'  the  entire  western  slope  into  consideral ion  there  are  two 
dozen  of  these  craters.  ]\lost  of  them  appear  to  tie  very  ancient  ])ut  show  no 
evidence  of  ever  liavinu'  heen  points  of  eruptive  flow,  though  on  the  west  coast 
near  the  shore  there  are  several  streams  of  very  fresh-lo. il<iiiL;'  lava  1ha1  may 
be  traced  to  some  of  them. 

All  the  route  to  the  summit  is  exceedingly  interesting  and  instructive  to 
one  with  an  interest  in  geology,  but  to  the  ordinary  tourist  the  ascent  seems  a 
trifle  monotonous  after  the  first  few  miles  of  travel.  The  surface  of  the  moun- 
tain is  everywhere  covered  with  quantities  of  broken  red  rock  and  resembles  the 
region  about  Kaiuiuld  on  Oahu.  On  the  lower  slopes  the  lava  beds,  whicii  cniiii)ose 
the  foundation  of  the  mountain  when  exposed,  show  thcMr  texture  to  be  very  solid 
and  apparently  very  resistant  to  the  ordinary  forms  of  erosion. 

After  passing  the  mountain  house  "'  the  first  view  of  the  crater  is  ol)tained. 
On  arriving  at  last  at  the  very  edge  of  the  caldera  the  immense  size  of  the 
yawning  gulf  does  not  readil\'  take  hold  on  the  imagination.  It  is  only  by 
comparison  and  after  its  dimensions  have  l)een  reduced  to  miles  and  acres  and 
its  altitude  to  feet  that  the  sublime  magnitude  of  the  scene  is  appreciated. 

One  must  think  of  this  stretch  of  mountain  scenery  not  as  a  mere  view 
to  be  admired  but  rather  as  a  burned-out  boiling  pot  twenty  miles  in  circum- 
ference, that  has  an  area  of  twelve  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres — five 
times  that  of  Kilauea.  ^Measure  with  the  eye  its  extreme  length  from  point  to 
point  1^  and  its  extreme  width'-  and  compare  it  with  the  largest  city  you  have 
ever  seen !  See  if  you  can  realize  that  the  island  of  Manhattan  with  all  the 
teeming  life  of  New  York  City  could  be  comfortably  placed  in  this  mighty 
chasm  and  buried  more  than  a  c^uarter  of  a  mile  deep  !  Grasp  the  fact  that  the 
floor  of  the  crater,  at  its  lowest  point,i-^  is  two  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
fifty-two  feet  below  the  highest  point  on  the  rim  and  that  the  point.  Pukaoaa, 
or  Pendulum  Peak  i^  is  10,032  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  sixteen  mounds  on  the  floor  of  the  crater  towards  the  south  end  are 
not  mole  hills,  but  craters,  the  highest  of  which  i''  rises  nine  hundred  feet  from 
its  base,  while  none  of  them  are  less  than  four  hundred  feet  in  lieight.  Com- 
pare any  one  of  these  with  Punchbowl  or  Diamond  Head  on  Oahu  and  remember 
that  they  are  but  the  last  parting  touch  laid  on  as  the  titanic  fires  that  gave  birth 
to  all  the  grandeur  and  desolation  that  surrounds  them,  died  out.  retiring  into 
the  bowels  of  the  earth  hundreds,  ]>ossil)ly  thousands,  of  years  ago,  perhaps  never 
to  appear  on  Maui  again. 

One  of  the  most  impressive  sights  in  the  entire  grouf)  is  Jhat  frequently 
to  be  witnessed  on  the  edge  of  this  yawning  gulf  as  the  sun  siifl<s  into  the  Avest- 
ern  ocean.  Set  as  it  were  between  heaven  and  hell,  the  chauLiv  in  llie  atmos- 
pheric conditions  on  this  great  mountain  sununit  are  most  i-apid  and  pronounced. 
As  the  sun  drops  in  the  sky  and  the  chill  of  night   comes  on.  the  clouds  that 


1"  9,287  feet  elevation.  '^7.48    miles.  '- 2.H7  iiiili  s.  i-'' The  eave.  "White   Hill   or   Pakaoao. 

"  Kalua  Ka  Oo. 


144  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

all  clay  (li-()\vsil\  float  about  the  slopes  of  the  mountain  suddenly  become  rest- 
less and  crowd  ;iii(l  jostle  and  mill  about  one  another  like  frightened  animals. 
At  the  proper  moment,  as  at  a  signal  from  some  shepherd  of  the  winds  that 
guides  and  proteetH  tliciii  in  the  pasture  of  the  heavens,  they  recognize  and 
peaeefully  follow  their  leader.  One  by  one,  in  dozens  and  in  droves  they  work 
around  the  slopes  of  the  mountain  to  where  the  great  gap  in  the  crater  wall, 
like  the  gate  to  a  sheep  fold,  is  opened  wide,  ready  to  receive  them  from  the 
pasture  out  on  Hie  mountain  side  into  the  shelter  and  protection  of  the  crater 
fold. — tli(>  vei-y  heart  of  the  mountain  that  nourishes  them. 

As  (lai-kness  gathers  tlie  last  stragglers,  those  that  have  Avandered  farthest 
fi-om  tile  t'ohl,  liun-y  in  lo  join  their  fellows  until  the  floor  of  the  crater  is  hidden 
I'n.in  view  liy  the  lleeey  multitude.  In  the  shelter  of  the  crater  Avail  they  settle 
down  foi'  Ihe  night  knowing,  perhaps,  that  e're  long  the  Southern  Cross  will 
climb  into  the  cold  eleai-  sky  to  share  with  the  great  Polar  star  the  vigils  of  the 
night.  The  first  i-ay  of  light  that  gilds  the  mountain  is  the  signal  from  the 
shepherd,  aiul  at  onee  the  crater  fold  is  active;  round  and  round  these  cloud- 
sheep  go.  impatient  to  be  up  and  away.  At  the  proper  moment  they  again  form 
in  line  behind  the  one  appointed  to  lead  the  way  out  through  the  gap;  and  before 
long  are  av.ay  for  a  day's  frolic  in  their  favorite  haunts  on  the  mountain  side. 

Should  the  traveler  fail  to  witness  the  gathering  of  the  clouds  by  night  or 
theii-  partinii'  in  the  morinng,  the  chances  are  that,  as  a  substitute,  he  will  Avit- 
ness  the  most  gorgeous  sunrise  to  be  seen  anywhere;  or  perhaps,  if  the  Aveather 
is  tine,  the  gleaming  snow-capped  peaks  of  ]\Iauna  Kea  and  Mauna  Loa  on 
Hawaii  will  loom  ii|)  to  the  south  more  than  a  hundred  miles  aAvay. 

lint  to  i-eturn  to  the  scene  near  at  hand.  The  crater  is  not  regular  in  its 
outline  luif  a|)pears  as  two  or  more  associated  craters  fused  into  one.  IIoAVCA^er, 
one  gets  but  an  imperfect  conception  of  the  shape  or  extent  of  the  crater  from 
a  single  viewpoint  on  the  brink.  The  zigzag"  elbow-shaped  pit  has  its  highest 
point  formed  by  one  of  the  three  cinder  cones  at  the  soutliAvest  angle  of  the 
crater.  The  wall  at  the  north  end  is  split  doAvn  to  its  bottom  to  form  the  yaAvn- 
ing  Koolau  gap  with  its  towering  walls.  This  gap  extends  to  the  sea  under 
the  name  of  the  Kanae  valley.  At  the  opposite  or  southern  end  of  the  crater 
is  a  similar  hi'eak.  the  famous  Kaupo  Gap.  It  descends  abruptly  as  a  gorge-like 
valley  to  the  sea.  It  is  completely  floored  Avith  a  hard  lava  stream  Avith  occa- 
sional clinker  beds.  About  half  Avay  down  the  mountain  this  stream  emerges 
from  its  gorge  and  spi-eads  over  the  surface,  forming  a  fan-shaped  delta,  ex- 
tending to  the  sea.  These  gaps  are  among  the  more  striking  features  of  Hale- 
akala  and  are  looked  upon  by  some  as  offering  all  the  evidence  necessary  to 
prove  that  the  great  crater,  as  it  noAv  exists.  Avas  formed  by  a  mighty  fault 
which  split  the  motmtain  from  north  to  south,  freeing  the  extreme  eastern  ^^ 
portion  of  the  island  from  the  opposite  side.  The  gaps  down  Avhich  the  lava 
sul)se(|nently  (lowed  are  thus  but  extensions  of  the  crack  or  fault.  As  such 
they  had  their  [)art  in  preventing  the  crater  from  filliu'.^  up  with  lava  as  it  might 

10  Hana. 


PLATE  38.     THE  SUMMIT 

1.     The  old  mountain  liovise  at  the  .siiiniiut. 
sliowiny  a  few  of  the  niaiiv  ciaters  on  its  door. 


ol'    IIALKAKALA. 

:.'.     (i('ii('i;il   \  lew   iiisiilc  tlie  i>'reat  crater 


146  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

otherwise  have  clone — a  course  well  illustrated  by  the  summit  crater  on  ^Manna 
Kea. 

The  Floor  of  the  Crater. 

The  floor  of  tlie  crater  is  well  covered  with  cinders,  scoria  and  sand,  its  sur- 
face being-  relicvetl  by  the  cones  previously  mentioned.  From  these  craters  the 
loose  material  forming  them,  and  that  covering  the  floor  of  the  great  crater  en- 
closing Iheiii.  was  ei-ui)le(l.  The  light,  loose  material  in  the  crater  has  a  reddish 
tinge  often  varied  with  black,  grey,  yellowish-broA\n  and  red  and  shows  no 
mark  of  its  exact  age.  Toward  the  extreme  eastern  end  there  is  an  old  pahoehoe 
How,  and  higli  up  nn  Itic  eastern  wall  two  flows  of  aa  have  broken  forth.  Conrsing 
down  llie  side  wall,  they  have  pushed  their  wa^'  some  distance  out  over  the  flo(n' 
of  the  crater. 

Although  the  walls  of  the  crater  are  steep  it  is  possible  to  descend  them 
almost  anywhere.  The  descent  is  made  easier  on  acconnt  of  the  sand  and  cinders 
that  ]ia\('  l)cen  heaped  up  at  the  foot  of  the  clififs  on  all  sides.  The  floor  and 
inner  walls  of  the  crater  are  of  great  interest  to  gfeologists  and  will  well  repay 
a  visit.  For  the  toui'ist,  the  "bottomless  pit,"  a  remarkable  l)low-h()le;  Pele's 
l*ig-pen,  a  small  partly-filled  crater;  the  Chimney;  the  Crystal  Cave;  and  the 
chain  of  four  craters  known  as  the  Natural  Bridge,  lying  along  a  crack  in  the 
floor  of  the  crater,  are  natui'al  objects  Avell  worth  inspection  at  fli'st  hand,  and 
interesting  enough  to  tempt  many  to  make  the  scramble  down  into  the  crater. 

The  summit  of  the  mountain  and  its  crater  is  a  barren  waste  only  relieved 
here  and  there  by  a  few  plants,  among  them  the  remarkable  plant  known  as  the 
silver  sword,  which  is  elsewhere  described. 

The  PIistory  of  Haleakala. 

Geologists  agree  that  the  history  of  Haleakala  is  a  complicated  one  in  which 
the  formation  of  the  mountain  by  the  nsual  processes  of  summit  eruptions  and 
surTace  Hows  have  played  dominant  parts  throngh  long  ages.  The  fracture 
of  the  mountain  that  opened  the  great  discharge  ways  at  either  end  of  the  crater 
must  have  occui-red  as  the  mountain  Avas  nearing  completion.  The  simultaneous 
discharge  of  lava  by  l)oth  of  these  great  openings  in  the  crater  wall  is  proven 
by  the  similai-ity  of  the  lava  found  in  the  gaps  themselves  and  in  the  floor  of 
the  cratei-  from  end  to  end. 

As  the  life  of  the  mountain  as  a  living  volcano  neared  its  close,  it  appears 
that  the  convulsions  which  split  the  pile  to  its  foundation  brought  about  the 
appreciable  sinking  of  tlie  extreme  eastei-n  portion  of  the  dome.  The  final  flows 
from  the  gaps  at  either  end  of  the  crater  reunited  the  fracture  in  the  founda- 
tion, filled  the  subterranean  chambers  formed  by  earlier  flows,  and  left  the 
crater  a  solid  mountain  v,ith  its  interior  completely  filled  with  the  rock  mr.terial 
that  makes  up  its  huge  bulk.  The  expiring  fires,  through  minor  fissures  in  the 
last-formed  crater  floor,  threw  up  the  numerous  cinder  cones  scattered  over  it. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  147 

The  Last  Erii'tion  on  ^Mati. 

The  date  of  the  last  simiiiiit  cfuplidii  is  imkiKtwii  even  i(;  Hawaiian 
genealogical  and  traditional  history.  There  is  a  fairly  aulhciilic  statement, 
however,  that  the  last  eruption  on  Maui  occui'rcd  about  two  huinli't'd  _\'ears  ago 
as  a  lateral  eruption.  It  emerged  at  an  elevation  of  about  four  hundred  feet 
above  the  sea  on  the  southwest  slope  of  the  mountain  in  tlie  region  marked  by  a 
line  of  craters  extending  from  the  summit  to  the  sea.  In  its  course  it  tlowed 
over  a  Hawaiian  stone  fence,  indicating  the  historic  relation  l)etween  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  volcanic  fires  and  the  mountain's  occupation  by  liuiiian  inhabitants. 

When  the  fires  finally  died  down  they  apparently  were  completely  extin- 
guished on  the  island.  No  steam  jets  or  warm  springs,  no  mineral  springs  nor 
solfataras  remain  behind  to  bridge  the  closing  period  of  activity  with  the 
present,  and  there  have  been  no  signs  in  historic  times  to  indicate  that  the  island 
of  Maui  will  ever  witness  active  eruptions  again. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
ISLAND  OF  HAWAII. 

Size  and  Position  of  Hawaii. 

The  last  island  to  the  southeast  of  Oahu  and  the  one  v.hich  gives  the  name 
to  the  group,  is  the  island  of  Hawaii.  It  is  not  only  the  largest,  but  is  also 
the  most  important  island  of  the  chain.  It  is  approximately  triangular  in  form 
with  its  greatest  length  ^  from  north  to  south.  It  has  an  area  of  -IjOlo  square 
miles,  which  is  a  trifle  less  than  the  area  of  the  state  of  Connecticut.  Enclosed 
within  its  297  miles  of  coast  line,  is  five-eighths  the  area  of  the  whole  group. 
Of  such  an  area  only  a  few  of  the  many  important  facts  touching  its  geography, 
topography,  geology  and  vulcanology  can  be  referred  to  in  the  briefest  manner 
in  a  single  chapter. 

Its  coast  line  is  interesting  and  varied,  but  the  more  important  points  geo- 
graphically are  the  capes  at  the  chief  angles  and  the  shallow  bays  at  intervals 
along  the  coast  which  are  volcanic  in  origin,  being  formed  in  eaeh  case  by  the 
irregularities  in  the  flow  of  lava  into  the  sea.  Its  area  is  made  up  of  the 
summits  of  five  mountains,  one  of  which-  attains  the  height  of  13,825  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  claims  the  distinction  of  being  the  higliest  jieak  in  the 
islands  and  the  highest  point  in  the  Pacific.  In  general  Hawaii's  topogi-aphy 
is  formed  by  the  simple  joining  of  its  five  main  peaks  by  their  gentle  slopes 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  the  simple  outline  of  the  island.  'I'liei-e  are  few 
rivers  of  consequence  except  on  the  northeast  or  windward  side. 

On  all  sides  the  slopes  of  its  great  niouiit.iius  at(^  scarred  b>'  the  courses 
of  the  broad  lava  streams  that,  at  various  times,  have  plowetl  tlu'ir  way  from 
near  the  summits  of  the  central  peaks.     Often,  even  in  rceeiil  times,  these  streams 


^  93  miles.  -  Mauiin   Kea. 


O 

02 


c 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  149 

have  found  their  way  down  to  the  sea-shore,  leaving  blackened,  desolate  tracks 
behind  that  natnre  and  the  lapse  of  time  have  done  little  to  repair. 

The  Kohala  Range. 

While  the  island,  owing  to  its  active  volcanoes,  is  considered  as  the  youngest 
island  of  the  group  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  the  Kohala  Range,  forming 
the  northwest  point,  is  the  remains  of  a  very  old,  perhaps  among  the  oldest  of 
the  Hawaiian  volcanoes. 

The  slopes  are  deeply  cut  and  the  work  of  degradation  has  left  deep  canons 
and  enormous  cliffs  as  the  evidence  of  great  antiquity.  This  portion  of  Hawaii 
is  somewhat  separated  from  the  younger  group  of  craters,  being  isolated  from  its 
neighbors,  Hualalai  and  j\Iauna  Kea,  by  the  tableland  of  AVaimea.-'  The  summit 
of  the  Kohala  Mountains  ^  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  cinder  cones  and,  owing 
to  the  great  rainfall,  is  a  heavily  wooded  bog  like  that  on  the  top  of  Kaala  on 
Oahu,  and  Waialeale  on  Kauai.  All  of  the  windward  slope  of  the  range  is 
much  eroded,  and  is  densely  wooded. 

From  the  coast  the  range  appears  as  a  series  of  deep  canon-like  valleys 
that  end  three  or  four  miles  inland  with  vertical  cliffs  from  1.500  to  2,000 
feet  in  height.  Among  the  more  noteworthy  and  scenic  of  these  are  the  val- 
leys of  Waipio  and  Waimanu.  The  walls  of  these  stream  basins,  especially'  after 
a  heavy  rain,  are  a  veritable  display  of  waterfalls,  some  of  them  pouring  down  in 
a  sheer  drop  for  1,500  feet.  So  vast  and  profound  are  these  gorges,  and  so 
steep  are  their  sea  faces,  that  their  formation  seems  due  to  some  great  fault 
along  the  sea  cliffs,  which  caused  a  portion  of  the  mountain  to  drop  out  of  sight 
beneath  the  waves,  leaving  great  lateral  fractures  to  form  into  valleys  through 
the  action  of  the  elements ;  though  it  is  quite  probable  they  may  prove,  on  further 
study,  to  l)e  the  remains  of  valleys  formed  before  the  subsidence  of  the  Kohala 
mountains. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  mountain,  along  the  shore  from  Kawaihae 
Bay  around  to  the  north  point  "•  of  Hawaii,  the  surface  of  the  island  is 
more  regular,  though  at  several  places  lava  streams  have  issued  in  .-ineient  times 
from  craters  higher  up  and  flowed  down  to  the  coast.  The  road  from  Waimea 
to  Kohala  is  at  an  elevation  of  fifteen  hundred  feet  or  more  and  leads  past 
several  of  the  cones  that  dot  this  region.  Some  of  these  are  perfect  cones  four 
or  five  hundred  feet  in  height;  others  are  much  disintegrated  and  appear  as  little 
more  than  rounded  hills. 

The  soil  of  the  district  is  a  rich,  red,  ochreous  earth  mikI  \\  hen  well  watered 
is  very  fertile.  It  was  at  Kohala  that  one  of  the  early  and  successful  planta- 
tions was  established. 

Maun  A  Kea. 

The  principal  part  of  the  northeast  coast  of  Hawaii  is  foi'incd  by  Mauna 
Kea,  w^hich  occupies  more  than  half  of  the  northern  ])art  of  the  island.      Althoutzh 


'  2670  feet.  *  5489  feet.  ^  Upolu. 


i£ 


>    .2 

<r7      ^ 


t: 


2  I 


o 

c 


, 

— 

^ 

o 

"x 

i 

»: 

ci 

^          i 

p          1 

-^ 

O           ' 

o 

?3 

^ 

~ 

-(-^ 

C3 

^ 

GEOLOGY  AND  TOPO(^.KArTlY  OF  TTAWAIT.  151 

it  is  an  extinct  volcano  it  is  of  especial  inlci-cst  and  has  the  disl  iiidioti  dl'  hcing 
the  highest  island  monntain  in  the  world,  tlioiigli  il  is  \)y  no  means  sn  bulky 
and  imposing  as  its  neighbor  Manna  Loa.  The  Mauna  Lun  summit  is  only  loU 
feet  below  that  of  Mauna  Kea,  and  were  it  not  for  the  cinder  cones  that  cap 
the  summit  of  the  latter  the  former  would  be  given  its  pi-opcr  rank  as  first 
among  the  island  mountains  of  the  world. 

]\Iauna  Kea  has  probably  been  extinct  for  centuries,  but  iioi  Ioiil;  cuouuh 
for  the  abundant  rains  which  fall  on  its  northeast  side  to  furrow  out  ils  slopes 
more  than  half  way  to  its  summit.  Its  lower  slopes,  lio\v(  nci-.  arc  cut  up  into 
many  gulches  from  which  the  water  pours  into  the  ocean  from  the  liaiiLiiuu  val- 
leys that  notch  the  vertical  sea  clitt's  all  along  the  Hamakua  and  llilo  coast. 

As  is  usual  with  the  higher  mountains  of  the  group,  its  southwestern  slopes 
show  little  signs  of  erosion,  and  owing  to  the  comparatively  small  amount  of  rain 
that  reaches  that  side  it  is  almost  bare  of  vegetation.  The  effect  of  rainfall 
may  be  very  clearly  seen  here,  since  the  windM'ard  side  has  the  upper  limit  of 
its  important  vegetation  at  about  ten  thousand  feet,  whereas  the  dr^'  or  southern 
side  has  little  if  any  vegetation  on  its  slopes  above  seven  thousand  feet. 

The  top  of  this  mountain,  like  its  neighbor  JNlauna  Loa,  is  often  covered 
with  snow  that  sometimes  forms  a  glistening  v.-hite  cap  as  far  down  as  two 
thousand  feet  or  more  from  the  summit.  Unlike  Mauna  Loa  its  sky  line  does 
not  end  in  a  single  crater.  Its  elliptical  summit  is  rather  thickly  sprinkled 
with  a  num])er  of  cinder  cones;  about  two  dozen  l)eing  above  the  12.500-feet 
contour  line.  One  of  these  is  occupied  by  a  pond''  forty  feet  deep  and  several 
acres  in  extent.  The  pond  is  filled  with  water  from  the  melting  snow  and  on 
several  occasions  has  been  found  frozen  over  solid  enough  to  bear  the  weiglit  of 
adventurous  mountaineers. 

Lower  dov/n  there  are  a  large  number  of  small  cones,  as  many  as  seventy- 
five  having  been  enumerated  above  the  6,500-foot  coidoui'  on  the  survey  maps, 
while  the  outline  of  the  lower  flanks  of  the  mountain  is  also  relieved  by  tlicin. 
At  about  twelve  thousand  feet  elevation  there  still  remains  the  evidence  of  an 
old  adze  quarry"  from  which  the  old-time  Hawaiians  secured  much  of  the  solid 
clinkstone  used  by  them  in  the  manufacture  of  th(=ir  stone  iniphMuents. 

The  Ascent  of  Mauna  Kea. 

]\Iauna  Kea  may  be  ascended  from  Waimea  by  way  of  the  llumuula  sheep 
station  on  the  southwest,  and  on  the  east  side  from  ilihi  by  way  t)f  Ship- 
man's  ranch.  Horses  may  be  I'itUU'u  to  the  summit  i)lati'au.  The  rise  of  the 
mountain  is  gradual,  averaging  about  four  hundred  feet  elexatiou  to  the  mile. 
From  the  plateau  at  the  summit  a  spU'udid  view  of  the  adjacent  mountain  is 
secured.  To  the  southwest  the  outline  of  the  sunuuit  crater  of  Mauna  Loa  can 
be  tiviced,  the  summits  being  about  t  \\-enty-fi  \'e  miles  apart.  The  northerly  shipe 
of  ]\launa    Loa   is  nnich  distigui'ed   by   recent    eruptions,   the   llows  of  1845,   1852. 


"Lake  Wiiinu.  '  Keaiiakakoi. 


152  XATUKAL   HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

1855    1880  and  181)0  all  Ix'ing'  i)laiiily  visible  from  the  summit  of  Mauna  Kea — 
the  white  mountain. 

Dr.  C.  H.  llii.-lu'(»c-k.  wlio  mach'  tlie  ascent  in  1885,  writing  of  the  recent 
flows  visible  on  .Mauan  Loa  says:  "They  are  narrow  and  tortuous  near  their 
sources,  spreading  out  low  down  into  ])lack  extensive  areas,  almost  coalescing. 
Besides  these,  others  of  prehistoric  age  can  be  traced  and  nowhere  can  one  be 
more  impressed  by  the  fact  that  the  mountain  has  been  built  up  by  intermittent 
lava  Hows,  and  can  appreciate  the  certainty  that  millions  of  years  were  required 
to  construct  1his  eminence."  When  not  covered  with  snow  the  surface  of  the 
plateau  of  .Mauna  Kea  is  described  as  a  desolate  gravelly  plain  on  which  occur 
five  or  six  specii's  of  phmts  resembling  those  of  the  colder  climates  of  high  alti- 
tudes. As  reported  by  Professor  INIacCaughey,  the  lake  at  the  summit,  though 
very  cold  throughout  the  year,  supports  a  very  luxuriant  growth  of  green  algae. 

HUALALAI. 

Along  the  western  coast  of  the  island  to  the  southwest  of  ]Mauna  Kea,  and 
about  •■<|ual  in  distance  from  Kohala  to  the  north  and  Mauna  Loa  to  the  south, 
is  Hualalai.  It  is  a  much  smaller  mountain  than  :\Iauna  Kea,  but  otherwise  re- 
sembles it  in  its  general  outlines  and  in  having  no  characteristic  summit  crater. 
It  is  8,269  feet  high  and  has  its  base  entirely  Avithin  the  Kona  district.  Its 
lower  base  slopes  quite  gradually,  but  the  ui)per  part  of  the  mountain  is  much 
steeper  and  is  rough  and  difficult  of  ascent.  The  north  side  of  the  mountain 
appears  quite  bare,  but  the  opposite  side  is  well  wooded.  Its  slopes  are  dotted  with 
many  cinder  cones — hundreds  perhaps,  which  increase  in  size  and  number 
toward  the  top. 

The  few  naturalists  who  have  ascended  this  lawless  mountain  have  found  its 
summit  covered  A\itli  crater  bowls,'^  cinder  cones  and  pit  craters.  Some  of  the 
craters  have  gravel  bottoms,  while  others  are  formed  with  hard  basalt  floors. 
One  of  the  features  of  the  summit  is  the  "bottomless  pit" — a  blow  hole  twenty 
feet  in  diameter  and  400  feet  deep. 

The  Eruption  of  1801. 

The  last  erui)tion  of  Hualalai  is  placed  at  about  1801.  It  occurred  from  an 
( )[)eti i  ug  on  the  sea  or  western  side  of  the  mountain.  From  there  the  lava  descended 
to  the  sea  in  a  wedge-shaped  stream.  The  flow  was  a  very  liffuid  one  and  is  said 
to  have  traveled  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles  in  two  or  three  hours.  This  flow  is 
believed  to  have  marked  the  extinction  of  the  volcanic  fires  beneath  the  mountain. 

An  early  missionary,  the  Rev.  William  Ellis,  gathered  an  account  of  the  erup- 
tion from  eye  witnesses,  who  were  living  in  1823,  about  twenty  years  after  the 
flow.  His  account  states:  "Stone  walls,  trees  and  houses  all  aave  way  before 
it,  even  large  masses  of  rock  of  hard  ancient  lava,  when  surrounded  by  the  fiery 
stream,  split  into  small  fragments  and,  falling  into  th^  burning  mass,  appeared 
to  melt  again  as  borne  b\-  it  down  the  mountain  side.      Offerings  were  presented 


'*  One  of  them   800   feet   in    diameter. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOi'OGKAPll Y  OF  llAWAii.  133 

and  luaiiy  hogs  thrown  alive  iiilo  the  stream  lo  a|)i)ease  the  anger  ol"  the  iiods, 
by  whom  they  supposed  it  was  directed,  to  stop  its  devastating  course.  All 
seemed  unavailing,  until  one  day  the  king  Kamehameha  went,  attended  by  a 
large  retinue  of  chiefs  and  priests,  and.  as  the  most  valuable  offering  he  could 
make,  cut  off  a  part  of  his  own  hair,  which  was  always  considered  sacred,  and 
threw  it  into  the  torrent.  A  da\'  or  two  aftei-  the  lava  ceased  to  flow;  the  gods, 
it  was  thought,  were  satisfied." 

The  Mountain  of  Puu  W.vawaa. 

On  the  north  slope  of  llualalai  near  its  base  and  in  plain  view  from  Iva- 
waihae  Bay,  is  a  curious  fluted  mountain  called  Puu  Waawaa."  Numerous  shal- 
low ravines  radiate  from  its  summit  in  all  directions,  clearly  the  woric  of  rain. 
Its  curious  form  is  of  interest  to  the  traveler,  but  it  has  been  seldom  visited 
by  scientists.  It  remained  for  Dr.  Whitman  Cross  of  the  V.  S.  Geological 
Survey  to  discover  that  the  terrace  bench  at  this  point  contains  lavas  i-icli  in 
alkali  feldspar,  a  discovery  of  importance  since  formally  only  basalt  and  allied 
rocks  have  been  credited  to  the  islands.  The  position  of  these  alkali  lavas 
indicate  the  possibility  of  an  older  and  extensive  eruption  forming  an  island 
beneath  the  later  basaltic  flows  of  the  great  mountains  of  Hawaii  that  rest  ui)on 
the  older  island  base. 

Mauna  Loa. 

An  examination  of  the  map  of  Hav.aii  will  show  Mauna  Loa.  the  second  largest 
active  island  volcano  in  the  world,  as  occupying  the  entire  southern  half  of  the 
island,  being  seventy-four  by  fifty-three  miles  in  its  base  dimensions  at  sea  level. 
It  terminates  in  the  great  active  crater,  Mokuaweoweo,  which  is  three  and  three- 
quarters  miles  ^"^  long  by  one  and  three-quarters  miles  in  width,  with  an  area  of 
3.70  miles. ^^  This  splendid  caldera,  the  most  perfectly  formed  crater  in  the 
islands,  is  enclosed  in  w^alls  from  five  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet  in  heii^ht. 
Like  its  neighbor  on  the  north,  the  top  of  Mauna  Loa  is  a  plateau,  its  high- 
est point  being  13,675  feet  above  the  sea,  or  more  than  30, ()()()  feet  above  the 
floor  of  the  ocean  about  the  group.  From  the  central  point  the  slopes  of  the 
mountain  radiate  at  a  fairly  uniform  angle  in  all  directions. 

Eough  lava  flows  of  aa  and  pahoehoe  w^hich  overlap  (>ach  other  extend  from 
near  the  summit  of  the  sea-shore  like  the  spokes  in  a  wagon  wheel.  They  show 
clearly  the  way  the  vast  mountain  has  been  slowly  bnilt  up  through  eonntless 
ages.  Owdng  to  the  altitude  and  the  amount  of  rough  lava  on  its  slo])es  the 
ascent  of  Mauna  Loa  is  an  exceedingly  difficult,  and.  in  many  respects,  a  dan- 
gerous task.  The  first  recorded  ascent  was  that  made  by  the  famons  traveler, 
John  Ledyard,  in  1779,  who  visited  Hawaii  as  a  member  of  ('ai)tain  Gook's 
party  on  his  last  voyage.  He  made  fairly  accurate,  though  nei-ess.ii'ily  fi-air- 
mentary,  record  of  the  general  features  of  the  mountain. 

The  second  attempt  to  explore  ]\launa  Loa  was  at  the  lime  of  Vancouver's 


»  3824    feet   elevation.  "' l)iiiieiisi()ii.s   in    feet:    19,r)0()   l.y   9,200   feet.  "2370  acres. 

11 


'4-1 
O 

"> 

s 

2; 


:^    o       i 


Cl4 


bJCi 

X 

^ 

■~ 

-"^ 

^ 

»^ 

£ 

X 

K^ 

>% 

;^ 

_o 

— 

'^ 

<^ 

> 

—H 

<^ 

.5 

( — 

■-^ 

,'-^ 

'S 

^ 

^ 

2: 

CI   aJ 

<J 

-•-§      [ 

r^-1 

•£  2 

r^ 

«^    ; 

5 

55 

=  1-^ 

rt           \ 

. 

^t    : 

~t" 

^    &D      ( 

-v 

^    C 

•r-t 

"^  r^ 

^^ 

S   s      I 

—    ^       ^ 

_      .u 

^ 

^  S; 

i^     1 

~        ' 

•^  •*     ' 

S    0) 

■r« 

> 

_      CS 

~  c 

»—     ^ 

Si;    1 

^  ^    . 

GEOI.OGY  AND  TOIMX  ;HA1MI  V  OK  HAWAII.  155 

visit.  All  MCcouiit  ot  the  ascent  iiiadi'  at  thai  tiiuc  was  rcconlcd  in  Ari-lnhald 
Menzie's  journal,  in  17!)4,  and  remained  uninihlished  until  brought  to  light 
through  the  researches  of  Prof.  Hitchcock  and  pi-inted  for  the  first  time  in 
Thrum's  Annual  for  1008.  ^[r.  Menzie  cah-idated  the  height  n\'  tlie  mountain 
by  use  of  tlu^  l)ar(uiieter  without  corrections  for  the  \  afiations  in  temperature  ^- 
and  made  it  but  forty-one  feet  less  than  tlu^  [)resent  accepted  altitude,  l-'roni  the 
time  of  Menzie's  ascent  to  th(^  ])resent  the  mountain  has  been  undei-  abnost  con- 
•stant  observation,  and  man\'  parties  of  competent  observers  have  attained  the 
summit.  Its  extensive  and  interesting  history  has  been  full\-  recorded  and  com- 
piled in  two  elaborate  monographs,  one  by  Prof.  Hitchcock  and  the  other  l)y 
Dr.  Brigham.  both  appearing  in  1909.  To  these  works  the  reader  is  referred 
for  detailed  accounts  of  the  long  series  of  eruptions,  the  bare  enumei*ation  of 
which  are  almost  beyond  the  scope  of  this  chapter. 

History  of  the  Eruptions  of  Mauna  Loa. 

However,  it  is  of  interest  to  know  that  eruptions  were  reported  on  .Manna 
Loa  in  1780  and  again  in  1803;  the  first  fully  recorded  eruption  occurred  in 
1832,  and  in  June  of  that  year  ^launa  Loa  is  reported,  by  the  Rev.  Joseph 
Goodrich,  to  have  ejected  lava  from  several  places  in  the  side  of  the  mountain, 
presunial)ly  some  little  distance  below  th(^  summit.  From  that  time  until  the 
last  eruptive  tlow^-^  the  lava  has  always  issued  from  the  weak  places  in  the  side 
of  the  mountain,  tliongh  the  caldera  at  the  summit  has  on  numerous  occasions 
become  active,  forming  a  lake  of  lava  without  iiows  taking  place. 

Of  the  fifteen  eruptions  resulting  iii  flows  that  have  occurred  on  Hawaii 
within  the  last  one  hundred  years,  twelve  have  had  ^lanna  Loa  as  their  source. 
The  eruption  of  1843  was  presaged  by  activity  in  the  crater  of  ^lokuaweoweo 
1)ut  after  a  few  hours  the  fire  died  down  in  the  crater  and  reappeared  on  January 
10,  1843,  in  two  places  on  the  northeastern  shonlder  of  the  mountain,  at  about 
11,000  feet  elevation;  from  these,  lava  ran  in  a  l)road  sheet  down  the  side  of 
the  monntain  for  about  sixteen  miles  direetlx"  towards  the  peak  of  .Mainia  Kea, 
fiowing  continuously  for  a  period  of  four  weeks.  In  the  saddle  between  the  two 
monntains  the  stream  widened  out  and  spread  over  the  plain,  being  four  and  a 
half  miles  across  in  the  widest  part.  One  branch  extended  a  considerable 
distance  down  tov;ards  Waimea  on  the  west,  evidently  uniting  with  a  former 
erui^tion  known  as  the  Keamuku  flow. 

The  flow  of  1851,  beginning  on  August  Sth.  A\as  announced  by  a  remarkably 
brilhaiit  display  accompanied  by  detonations  in  the  suinmit  crater.  This  tlow  is 
said  to  have  occnrred  from  an  opening  on  the  west  side  of  the  monntain  about 
1,000  feet  lielow  the  summit  and.  to  have  extended  for  ten  miles  westerly  in  the 
direction  of  Kealakekua.  It  lasted  only  about  four  days,  and  is  not  commonly 
shown  on  maps. 

In  the  following  year,  on  February  17.  1S.")2.  light  was  aii'ain  seen  on  the 
summit,  and  within   a  short  time  lava   broke  out   on   the   iiorthei-n   slope  of  the 


'-  Wniicli   would   i-pfhicp   the   altitude,    as  giveu   by   liim.    liy   alxiut   seventy   feet.  '•'  In    11)07. 


o 


c3 
it 


rt 

c 


^s^ 

■-  ^ 

A 

®     M 

^ 

—  s 

■^  o 

^ 

^— 

•-H       tS 

> 

'Jl 

■4-1 

K^ 

-1 

1—1 

QJ   08 

D 

.      > 

c  -fl 

H 

si  -^^ 

H 

CO     >i 

« 

^-^ 

tH 

Cmhs 

S    <0 

^  +^ 

-^    o 

•m' 

-^  ® 

-t 

^  fl 

^  ^ 

ffl    (3 

■^ 

?    O 

^    « 

-t^ 

^ 

^    ® 

-» 

."  -a 

-* 

•-*-  ^ 

X 

t:   ^ 

'^S    C 

£  3 

— '  -*j 

;^  K 

s  ® 

-3  aj 

^ 

c  ,a 

©  *j 

K     - 

0 

-     0 

""  ^ 

t^.*^ 

-     X 

s  » 

-J    ^ 

»u  .^ 

M      -^ 

S    0/ 

o 

a  n 

^-\ 

j: 

bO 

GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  157 

mountain,  in  plain  view  from  Hilo.  Fountains  leaped  three  or  four  hundred 
feet  in  the  air,  presenting  a  brilliant  spectacle,  but  within  twenty-four  hours 
the  activity  had  apparently  ceased.  Three  days  later,  February  20th,  lava  again 
broke  through  the  side  of  the  mountain,  much  lower  down  towards  Hilo,  and  the 
stream  of  fire  flowed  for  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  directly  toward  the  town.  This 
eruption  was  an  especially  violent  one,  the  stream  descending  with  astonishing 
rapidity.  Activity  lasted  about  five  months  and  came  to  an  end  when  its  stream 
was  about  ten  miles  from  Hilo  Bay.  It  is  a  privilege,  at  this  point,  to  quote 
from  the  vivid  description  of  this  eruption  and  flow  given  ]>y  the  great  mission- 
ary. Rev.  Titus  Coan,  to  whose  labors,  observations  and  faithful  chronicles 
of  the  activities  of  Pele  not  only  Hawaii  but  science  and  the  world  owes  so  much. 

On  the  morning  of  February  23rd,  three  days  after  the  flow  started  on  the 
Hilo  side,  this  experienced  mountaineer  started  with  a  party  to  visit  the  source 
of  the  flow.  On  the  flfth  day  of  battling  with  the  tropical  jungle  he  reached 
the  awful  crater  and  stood  at  last  in  the  light  of  the  fire  at  its  source. 

"It  was  a  moment  of  unutterable  interest.  I  seemed  to  be  standing  in  the 
presence  and  before  the  throne  of  the  eternal  God,  and,  while  all  other  voices 
were  hushed,  His  alone  spoke.  I  was  10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  vast  soli- 
tude untrodden  by  the  foot  of  man  or  l)east;  amidst  a  silence  unbroken  by  any 
living  voice,  and  surrounded  by  scenes  of  terrific  desolation.  Here  I  stood — 
almost  blinded  by  the  unsuft'erable  brightness ;  almost  deafened  with  the  startling 
clangor;  almost  petrified  with  the  awful  scene.  The  heat  was  so  intense  that 
the  crater  could  not  be  approached  within  forty  or  fift>'  yards  on  the  windward 
side,  and  probably  not  within  two  miles  on  the  leeward.  The  eruption,  as 
before  stated,  conunenced  on  the  very  summit  of  the  mountain, i^  but  it  would 
seem  that  the  lateral  pressure  of  the  emboweled  lava  was  so  great  as  to  force 
itself  out  at  a  weaker  point  on  the  side  of  the  mountain,  at  the  same  time  crack- 
ing and  rending  the  mountain  all  the  way  down  from  the  suminit  to  the  place 
of  ejection. 

"The  mountain  seemed  to  be  siphunculated;  the  fountain  of  fusion  being- 
elevated  some  two  or  three  thousand  feet  above  the  lateral  crater,  and  being- 
pressed  down  an  inclined  subterranean  tube  escaped  through  this  valve  with  a 
force  which  threw  its  burning  masses  to  the  height  of  four  or  five  hundred  feet. 
The  eruption  first  issued  from  a  depression  in  the  mountain,  ])ut  a  rim  of  scoriiv 
two  hundred  feet  in  elevation  had  already  been  formed  around  the  orifice  in 
the  form  of  a  hollow  truncated  cone.  This  cone  was  about  a  mile  in  circum- 
ference at  its  l)ase,  and  the  orifice  at  the  top  may  have  been  three  hundred  feet 
in  diameter.  I  approached  as  near  as  I  could  bear  the  heat  and  stood  amidst 
the  ashes,  cinders,  scorite,  slag  and  ]Mimice,  which  were  scattered  wide  and 
wildly  around.  From  the  horrid  throat  of  this  cone  vast  and  continuous  jets 
of  red-hot,  and  sometimes  white-hot,  lava  were  being  ejected  Avith  a  noisp  that 
was  almost  deafening  and  a  force  which  threatened  to  rend  the  rocky  ribs  of 
the  mountain  and  to  shiver  its  adamantine  pillars.      At  times,  the  sound  seemed 


^*  By   fire   showing   in    the   summit   t-rater. 


158  NATIT^VL    TTTSTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

subterranean,  deep  .-iikI  iiif.M-ii;)l.  First  a  i-iiiul)lin,y.  a  muttering,  a  hissing,  a 
deep  premonitory  sui-giiiir:  Hkmi  followed  an  awful  explosion,  like  the  roar  of  a 
broadside  in  a  naval  battle,  or  the  quick  discharge  of  pack  after  pack  of  artillery 
on  the  Held  of  carnage.  Sometimes  the  sound  resembled  that  of  10,000  furnaces 
in  full  bla.st.  Again  it  was  like  the  rattling  of  a  regiment  of  musketry;  and 
sometimes  like  the  booming  of  distant  thunder.  Th-  detonations  were  heard 
along  the  shore  at  Ililo. 

'•Tlie  eruption  was  not  intermittent  but  continuous.  Volumes  of  the  fusion 
were  constantly  ascending  and  descending,  like  a  jet  (Veau.  The  force  which 
expelled  these  igneous  eolunnis  from  the  orifice  shivered  them  into  millions  of 
fragments  of  une<iual  size,  some  of  which  woidd  be  rising,  some  falling,  some 
shooting  olf  laterally,  others  describing  graceful  curves;  some  moving  in  tangents, 
and  some  falling  back  in  vertical  lines  into  the  mouth  of  the  crater.  Every 
particle  shown  with  the  bi-illianey  of  Sirius  and  all  kinds  of  geometrical  figures 
were  being  i'orini'd  and  broken  up.  No  tongue,  no  pen,  no  pencil  can  portray 
the  l)eauty.  the  grandeur,  the  terrible  sublimity  of  the  scene. 

"To  l)e  appreciated,  it  must  be  felt.  *  *  *  *  Durin-' the  night  the  scene 
surpassed  all  powers  of  description.  Vast  eolunnis  of  lava  at  a  white  heat  shot 
up  continuouslx  in  the  ever- varying  forms  of  ])illars.  pyramids,  cones,  towers, 
turrets,  spires,  minerets,  etc.,  while  th(^  descemling  showers  poured  in  one  in- 
cessant cataract  of  fire  u])()n  the  rim  of  the  crater  down  its  Inirning  throat  and 
over  the  surrounding  areas;  each  falling  avalanche  containing  matter  enough  to 
sink-  the  proudest  ship.  A  large  fissure  opening  through  the  rim  of  tlie  crater 
gave  vent  to  the  molten  flood  which  constantly  ])oured  out  of  the  orifice  and 
i-olled  down  the  mountain  in  a  deep,  broad  river,  at  the  rate  probably  of  ten 
miles  an  hour.  This  fiery  stream  we  could  trace  all  the  way  down  the  mountain 
until  it  was  hidden  from  our  eyes  by  its  windings  in  the  forest,  a  distance  of 
some  thirty  miles.  The  sti'eam  shown  with  a  great  brilliancy  by  night,  and  a 
horizontal  dra])ery  of  light  hung  over  its  whole  course.  But  the  great  furnace 
on  the  mountain  was  the  all-absorbing  object." 

Three  years  later,  in  August,  1855,  and  continuing  for  sixteen  months,  oc- 
curred the  greatest  flow  of  the  century.  The  {)oint  of  emergence  was  at  an 
elevation  of  12,000  feet  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  mountain,  and  the  molten 
river  took  a  course  directly  for  llilo.  After  fifteen  or  sixteen  months  of  con- 
tinuous flowing-,  during  which  the  flood  advanced  at  about  a  mile  each  w(H'k,  tlie 
erui)tion  came  gradually  to  an  end,  having  sent  a  stream  of  lava  for  a  distance 
of  many  miles  down  the  mountain  side,  that  in  places  was  eight  miles  in  width 
at  the  widest  part.  As  its  lower  end  came  within  five  miles  of  Hilo  the  (luiet 
village  was  greatly  alarmed,  but  fortunately  no  damage  was  done. 

In  1859  activity  shifted  to  the  northwestern  side  of  the  mountain.  A  flow 
started  on  January  23d  at  an  elevation  of  10,500  feet,  that  came  down  to  the 
sea  on  the  northwest  coast  in  two  branches,  at  a  point  just  north  of  Kiholo. 
On  January  81st  the  stream  had  reached  the  sea,  miu-e  than  thirty-three  miles 
in  a  direct  line  from  its  source — the  first  eruption  in  historic  times  from  a  liiuh- 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  II AAV. \  II.  139 

altitude  to  accomplisli  the  extraordinary  feat.  The  river  of  molten  stone  con- 
tinued to  How,  advancing  a  great  part  of  its  h-iiulli  throimh  its  self-made  conduit, 
)ititil  some  time  diii-iiiL;'  -TuIn'. 

The  Earthqu.vke  of  1868. 

The  date  of  1868  is  made  memoi'abie  in  tlie  annals  of  Hawaiian  iiistor\-  l)y 
reason  of  the  severe  earthquakes  which  preceded  and  attended  the  eruption  of 
that  year.  The  eruption  wliich  took  place  low  down  on  the  Kau  slope — the 
opposite  side  of  ^Inuna  Loa  from  wliieh  [)revious  eruptions  had  issued — was  an- 
nounced, as  usual,  by  activity  in  the  sunnnit  crater.  On  March  1^7th  smoke 
was  seen  issuing  from  the  top  of  the  mountain.  Within  half  an  hour  a  cdlumii 
of  illuminated  cloud  had  risen  to  the  height  of  ten  or  fifteen  miles,  hut  the  flow 
did  not  occur  at  once.  During  the  few  days  immediately  following  that  portion 
of  the  island  was  in  an  almost  continual  state  of  earth  shock.  On  Api-il  2nd  a 
terrific  earthquake  took  place  which  shook  down  every  stone  wall  and  almost 
every  house  in  the  Kau  district.  The  greatest  shock  occurred  in  the  vicinity  of 
Waiohinu,  where  the  stone  church  and  other  buildings  were  complete!  \'  demol- 
ished. The  earth  continued  to  tremble  until  April  7th,  when  lava  broke  out  in 
Kahuku  five  thousand  six  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  through  a  great  rent  in  the 
mountain  side  that  was  ten  miles  from  the  ocean.  The  lava  spouted  several  hun- 
dred feet  high  and  in  two  hours  the  torrent  of  fire  reached  the  sea.  Within  the 
five  days  that  it  continued  to  flow,  as  much  lava  was  poured  out  as  would  have 
issued  from  a  rupture  at  a  higher  elevation  in  months.  While  no  livi's  wei'e  lost 
in  the  flow  three  men  were  imprisoned  several  days  on  a  hill  that  was  completely 
surrounded  by  the  lava  flood,  and  several  houses  and  a  lai-ge  nund)er  of  cattle 
were  destro^^ed,  while  more  than  four  thousand  acres  of  good  land  were  turned 
into  a  worthless  heap  of  stone. 

The  earthquake  detached  a  large  mass  of  clayey  soil  on  the  mountain  side 
at  Kapapala,  causing  a  destructive  land-slide  or  "mud  flow"  to  rush  down  tlie 
valley  for  three  miles  in  a  stream,  half  a  mile  wide  and  thirty  feet  deej).  Thii-ty 
human  beings  and  five  hundred  or  more  domestic  animnls  were  ovei'w  helmed 
by  this  earth  avalanche. 

Immediately  following  the  earthquake  an  inunense  tidal  wave,  estimated 
to  be  forty  or  fifty  feet  in  height,  rolled  in  on  the  Kau  coast  and  swe|)t  away 
several  villages,  drowning  eighty  people  and  h-aviuL;  the  survivors  destitute. 
While  these  events  were  transpiring  on  the  mighty  uiountaiu  of  .Ma)ina  Loa, 
the  lava  in  Kilauea  escaped  through  a  great  fissure  which  opened  low  down  to 
the  southwest  of  the  crater.  As  the  lava  escaix'd  it  left  in  Kilauea  a  pit  thi'ee 
thousand  feet  long  and  five  hundred  feel  deej).  Durinu  th(»  same  \eai-,  while  the 
people  were  still  in  an  anxious  mood,  on  .\ugust  loth  the  sea  about  the  islands 
made  a  sudden  rise  and  fall  which  although  attributed  by  souu'  to  M.iuiia  Koa  at 
the  time,  was  later  found  to  be  caused  by  a  tei-rible  earHupiake  in  i*eru  and 
Ecquador. 

The  great  flow  of  1880,  as  usual  was  announced  by  a  beacon  from  ]\Iokua- 


--Ti  C  '5l>'*i" 


:  ■;,» 


<4-l 

o 
o 


Tt< 


a 

_c 

-fj 

u^ 

^ 

tH 

0) 

a 

■^ 

03 

O 

h:^ 

oS 

M 

O 

)— 1 

S 

<^ 

03 

^ 

§ 

< 

d 

m 

o 

}-i 

^ 

o 

o 

O 

>^ 

P^ 

&q 

& 

^ 

H 

P 

:::) 

m 

CO 

—, 

— ^ 

s 

^ 

<: 

? 

^ 

J 

Q 

•rH 

■>-^ 

r* 

a; 

M 

CO 

S 

-h 

<li 

O 

K 


o 

a 


15  ^ 


03 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  101 

weoweo.  The  liiilit  first  seen  on  ^Nlay  1st  disappeared,  however,  and  nothinti'  of 
note  occurred  until  November  .Ith,  when  a  flow  started  t'l-din  Ihc  iiorllicast  slope 
of  Mauna  Loa  at  a  point  in  the  vicinity  of*  the  soui'ce  of  the  How  of  1855.  It 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  ei'uptions  and  flows  on  rccoi-d  in  thr 
islands.  Although  the  amount  of  lava  poured  out  did  not  equal  that  of  the 
'55  flow,  the  distance  covered  was  "reater  than  that  of  any  How  from  any  island 
volcano. 

From  an  opening  in  the  side  of  the  mountain  at  an  altitude  of  abont  11,000 
feet  the  stream  soon  divided  into  three  branches.  The  first  branch,  known  as 
the  Kea  stream,  ran  in  the  direction  of  that  mountain  and  terminated  in  t la- 
flat  between  the  two  mountains.  The  second,  the  Kan  stream,  ran  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Kilauea  and  was  plainly  seen  from  the  A^olcano  House.  The  main  stream, 
however,  continued  in  the  direction  of  Hilo,  where  on  August  10,  1881.  it  finally 
stopped  at  a  point  only  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  town,  after  flowing  in 
a  tortuous  course  more  than  thirty-five  miles  in  length.  As  the  stream  slowly 
but  surelv  worked  its  wav  nearer  and  nearer  the  town,  excitement  was  intense, 
not  only  in  Hilo  but  throughout  the  group.  But  at  last,  after  nine  months  of 
activity,  the  flow  finally  stopped,  leaving  the  city  unharmed. 

In  December  of  the  year  1886,  earthquakes  became  frequent  and  violent  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  mountain ;  about  Kahuku  they  increased  in  frequency 
until  from  three  to  six  hundred  were  noted  by  different  observers  in  the  two  or 
three  days  between  January  17th  and  January  19th,  1887.  Light  was  seen 
at  the  summit  several  times  during  this  period,  but  it  was  on  the  afternoon  of 
the  18th  that  the  outbreak  occurred  at  6,500  feet  elevation  and  at  a  point  twenty 
miles  from  the  sea  on  the  Kahuku  side  of  Mauna  Loa. 

The  following  day  l\v  noon  the  lava  stream  had  reached  the  sea  at  a  point 
four  miles  west  of  the  flow  of  1868.  By  noon  of  the  24th  the  flow  ceased,  l)u! 
not  until  more  lava  had  been  poured  forth  than  during  the  earlier  flow. 

Activity  was  renewed  in  1899  on  the  north  slope  of  ^launa  Loa  at  what 
was  called  the  Dewey  Crater,  out  of  compliment  to  the  distinguished  admiral 
whose  achievement  at  Manila  Bay  was  coincident  with  that  of  the  eruption.  On 
June  20th  earth  shocks  were  felt  in  Hawaii,  and  on  July  1st  light  was  to  be 
seen  over  the  pit  in  the  top  of  the  mountain.  On  July  5th  th(  re  came  an  out- 
break of  lava  on  the  slopes  six  miles  northeast  of  ^loknaweoweo.  The  point  of 
eruption  was  at  an  elevation  of  near  11,000  feet,  a  short  distance  above  the 
point  of  origin  of  the  1880  flow.  Fountains  of  fire  could  be  seen  spouting  high 
in  air,  and  parties  started  at  once  from  Hilo  and  the  Volcano  llonse  to  visit 
the  soiu-ce  of  the  flow.  It  was  found  that  two  fountains  were  in  operation 
almost  a  mile  apart,  but  later  the  upper  one  died  down  and  a  third  hecjune 
active  near  the  second.  The  streanLs  fi-om  these  fountains  united  and  flowed 
towards  Mauna  Kea.  The  lava  continued  to  flow  until  July  L'titli.  ruiuiing 
fifteen  miles  from  its  source  in  a  stream  which  was  a  mile  in  width  at  the  widest 
part. 

Eight  years  passed  before  Mauna  Loa  again  gave  forth  an  ei-uptive  flow. 


-ffi 


re  jt: 
< 


> 

< 


c   > 


z  2  * 


a: 


< 
> 


Eh 

<; 

0^ 


c  — 


=1^     . 


o 

C 

^ 

Oj 

0 

O 

0-1 

^ 

c 

OC-. 

I-( 

of 

^ 

^ 

o3 

> 

^' 

_ct 

<: 

.5      >■■ 

M   -f    C 

o  ^  o 


5Sn 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  IIAWAIL  163 

As  usual,  the  fii'st  inliination  of  Mc1ivit\-  was  ^iven  liy  the  lurid  fi'lare  over  the 
summit  crater.  Ou  -lamiary  9tli  sli,uli1  ('ai1li(|uak-cs  wen-  IVIl  on  Hawaii,  and 
on  the  night  of  January  10th,  PX'T,  Mauna  l^oa  was  crowned  with  a  bright 
light.  A  few  hours  later  the  molten  tiood  broke  through  the  walls  of  the  great 
mountain  on  the  southerly  or  Kahuku  side  of  the  dome,  at  a  place  8,500  feet 
above  the  sea  and  at  a  point  abont  one  half  the  distance  from  the  sea  to  the 
summit  of  the  mountain.  The  tiow  in  its  course  down  tlie  mountain  passed 
near  the  path  of  the  1887  flow.  About  the  middle  of  its  course  the  stream 
divided  into  two  main  divisions,  with  smaller  branches  to  right  and  left.  The 
two  main  liranches  crossed  the  government  road  five  miles  apart  on  the  night 
of  January-  13th.  i.  e.,  within  three  days  from  the  time  of  the  oulbi-eak.  Neither 
of  the  streams  in  their  divided  and  Aveakened  condition  had  force  enonuh  1o 
reach  the  sea.  Both  came  finally  to  a  halt  on  January  24th,  about  four  mih-s 
from  the  shore  and  within  ten  days  from  the  time  the  flow  bi-oke  out  on  the 
mountain  side.  It  has  been  estimated  that  in  the  upper  part  of  the  stream  the 
lava  flood  advanced  at  the  rate  of  seven  miles  an  hour,  but  lower  down  its  ad- 
vance was  slow  and  majestic.  Several  hundred  people  from  the  vicinity  and 
from  the  other  islands  of  the  group  rushed  to  the  scene  and  were  favored  with 
a  splendid  view  of  nature's  most  awe-inspiring  spectacle. 

On  November  25,  1914,  white  fumes  were  seen  rising  above  the  crater  on  the 
summit  of  ^Eauna  Loa.  By  evening  the  fume  eolunnis  were  seen  to  rise  to  a 
height  of  6,000  feet  or  more  above  the  mountain,  and,  illuminatetl  l)y  the  light 
from  beloAv,  presented  a  spectacle  of  splendid  magnitude  and  beauty.  It  was 
generally  thought  that  this  manifestation  was  the  percursor  of  the  usual  type  of 
outbreak  and  flow,  but  this  event  did  not  transpire.  After  a  short  period  of  vary- 
ing activity,  confined  entirely  to  the  crater  of  ^lokuaweoweo,  the  outbreak  sub- 
sided until  no  activity  was  visible  from  the  observatory  at  Kilauea. 

Lava  Discharged  in  the  li)07  Flow. 

Mr.  E.  D.  Baldwin  has  estimated  that  the  flow  of  1907  covered  nine  hun- 
dred acres  of  rough  land  and  that  a  volume  of  two  hundred  million  cul)ic 
yards  of  basaltic  material  was  poured  out.  The  flow  of  1855  covered  15,000 
acres  and  represented  a  discharge  of  six  hundred  million  cubic  yards  of  basalt. 
The  flow  of  1880-81  covered  20,000  acres  and  equalled  at  least  five  hundred  and 
forty  million  cubic  yards  of  lava.  These  estimates  are  necessai-ily  suggestive 
rather  than  accurate.  When  we  look  at  the  mountain  as  a  whoh'  we  see  numer- 
ous streams  of  similar  proportions  showing  plainly  on  its  surface.  Looking 
deeper  we  find  it  made  up  of  countless  thousands  of  similar  streams  and  con- 
clude that  at  the  present  rate  of  gi'owth  millions  of  \-eai's  lia\c  elapsul  since 
the  building  of  the  mountain  first  ])egan. 

Work  ok  Hawaii's  Volcanoes. 

It  should  be  observed  that  during  the  period  of  more  than  one  hundred 
years  that  Mauna  Loa  and  the  volcanoes  of  Hawaii  have  been  under  obsei'vation 


164  XATUEAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

not  a  sintilt"  im'Inoh  lias  perished  in  the  molten  tloods  that  time  and  time  ai;ain 
have  been  (xunvd  out.  ihoutrh  tens  of  thousands  of  acres  of  the  island's  moun- 
tain slopes  have  been  made  desolate  and  blackened,  so  that  fertile  land  and  peace- 
ful valleys  have  been  choked  and  left  worthless  when  the  torrent  of  liquitied 
stone  had  ceased  to  flow.^^ 

One's  veneration  for  this  oTeat  mountain  increases  when  it  is  understood 
that  it  is  ill  lliis  way  and  by  the  same  process  that  the  whole  group  of  islands 
has  been  biiill  up.  A  large  view  of  the  amplitude  of  geologic  time  can  be 
oaiiK'd  by  reference  to  a  map  showing  the  comparatively  small  proportion  of 
the  foiii'  Ihousand  s(|uare  miles  of  the  surface  of  Hawaii  that  after  all  has  been 
sccmrged  by  tire  within  one  hundred  years.  But  when  it  is  known  that  all  the 
material  which  composes  this  island,  like  that  of  the  other  islands  of  the  group, 
must  have  been  forced  up  from  beneath  the  tioor  of  the  ocean  to  be  poured  out 
on  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  one  can  better  understand  how  great  the  combined 
flows  must  have  been.  However,  in  arriving  at  an  understanding  of  the  amount 
of  volcanic  work  that  has  been  done  in  the  group  it  is  important  to  take  into 
account  the  broad  bases  of  the  islands  as  well  as  that  portion  which  towers  above 
the  ocean's  surface. 

Geologists  are  fond  of  regarding  Mauna  Loa  as  an  excellent  example  of  a 
volcanic  mountain  that  has  gone  on  slowly  adding  to  its  bulk  until  it  has  attained 
to  near  the  limit  in  altitude  to  which  the  subterranean  forces  can  lift  a  column 
of  ]i(|ui<l  lava. 

The  story  of  the  titanic  phenomenon  attending  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
lava  ill  the  chimney  Avliich  ends  with  the  summit  crater  on  ]\[auna  Loa  would 
furnish  material  for  an  interesting  chapter,  but  it  seems  wise  to  devote  the 
limited  space  available  to  a  brief  account  of  the  active  volcano  Kilauea,  on  the 


remaining  mountain  of  the  island. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

KILAUEA,   THE   WORLD'S   GREATEST   ACTIVE   VOLCANO. 

Reference  to  a  map  will  show  Kilauea  located  apparently  on  the  slope  of 
Mauna  T^oa  and  well  to  the  southeastern  part  of  the  island  of  Hawaii.  The 
name  is  directl\-  applied  to  the  world's  largest  active  crater,  which  in  reality 
is  the  center  of  activity  of  a  shattered  mountain  4,0-10  feet  high.  As  the  crater 
is  easily  reached  by  automobile  and  train  from  Hilo  Bay,  on  the  north,  and  as 
the  journey  can  be  extended  past  the  crater  to  Honuapo  on  the  sea-shore  on 
the  opposite  or  southern  side  of  the  mountain,  where  the  steamei"  can  be  taken 
for  the  return  trip  to  Honolulu  by  way  of  the  Kona  coast,  there  is.  perhaps,  no 
better  way  for  completing  our  account  of  the  geology  and  toi)ography  of  Hawaii, 
and  at  the  same  time  presenting  the  grandeur  of  the  crater  and  the  pleasure  of 
the  journey  to  it,  than  bv  following  the  route  ordinarilv  taken  bv  tourist  travel- 


'°  The  mud  flow  of  1868,  luuvovpr,   i-Iaiined  a  large  nuiuVier  of  human   victims. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGKAIMIY  UF  HAWAII.  lo5 

ers.  But  before  such  a  joiiriicy  is  undertaken  it  is  well  to  be  iiiforiued  of  some 
of  the  more  important  facts  connected  wilh  Kilaiica's  lonnr.  varied  and  inter- 
esting history,  a  history  that  in  a  way  prepares  tlic  visildi'  ti)  j'ppreciate  what 
is  to  be  seen  at  the  great  caldera  as  one  stands  on  the  vci-y  Iti'ink  of  the  burning 
lake  where  the  island-building  activity  is  actually  going  on. 

KiLAUEA  AN  Independent  Crater. 

Geologists  supposed  for  a  great  many  years  that  Mauna  Loa  and  Kihiuea 
were  very  closely  related  or  sympathetic  volcanoes.  Further  study,  however, 
has  demonstrated  that  they  are  distinct  in  all  essential  features  and  may  act  in 
the  main  entirely  independent  of  each  otlier,  though  there  may  be  some  remote 
connection,  as  the  eruptions  in  1832,  '49.  '55,  '68,  '77,  '87  and  1907  occurred  in 
both  craters  during  the  same  years.  The  belief  in  reference  to  their  intimate 
relation  seems  to  have  grown  from  hasty  conclusions  based  on  llie  superficial 
fact  of  their  proximity,  their  relative  size  and  the  further  fact  tluit  they  both 
were  more  or  less  continually  active.  To  the  casual  observer  Kilauea,  situated 
as  it  is  on  the  southeastern  slope  of  Mauna  Loa,  appears  to  be  but  a  secondary 
crater,^ — a  mere  wart — on  the  side  of  the  great  dome  that  rises  almost  ten  tliou- 
sand  feet  above  it. 

Whether  Kilauea  was  formed  before  or  after,  or  at  the  same  time  with 
Mauna  Loa,  its  action  in  recorded  time  has  generally  l)een  of  a  character  to  ])rove 
it  more  or  less  independent  of  the  summit  crater.  AVbile  eruptions  have  taken 
place  on  top,  Kilauea,  much  lower  down  and  only  sixteen  miles  distant,  has 
often  exhibited  no  signs  of  active  sympathy.  So  throu<i'h  a  long  period  of 
activity  it  has  proved  itself  to  be  a  distinct  crater,  doing  the  work  it  has  to  do 
in  its  own  way  and  for  that  reason  it  is  (juite  properly  admitted  to  l)e  the  worhl's 
greatest  active  crater. 


» 


Dimensions  of  Kilauea. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  Kilauea  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  few 
of  its  main  dimensions.  The  Volcano  House,  which  is  a  comfortal)le  hotel 
located  on  the  very  edge  of  the  crater,  is  4,040  feet  abov(»  tlie  •-lea.  The  crater 
from  north  to  south  measures  2.93  miles  ^  and  from  east  to  west  1.95  miles.- 
Its  circumference  is  7.85  miles  ^  and  the  floor  of  the  crater  has  an  area  of 
4.14  square  miles.^  From  the  \^)lcano  House  at  the  present  time  it  is  484  feet 
down  to  the  floor  of  the  crater,  which  is  made  up  of  an  uneven  mass  of  cold, 
ink-black,  shining  lava.  To  reach  the  ])resent  scene  of  action  the  visitor  nuist 
descend  into  the  crater  and  cross  over  this  floor  for  two  mih*s  to  the  brink  of 
the  pit  Halemaumau.  in  the  bottom  of  which  perhaps  one  hundred  and  flft\-  feet 
below  the  observer,  the  red  hot  hiva  will  he  seen  boiling  in  a  wild,  mad  fury. 

If  what  has  been  said  is  sufflcient  to  flx  in  mind  a  great,  rouglily  oval-sliaped 
crater  with  apx^roximately  vertical  walls,  and  to  make  it  clear  ^hat  the  bottom 
of  this  caldera  is  now  formed  of  black  lava  of  recent  origin,  and  that   it  is  five 


115,500  feet.  =  io,300  feet.  ^  41  500  feet.  ■>  2650  acres. 


BPf^ 


-i     Oj 


=4H     C 


(Ml 


" 


~  "^  .ti 

S  K    03 

=  > 

"  T*    cS 


rv        i     *^    O 

ti-      c  -r  -^ 


-•    ir 

=;  •*"  o 
--So 

s    s   o; 


>-. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOl'OGRAPllV  OF  HAWAII.  167 

1iiiik1i'(hI  feet  hclow  the  liiizhcst  [)(>iiit  "'  <iii  the  rim  >>f  llic  ci'jitci'.  aii'l  lluil  in 
historic  time  the  hlnck  lava  Hoor  has  iicvci-  hccii  liinlici-  than  it  is  ;!t  llic  present 
time — there  should  be  little  tliftieiilly  in  f(»l lowing'  a  eondeiised  lii^ory  of  Kilaiu^a. 
For  oui'  ])iii'|)(ise  its  history  can  l)est  he  related  by  se'ectin^'  e.xti'aets  from  a 
few  of  the  best  descriptions  of  conditions  at  the  eratei-  iaken  ri-oiii  1  he  many 
accounts  w  litten  l)y  eye  Avitnesses. 

An  Exploded  Mountain. 

This  is  done  with  a  view  to  bringing'  out  two  points:  the  first  that  just  as 
Manna  Loa  is  an  excellent  example  of  its  type.  Kilanea  is  an  example  of  a  dif- 
ferent and  rarer  type,  namely,  a  broken  down  or  exploded  voieaiio,  that  con- 
tinues active.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  it  is  spoken  of  as  "safe"  and.  so  far  as 
volcanoes  can  be,  is  regarded  as  perfectly  tame,  "docile,"  and  well-behaved. 
The  second  point  to  be  developed  is  that  of  the  character  and  periodicity  of  its 
normal  eruptions. 

The  explosion  or  explosions  which  undoubtedly  l)roke  Kilanea  down  and 
prevented  it  from  l)uilding  up  as  Mauna  Loa  has  liuilt  up,  has  left  an  un- 
mistakable geologic  record. 

Evidence  of  what  transpired  is  to  be  found  on  every  hand.  These  ex- 
plosions, of  Avhich  there  apparently  were  several,  must  have  l)een  in  the  very 
distant  past.  Their  etfect  was  to  weaken  and  shatter  the  walls  that  surrounded 
the  crater,  leaving  the. mountain  scarred  by  a  series  of  radial  and  concentric 
cracks  that  could  have  been  produced  only  by  an  explosion  deep  down  within 
the  crater.  As  a  consequence,  v.'hen  the  molten  lava  rises  to  a  certain  level  in 
the  crater,  the  pressure  becomes  so  great  on  the  lateral  walls  of  the  volcanic  pipe 
that  the  lava  Hood  breaks  through  some  weak  spot,  usually  far  down  under- 
neath, and  the  liquid  lava  often  tlows  (juietly  out  to  sea  through  .some  old 
deep-hidden  conduit. 

The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Liquid  Lava. 

Never  since  the  coming  of  white  man  to  Hawaii  has  there  I)eeu  suffi- 
cient force  to  lift  the  liquid  lava  over  the  l)i'ink  of  the  crater.  As  a  result  of 
these  subterranean  ventings  Kilanea  is  esteemed  as  the  best  example  of  a 
"welling"  crater  to  be  found. 

The  history  of  this  volcano  has  been  that  through  a  period  of  niontlis  or 
years''  the  pit  of  Ilalemaumau '^  tills  up  little  by  little  until  it  reaches  the 
maximum  of  height  and  pressure  that  the  walls  will  beai-.  Then.  owiuL;-  to  the 
enormous  lateral  pressure  exerted  by  the  molten  colunui  ol  la\a.  tiie  weakened 
walls  giv(^  way  and  the  crater  vents  itself.  The  la\a  lake  recedes  to  a  lower 
level,  often  disappearing  entirely,  oidy  to  lill  up  again  in  due  process  of  lime. 
Thus  in  the  welling  and  venting  of  Kilanea  we  have  a  sort  of  barometer  that 
indicates  the  conditions  prevailing  far  down  beneath  the  island. 


■''  Uwekahuna.  "  Perhaps  owing  to  soine  uiiUnown   iiilluriicc  of  the  goddi'ss  Pelo — wlio  knows! 

'  The  house  of  everlasting  fire. 


168  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

This  welliii':-  of  the  liquid  lava  is  in  marked  contrast  to  what  takes  place 
at  volcanoes  of  the  explosive  sort.  Their  vents  seal  over  after  each  explosive 
eruption,  and  to  all  appearances  they  die  out  apparently  to  remain  dead  forever 
Usually,  howevei-.  tho.\-  awake  and  explode  without  warning,  presenting'  a  magnifi- 
eent  spectacle  of  volcanic  power  that  results  too  often  in  all  the  horrors  attend- 
ing the  loss  of  life  and  property. 

At  Kilauca.  as  has  been  stated,  dift'erent  conditions  prevail.  The  action 
thci-e  is  coiitincd.  in  the  main,  within  the  crater  itself,  and  the  interest  centers 
in  what  actually  takes  place  in  the  lower  i)it  of  Ilalemaumau  rather  than,  as 
on  near-by  .Mauiia  Loa,  in  the  flow  which  may  course  down  the  mountain  side. 

The  Explosive  Eruption  of  1789. 

Willioiit  (l(>iil)t  one  of  the  most  remarkable  exhibitions  of  volcanic  force 
which  has  occurred  at  Kilauea  since  the  islands  were  first  inhabited  by  the  na- 
tives occurred  in  the  year  1789 — a  little  over  ten  years  after  the  discovery'^  of 
the  group  by  ('a|)tain  James  Cook. 

In  November  of  that  year,  Keoua,  a  native  chief  of  Hawaii,  with  a  band  of 
followers  set  (m\  from  Hilo  to  return  to  Kau  in  pursuit  of  a  rival  chief  whose 
warriors  in  liis  absence  were  invading  his  home  district.  Hastily  returning  from 
llilo  with  reinforcements,  the  shortest  route  took  him  by  the  overland  trail 
which  passed  the  brink  of  the  volcano  Kilauea.  They  camped  at  the  crater  two 
days,  during  which  time  it  was  very  active.  On  the  second  night,  being  in  a 
state  of  terror  and  scarcely  knowing  which  way  to  proceed,  they  divided  into 
three  companies,  presumably  for  safety,  and  set  out  upon  their  journey  in  fear 
and  trend)]ing.  The  party  in  the  lead  had  not  proceeded  far,  according  to  the 
historian  Dibble,  "before  the  ground  began  to  shake  and  rock  beneath  their  feet 
and  it  became  quite  impossible  to  stand.  Soon  a  dense  cloud  of  darkness  was 
seen  to  rise  out  of  the  crater,  and  almost  at  the  same  instant  the  electric  eft'ect 
upon  the  air  was  so  great  that  the  thunder  began  to  roar  in  the  heavens  and 
the  liuhtning  to  flash.  It  continued  to  ascend  and  spread  abroad  until  the 
whole  region  was  enveloped  and  the  light  of  day  entirely  excluded.  The  dark- 
ness was  the  more  terrific  being  made  visible  l)y  an  awful  glare  from  the 
streams  of  red  and  blue  light,  variously  combined,  that  issued  from  the  crater 
below,  and  lit  up  at  intervals  by  the  intense  flashes  of  lightning  from  above. 
Soon  followed  an  immense  volume  of  sand  and  cinders  which  were  thro^\^l  in 
high  heaven  and  came  down  in  a  destructive  shower  for  miles  around.  Some 
few  persons  in  the  forward  company  were  burned  to  death  l)y  the  sand  and 
cindcfs  and  others  were  seriously  injured.  All  experienced  a  suftocating  sensa- 
tion n])on  the  lungs  and  hastened  on  with  all  speed. 

"The  rear  body  which  was  nearest  the  volcano  at  the  time  of  the  eruption 
seemed  to  suffer  the  least  injury,  and  after  the  earthquake  and  shower  of  sand 
had  passed  over,  hastened  forward  to  escape  the  dangers  which  threatened  them, 


December  8,   1777. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  169 

<iii(l  I'cjoiciiiii'  ill  imitiuil  coii^ralulatiuu  tliat  tlu'V  had  \nx'i\  j)rc'si'rv('(_l  in  tlitj 
midst  of  such  imminent  peril.  But  what  was  their  surprise  and  consternation, 
when  eominu'  np  with  their  comrades  of  the  center  parly,  they  discovered  them 
all  to  have  become  corpses.  Some  were  lying  down,  and  others  sitting  upright, 
clasping  with  dying  grasp  their  wives  and  children  and  joining  noses''  as  in 
the  act  of  taking  final  leave.  So  nnieh  like  life  they  lookcil  that  they  at  first 
supposed  them  merely  at  rest,  and  it  was  not  until  they  had  conic  up  to  them 
and  handled  them  that  they  could  detect  their  mistake.  Of  the  whole  party, 
including  the  women  and  children,  not  one  of  them  sni-vived  to  relate  the 
catastrophe  that  had  befallen  their  comrades." 

This  eruption,  which  occurred  more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  years 
ago,  far  surpassed  any  subsequent  one,  and  being  explosive  in  character  was  of 
a  totally  different  nature  from  any  that  has  since  occurred.  It  does  not  SL'eni 
too  much  to  conclude,  therefore,  that  it  was  possibly  at  that  time  that  the  final 
breaking  down  and  shattering  of  the  mountain  occurred,  though  explosive  eruj)- 
tions  that  preceded  it  in  the  more  remote  past  must  have  been  much  more 
severe. 

At  any  rate,  during  the  fifteen  or  more  times  that  Kilauea  has  welled  up 
since  1789,  there  has  been  nothing  even  remotely  suggestive  of  an  explosive  erup- 
tion, and  it  is  the  general  belief  that  so  long  as  the  crater  remains  open  as  it 
now  is  there  is  little  or  no  danger  to  be  expected  from  it. 

Space  will  only  admit  detailed  reference  being  made  to  three  of  the  manv 
stages  through  which  this  crater  passes  in  completing  an  eruptive  cycle.  The 
material  here  presented  is  selected  from  the  wealth  of  descriptive  matter  now- 
available  from  the  records  of  its  varying  moods  left  covering  almost  one  hundred 
years,  and  from  which  I  have  condensed  a  brief  history  which  is  appended  in  the 
folloAving  chapter  for  convenient  reference. 

Conditions  at  the  Crater  in  1823. 

In  1823  the  crater  was  visited  and  described  for  the  fir.st  time  by  a  wliite 
man.  The  distinguished  missionary,  the  Rev.  William  Ellis,  witnessed  at  that 
time  a  wonderful  display.  From  his  description  we  conclude  that  the  crater  ap- 
peared far  different  from  what  it  does  now.  It  was  evidently  venting  itself  at 
the  time  of  his  visit  and  the  lava  was  flowing  out  from  deep  down  under  the 
lake  of  fire.  The  drawing  off  of  the  lake  of  lava  left  a  conii>ai-atively  nari-ow 
black  ledge  al)out  the  inner  wall  of  the  crater  on  all  sides  as  the  la\a  sanl':  lower 
and  loA\'er.  This  oliserver  found  a  place  at  the  north  end  of  the  crater  down 
which  he  descended  to  the  black  ledge.  His  first  impressions  of  the  crater, 
however,  were  those  gained  from  the  highest  point'*'  on  the  west  side  of  the 
crater,  eight  or  nine  hundred  feet  above  the  lava   lake,  and  were  as  follows: 

"Immediately  before  us  yawned  an  immense  gulf,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent, 
upward  of  two  miles  in  length,  about  a  mile  across,  and  ai»pareiitl\-  ei<|-ht  liuii- 


*  Their   form   of   expressing   affection.  ^°  Uwekaluni;i 

12 


^^ 


< 


< 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  TTAWATI.  171 

dred  feet  deep.  The  bottom  was  filled  witfi  lava  and  the  southwest  and  north- 
ern parts  of  it  were  one  vast  tlood  of  licpiid  lire  in  a  state  of  terrific  ebullition, 
rolling  to  and  fro  its  fiery  surge  of  flaming  billows.  Fifty-one  craters  of  varied 
form  and  size  rose  like  so  many  conical  islands  from  the  surface  of  the  burning 
lake.  Twenty-two  constantly  emitted  columns  of  gray  smoke,  or  pyramids  of 
brilliant  flame,  and  many  of  them  at  the  same  time  vomited  from  their  ignited 
mouths  streams  of  fluid  lava  which  rolled  in  flaming  torrents  down  their  black 
indented  sides  into  the  boiling  mass  below."  That  evening,  "between  nine 
and  ten,  the  dark  clouds  and  heavy  fog  that  since  the  setting  of  the  sun  had 
hung  over  the  volcano  gradually  cleared  away.  The  agitated  mass  of  li(iuid 
lava,  like  a  flood  of  molten  metal,  raged  with  tumultuous  whii-l.  The  lively 
flame  that  danced  over  its  undulating  surface  tinged  with  sulphurous  blue  or 
glowing  with  mineral  red,  cast  a  broad  glare  of  dazzling  light  on  the  indented 
sides  of  the  insulated  craters  whose  bellowing  mouths,  amidst  rising  flames  shot 
up  at  frequent  intervals  with  loudest  detonations,  spherical  masses  of  fusing 
lava  or  bright  ignited  stones."  The  following  year  Ellis  revisited  the  crater 
and  remarked  on  its  much  abated  activity. 

Kapiolani  Breaks  the  Speel  of  Pele. 

Brief  as  this  sketch  must  be,  I  am  impelled  to  interpolate  an  event  that 
occurred  in  the  history  of  the  islands  about  a  year  after  the  events  described 
by  Ellis.  Kapiolani, 11  daughter  of  a  great  chief  of  Hilo,  was  one  of  the  noblest 
characters  of  her  time.  Though  intemperate  and  dissolute  in  early  life,  she  soon 
became  an  example  of  virtue  and  refinement  to  her  countrywomen  and  excelled 
them  all  in  the  readiness  with  wdiich  she  adopted  civilized  habits  and  Christian 
customs.  In  December,  1824,  four  years  after  the  arrival  of  the  missionaries 
in  Hawaii,  she  determined  to  break  the  spell  of  Pele — the  dread  goddess  of  the 
volcano — to  whose  mythical  power  frequent  allusions  have  been  made. 

In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  her  friends  and  husband  she  made  a  journey 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  mostly  on  foot,  in  order  to  defy  the  wrath  of 
Pele  in  her  abode  in  the  crater,  and  thereby  prove  to  her  people  that  no  such 
being  existed. 

It  is  related  that  as  she  neared  the  volcano  she  was  met  by  an  old  pi-iestess 
of  Pele  who  warned  her  not  to  go  near  the  brink  of  the  crater,  and  ju'cilicted 
her  death  if  she  violated  the  tabus  of  the  great  goddess. 

Undaunted  by  the  warning  of  the  priestess,  Kapiolani   went    foi-wai'd  and 


11  The  captive  of  Heaven. 


Desokiptton    of    Platk. 

1.  The  sul]tliur  banks  near  the  Volcano  Jloiisc;  noto  tlie  effect  of  the  siilpliur  fiiinos  on 
the  trees  and  phmts.  2.  Kilaiiea-iki  with  the  floor  of  smooth  shiniiiir  black  lava.  In  the 
foreground  may  be  seen  the  flow  that  ran  into  the  pit  in  18:?2.  3.  Flashlight  view  in  Pele's 
reception  room.  The  light  streams  in  through  an  opening  in  the  roof  in  tiie  farther  end  of  the 
cave.  4.  Waldron's  Ledge  near  the  Vok'ano  House  sliowing  1  he  ili'|itli  of  the  crater  of 
Kilauea. 


172  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

spent  the  iiiglit  on  tlic  brink  of  the  crater  iu  a  rude  grass  hut  constructed  for 
her  shelter.  In  Ihc  luorninu  she  and  her  little  company  of  followers  descended 
into  the  ci-atcr  to  Hi.'  lila.-k  ledj^e  just  mentioned,  and  there  in  full  view  of  the 
grand  and  territie  action  of  the  inner  crater  at  her  feet,  she  ate  the  sacred 
ohelo  berries  consecrated  to  Pele,  and  hurled  stones  into  the  burning  lake,  saying 
"Jehovah  is  my  God.  lie  kindled  these  tires.  I  fear  not  Pele.  If  I  perish  by 
her  anger  then  you  may  fear  Pele,  but  if  I  trust  in  Jehovah  and  He  preserves 
me  when  breaking  her  tabus,  then  you  must  fear  and  serve  Him  alone.'' 

As  the  courageous  woman  was  unharmed  the  belief  in  the  mighty  spell  of 
Pele  was  broken,  and  tlius  v.as  accomplished  what  has  very  justly  been  called, 
"one  of  tile  greatest  acts  of  moral  courage  ever  performed." 

The  Eruption  and  Flow  of  1840. 

Returning  to  our  account  of  the  crater,  we  must  pass  over  the  remarkable 
eruption  of  1832,  when  in  two  years  the  lava  welled  and  dropped  a  thousand 
feet,  and  consider  for  a  moment  the  great  eruption  and  flow  of  1840.  which 
illustrated  so  splendidly  an  important  phase  of  activity  at  the  volcano. 

For  eight  years  after  the  eruption  of  1832  the  process  of  refilling  the  caldera 
of  Kilauea  had  been  going  on  until  at  last  the  black  ledge  surrounding  its  inner 
walls,  as  seen  and  described  by  Ellis,  had  been  covered  with  new  lava  about 
one  hundred  feet  deep.  Kilauea  after  eight  or  nine  years  of  cumulative  work 
was  ready  for  an  outbreak,  and  in  the  summer  of  1840  an  extensive  eruption 
took  place.      The  event  was  minutely  recorded  by  the  Rev.  Titus  Coan. 

After  a  period  of  iiitense  ebullition  in  the  i)it  the  customary  break-down 
occurred,  but  on  this  occasion,  in  place  of  venting  deep  down  in  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  the  lava  worked  its  way  to  the  eastward  in  the  direction  of  Puna  through 
some  old  subten-anean  conduit,  perhaps  a  thousand  feet  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  inountain.  until  it  emerged  in  the  bottom  of  an  ancient  wooded  crater,  eight 
miles  distant  from  Kilauea.  Its  course  all  the  way  to  this  place  could  be  dis- 
tinctly traced  by  the  rending  of  the  earth's  crust  into  innumerable  tissures  and 
by  the  emission  of  steam  and  gasses. 

Fi'om  the  old  crater,  which  was  four  hundred  feet  deep,  the  lava  stream 
continued  on  its  way  seaward;  part  of  the  time  deep  down  under  the  earth; 
part  of  the  time  flowing  over  the  surface  as  a  river  of  fire.  At  last,  flowing  in 
this  way  for  several  miles,  it  again  broke  out  like  an  overwhelming  flood,  and 
sweeping  forest,  hamlet,  plantation,  and  everything  before  it,  rolled  down  with 
resistless  energ\'  into  the  sea.  There,  leaping  a  precipice  of  forty  or  more  feet 
in  height,  it  pourinl  itself  in  one  vast  cataract  into  the  depths  below  with  loud 
detonations,  fearful  hissing,  and  a  thousand  unearthly  and  indescribable  sounds. 
Imagine  this  miuhty  Niagara  of  Are  pouring  its  livid  flood  into  the  ocean  night 
and  day  for  three  v/eeks.  The  atmosphere  in  all  directions  was  filled  with  ashes, 
spray  and  gasses;  the- coast  was  extended  into  the  sea  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  a 
sand  beach  and  a  new  cape  were  formed,  while  the  light  was  so  great  that  print 
could  be  read  at  midnight  fortv  miles  at  sea. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  173 

The  whole  course  of  this  stream  from  its  source  at  Kilauea  to  the  sea  was 
about  forty  miles.  During  the  flow  the  lava  in  the  crater  fell  about  300 
feet  and  Pole's  fires  became  nearly  extinct.  The  story  of  the  eruption  as 
given  by  Rev.  Titus  Coan  is  one  of  the  most  thrilling  accounts  of  volcanic  activity 
ever  written. 

Eruption  of  1892-94. 

So  many  and  so  varied  are  the  scenes  that  have  been  witnessed  at  the  crater 
that  it  is  necessary  to  select  only  such  as  may  form  types  of  its  activity.  For 
that  reason  we  pass  to  the  eruption  of  1892-94,  since  it  represents  the  height  of 
activity  within  the  crater  during  the  last  score  of  years,  and  it  is  especially 
interesting  as  the  conditions  then  were  the  culmination  of  a  period  of  activity 
similar  to  that  now  (1913)  in  progress  at  the  crater. 

Through  a  period  of  several  months  the  lava  in  the  pit  of  Halemaumau 
continued  to  rise  slowly  until  a  new  lake,  differing  from  those  that  had  preceded 
it.  A\as  formed  at  a  higher  level  than  had  before  been  known — 260  feet  be- 
low the  Volcano  House.  This  lake  was  held  in  a  superficial  bowl,  made  of  loose 
fragments  of  solidified  lava  that  were  more  or  less  firmly  cemented  together 
by  splashings  from  the  lake  within,  or  l)y  occasional  overflows  which  ran  down 
its  side  and  out  onto  the  floor  of  the  crater.  In  due  time  the  old  law  of  pres- 
sure went  into  effect  and  within  a  few  hours  the  liquid  lava  lake  had  vanished, 
leaving  the  pit  an  empty  smoking  chimney,  750  feet  deep. 

Activity  in  1902. 

In  August,  1902,  the  fires  in  the  bottom  of  the  pit  were  again  rekindled 
after  a  long  period  of  comparative  quiescence.  The  period  of  increased  activity 
at  this  time,  as  usual,  was  heralded  by  an  increase  in  the  volume  of  smoke-like 
vapor  which  issued  from  the  pit  of  Halemaumau.  Night  and  day  for  months 
this  great  titanic  chinme}^  rolled  its  cloud  of  heavy  vapor  skyward.  At  length 
the  never-failing  sign  of  a  change  came:  the  vapor  decreased  in  volume  and  be- 
came thinner  and  bluer.  Soon  after  an  eye  spot  of  fire  became  visible  ;i1  the 
very  bottom  of  Halemaumau,  750  feet  below  the  present  rim  of  the  ])it :  slowly-. 
day  by  day,  the  lava  lake  rose  and  increased  in  size,  being  fed  l)y  a  burning 
spring  from  below.  In  October  of  that  year  I  visited  the  crater  and  at 
that  time  made  a  careful  survey  and  sketch  model  of  the  whole  region.  fi-om 
which  data  I  afterwards  constructed  the  large  model  that  forms  the  central 
feature  of  the  exhibits  in  the  "Hawaiian  Hall"  in  the  Bishop  ]\[useum.  The 
lava  on  that  occasion  was  more  than  500  feet  down  in  the  ])it.  Soon  afterwards 
the  bottom  quietly  dropped  out  and  the  lake  of  fire  entirely  (lisa])peared.  and 
the  smoke-like  vapor  began  silently  and  steadily  to  gnsh  foi'tli.  ]\ladam  Pele 
of  her  own  accord  had  retired  once  more  deep  down  into  the  secret  inner  cham- 
bers of  her  ancient  abode. 

The  Activity  in  1907. 

With  the  exception  of  the  slight  activity  of  190;>  bnt  little  has  transpired 
in  the  pit  until  the  present  eruption  which  began  early  in  the  year  1907.  and  has 


z< 


S^-  2 

<—s     r-i 

^ 

-r  30  3 

< 

3^  5 

< 

How 
ng  in 
Halen 

< 

r\  -r" 

by  1 
rflow 
it  of 

h— ■ 

■ic?  a 

HH 

Xr  K* 

."   o  ® 

r^, 

-M    ^  J3 

— ( 

o 

•^    c5 

ct    -    O 

n.  z  -fj 

^.^ 

-^  -^  .^ 

r*. 

— i 

— '  c  25 

y 

S-2  ^ 
i:  cs  o 

feSq^ 

r-^ 

■■^  a' 

o 

i.^l 

=^-  ^° 

cc 

^ 

— - 

' —  ^    O 

!.-^ 

^       .    > 

-f-     '   *       tH 

, 

cS 

t- 

::     .  o 

-+ 

-•-2; 

r^^ 

X      — 

— 

S 

O    0.  o 

<i1 

■-  ^ 

^ 

"--    ^    c3 

P-> 

a  ^  o 

o  ■-   3 

-  ~  " 

^  ^i< 

o    „ 

~    y^  '-u 

,.  "^   ° 

—    ""^      — 

-=^§ 

bX  ;;  —       , 

.-  "    o 

**       .^ 

c  2  -1^ 

^  -  5 

o     - 

GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  175 

contimiecl  to  tlic  present  witli  mueli  variabilil.\-  in  llie  cliaraeter  ol'  the  lava  and 
with  many  spectacular  displays  that  have  been  enjoyed  by  an  increasing  com- 
pany of  travelers.  The  lava  in  Ilalemaumau  on  September  4th,  1908,  was  but 
ninety-five  feet  below  the  rim  of  the  pit.  By  the  follow  iiiiz'  summer  the  lake 
was  235  feet  below  the  rim.  l)iit  by  the  end  of  the  year  it  was  well  n|»  lowards  the 
black  mark  left  high  on  the  walls  of  the  pit  in  the  preceding  year. 

A  Visit  to  Kilauea  in  19UU. 

It  was  in  this  favorable  condition  for  observation  when  I  visited  the  crater 
in  December,  1909,  and  climbed  down  into  the  pit  to  the  very  edge  of  the  burn- 
ing lake.  As  that  journey,  out  of  the  several  that  I  have  made  to  the  volcanic 
region  was  an  especially  pleasant  one,  I  venture  to  relate  brietly  the  main  inci- 
dents of  the  outing  since,  to  the  tourist,  as  well  as  those  who  are  so  fortunate 
as  to  live  in  Hawaii,  the  visit  to  Kilauea  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  experi- 
ences of  a  lifetime. 

The  trip  from  Honolulu  to  Kilauea  is  always  pleasant  and  well  worth  mak- 
ing, no  matter  whether  the  crater  is  active  or  not.  The  journey  b_\-  1)()at,  although 
rough  while  crossing  the  channels  between  the  islands  is  filled  with  varied  and 
delightful  experiences  for  the  traveler.  The  scenery  from  the  steamer's  deck  is 
everywhere  and  at  all  times  most  fascinating.  The  landing  at  Lahaina,  ]\[aui, 
the  quaint  old  capital  of  the  group,  the  sunrise  over  the  mountains  at  Kawaihae 
Bay,  and  last  and  best  of  all  the  grand  panorama  along  the  Hamakua  coast,  the 
glorj^  of  which  has  already  lieen  referred  to,  form  never-to-be-forgotten  incidents. 

The  seventy  miles  that  the  steamer  skirts  the  northeast  or  Hamakua  side  of 
Hawaii  affords  a  splendid  opportunity  to  study  the  topography  of  the  island 
as  a  whole,  but  particularly  in  that  section,  and  to  note  the  great  transfonnation 
which  the  development  of  the  island's  sugar  industry  has  brought  about  all 
along  the  uplands  in  the  foreground.  Along  the  coast  dozens  of  waterfalls, 
varying  in  size  from  a  mere  silvery  strand  of  water  to  mountain  torrents.  ])our 
over  the  abrupt  sea  cliffs  and  dash  into  the  ocean  below.  ^Eany  of  these 
falls  plunge  down  hundreds  of  feet  in  a  single  leap.  As  the  vessel  proceeds  one 
has  little  difficulty  in  counting  as  many  as  a  dozen  or  fifteen  good-sized  falls 
in  sight  at  one  time.  All  too  soon  the  voyage  is  over  and  the  landing  at  llih)  is 
made. 

HiLO. 

The  people  of  Hilo  claim  their  town  to  be  the  most  l)eautiful  one  in  the 
group.  Almost  daily  showers  cool  the  air  and  refresh  the  vegetation,  and  the 
sea  and  mountain  breezes  remove  the  dampness  that  otherwise  would  produce  a 
moist,  heavy  climate.  The  soil  of  the  valley  is  rich  and  deep,  and  being  well 
watered  it  is  highly  productive. 

The  location  of  the  town  is  most  ehai-ming  willi  its  fine  bay,  its  improved 
harbor,  and  picturesque  Cocoanut  island  in  the  foreground.  On  the  other  hand 
its  background  is  formed  by  a  superb  view  of  ]\Iauna  Loa  aiul  .Manna   Kea  in 


176  XATl'RAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

the  distance.  Evory  liiiMi  in  the  street  invites  one  to  linger  or  to  turn  aside 
and  explore.  The  sulxhied  sound  of  a  nearby  waterfall,  the  g-urgie  of  the  shin- 
ing river,  the  calling  of  the  l)irds,  the  trees,  the  Howers,  the  twining  vines,  all 
cast  a  spell  of  peace  and  t-ontentment  over  the  place  and  make  one  feel  he 
could  stay,  yes,  live,  and  he  happy  forever  in  tliis  enchanted  little  city  hy  the  sea. 
The  natural  points  of  special  interest  near  Ililo  for  a  tourist  and  a  natural- 
ist arc  Coeoanut  Island,  Rainbow  Falls,  Onomea  Gulch  and  Arch,  the  Akaka 
Falls,^-  at  Ilonomu.  and  the  Kaumana  caves  in  the  flow  of  1881, — caves  that  are 
in  reality  great  tunnels  left  by  the  escape  of  the  lava  from  the  conduits  that 
brought  it  down  from  the  mountain  in  the  distance.  From  Hilo  it  is  possible 
to  visit  the  Puna  district  and  the  flow  of  1810  as  a  side  trip.  The  railroad  to 
Kapoho  passes  over  this  interesting  surface  outbreak  described  above  and  fur- 
nishes an  opportunity  for  its  inspection.  The  district  is  also  famous  for  the  lava 
tree  casts  caused  l)y  tlie  lava  flowing  through  t!ie  forests  at  Kapoho ;  the  Green 
lake  in  a  small  extinct  crater  and  the  famous  heiau,  Wahaula.^^  A  warm 
spring  witli  a  small  pool  in  which  the  water  is  constantly  at  a  temperature  of 
blood  heat,  ;ind  a  number  of  small  craters  are  all  objects  of  interest. 

The  Ascent  of  Kilauea. 

The  journey  from  Hilo  to  the  volcano  may  be  made  by  the  railway  or  by 
the  wagon  road.  By  train  one  may  go  to  Glenwood,  twenty-two  miles  on  the 
jnui-ney.  As  the  train  rumbles  along  over  a  good  road  bed,  through  immense 
plantations  of  sugar-cane,  and  splendid  forests  of  hard-\vood  timber,  by  flourish- 
ing mills  and  quiet  retreats,  one  wonders  if,  after  all,  there  has  not  been  some 
mistake,  for  nowhere  can  one  see  signs  of  the  devastation  by  quaking  earth  and 
blazing  flood  that  are  so  intimately  associated  Avith  the  popular  idea  of  a  great 
active  volcano. 

The  whole  journey  from  Hilo  to  the  crater  can  l)e  made  by  automobile. 
If  the  railway  route  be  taken  after  the  transfer  at  Glenwood,  for  an  hour  the 
auto  winds  up  over  a  gradually  ascending  macadam  road,  through  a  delightful 
tropical  forest.  The  splendid  woods  with  wonderful  clinging  vines  produce  a 
jungle  of  flowers  and  trees  and  shrubs  and  ferns.  Great  feathery  fern  trees 
lean  out  over  the  road  so  that  the  auto  is  driven  beneath  them.  Occasionally 
these  giant  ferns  grow  into  a  veritable  forest  with  many  trees  thirty  or  forty 
feet  in  height.  Along  the  roadside  bright  flowers  spring  \\\)  that  are  often 
familiar  flowers  run  wild.  Here  a  clump  of  Cannas  or  a  bunch  of  fragrant 
ginger;  there  a  tangle  of  beautiful  roses  that  have  escaped  from  some  abandoned 
garden ;  farther  on  are  great  masses  of  nasturtium  and  wild  morning-glories. 
Objects  of  especial  interest  are  the  Avild  berries  and  the  bananas  l)y  the  wayside. 
Thimble  berries  abound  and  are  recognized  as  great  glorified  raspberries — an 
inch  or  more  in  diameter.      The  ohelo,  an  upland  cranberry,  grows  in  patches 


12  500   feet. 

A  model   of  this   liciau    that   the   writer   assisted    in    assembling,    may   be   seen    in    tlie    Bishop    Museum. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  177 


l)y  tile  rojidside.      It  was  lierrics  like  llicsc  thai  were  loiiu'  a^o  made  an  offering  to 
Pele.      Their  presence  reminds  one  that   we  must  he  nearing  Jier  domain. 

Bundled  up  in  winter  wraps  as  a  protection  against  the  eoo!  of  the  higher 
elevation  one  tintls  it  hard  lo  I'eali/.e  that  back  yotidci'  by  the  sea-shore,  scarcely 
4,000  feet  below,  groves  of  cocoanut  trees  are  nodding  in  the  hmguid  warmth 
of  the  tropical  summer  afternoon.  But  before  long  the  auto  rounds  a  curve 
in  the  road  and  the  Crater  Hotel,  a  well-appointed  though  eomi)ai-ativeiy  new 
hostelry,  is  in  sight.  About  a  mile  further  is  the  old-established  Volcano 
House,  the  very  personification  of  hospitality  and  good  cheer.  To  the  left  and 
just  beyond  the  Volcano  House,  and  until  this  moment  hidden  from  view,  looms 
up  the  great  caldera.  Even  then  one  can  hardly  realize  that  the  journey  to  the 
world's  great  inferno  is  really  at  an  end. 

First  View  of  the  Crater. 

Those  who  are  as  enthusiastic  as  they  should  be  join  a  horseback  or  an  auto- 
mobile party  that  very  afternoon  and  ride  down  into  the  crater  to  get  a  view  of 
the  eteriml  fires,  for  fear,  as  sometimes  happens,  they  may  have  vanished  ])efore 
the  morrow.  If  worn  from  the  journey  and  suffering  from  the  effects  of  a 
choppy  sea  while  crossing  the  channels,  the  traveler  may  sit  in  the  great  observa- 
tion room  on  the  hotel  lanai  and  rest  and  drink  in  the  reflected  grandeur  of  the 
fires  that,  as  darkness  gathers,  paint  their  fury  on  the  fleecy  white  clouds  that 
silently  drift  over  nature's  great  melting-pot,  the  dark  outlines  of  which  can  be 
traced  by  its  own  light  reflected  back  from  the  sky. 

In  the  morning  the  great  crater  looms  out  of  the  fog — black,  silent  and 
sublime.  The  view  in  the  early  morning  is  most  fascinating,  but,  as  one's  tinit^ 
is  ahvays  limited  and  as  there  are  other  sights  to  be  seen  near  at  hand,  it  is 
customary  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  sulphur  beds  before  breakfast. 

Steam  Cracks  and  the  Sulphur  Bed. 

It  is  a  weird  sight  to  see  the  steam  rising  from  the  cracks  and  ci'evices  on 
every  side  and  to  know  that  for  years,  centuries  perhaps,  these  same  exhausts  of 
steam  have  played  without  increased  or  diminished  volume.  It  is  not  uneonunon 
to  find  a  hotel  servant  busily  engaged  heating  water  over  one  of  the  nearby 
steam  cracks,  preparing  to  wash  the  hotel  linen.  A  few  rods  farther  on  past 
the  hotel  the  sidphur  beds  themselves  are  to  be  seen  steaming  and  sparkling  in 
the  morning  sun.  They  cover  several  acres  in  extent  aiul  ai"e  a  never-ending 
source  of  delight  and  wonder.  There  perhaps  for  the  first  time  one  lireathes 
real  sulphur  fumes  and  realizes  not  only  that  the  earth  under  foot  is  hot.  too 
hot  to  stand  on  in  places,  but  that  it  is  slowly  being  added  to,  l)il  by  "oil.  as- 
nature  quietly  deposits  there  minerals  in  forms  so  delieate  in  sti-nrtni'f.  and 
beautiful  in  color,  that  they  crumble  and  dissolve  as  the  wonderful  yellow  and 
pink  and  white  masses  of  newly-formed  crystals  arc  held  in  hand.  While  the 
amount  of  sulphur  deposited  is  not  great  it  is  in  some  cases  quite  pnrc  As  the 
sulphur  is  usually  mixed  with  the  red  clay   formed  by  the  decomposition   of 


178  .XATURAL   HISTOEY   OF   HAWAII. 

the  lava  owing  to  the  chemically  charged  steam,  it  is  of  value  only  as  a  curiositj^ 
and  specimens  of  sulphur,  sulphate  of  soda,  lime  and  alumina  are  usually  car- 
ried away. 

KiLAUEA-IKI. 

A  short  expedition  is  usually  made  on  foot  to  Kilauea-iki  ^  *  before  de- 
scending into  the  main  caldera.  The  small  lateral  crater,  while  connected  with 
the  larger  one  is,  in  numy  ways,  really  a  side  issue.  It  is  less  than  half  a  mile 
to  the  east  of  the  north  end  of  the  main  crater  and  a  little  over  a  mile  from 
the  hotel. 

It  has  not  been  active  for  more  than  half  a  century  but  in  spite  of  that 
it  is  full  (iT  interest  to  the  geologist,  as  it  is  a  splendid  example  of  a  pit  crater. 
It  is  7-iO  feet  deep  ^''  an  dis  more  than  half  a  mile^''  across  the  top.  In  1832 
a  severe  earthquake  shattered  the  wall  which  separated  this  crater  from  Kilauea 
and  large  crevices  opened  in  the  sunken  neck  of  land  which  unites  the  two 
craters.  From  the  earth  rents  along  the  south  side  of  the  isthmus  a  curious 
tlow  of  brown  lava  ran  to  right  and  left,  entering  both  the  craters,  but  the 
amount  of  lava  emitted  was  very  slight.  Nevertheless,  the  lava  as  it  entered 
Kilauea  over  the  bank  formed  a  fall  200  feet  in  height  that  is  plainly  seen  from 
the  Volcano  House.  The  black  shining  lava  floor  in  Kilauea-iki  was  a  result 
of  the  activity  in  the  main  crater  in  1868;  since  then  the  smaller  crater  has  been 
quiet  and  apparently  dead. 

Keanakakoi. 

To  the  south  of  Kilauea-iki  and  on  the  flat  plain  surrounding  Kilauea  at  a 
point  almost  due  east  of  the  pit  of  Halemaumau  is  a  still  smaller  lateral  crater 
Avith  vertical  walls  known  as  Keanakakoi.^"  The  present  floor  of  this  pit,  the 
result  (»f  activity  in  1877.  is  lielow  the  floor  of  Kilauea.  It  is  of  interest  to  note 
that  this  crater  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  old-time  Hawaiians  found 
there  suitable  material  for  the  manufacture  of  their  stone  implements,  but  the 
eruption  just  mentioned  obliterated  all  trace  of  their  workshop. 

Both  of  these  lateral  craters  are  now  skirted  l\v  the  new  automobile  road 
known  as  Echo  Trail,  a  name  due  to  the  fact  that  five  distinct  echoes  can  be 
heard  from  the  west  bank  of  Keanakakoi.  The  road  leads  down  into  Kilauea 
at  this  point  and  crosses  its  floor  to  the  pit,  enabling  one  to  run  a  motor  car  to 
the  very  brink  of  Halemaumau  with  ease  and  safety. 

The  Descent  Into  the  Main  Crater. 

As  the  descent  into  the  main  crater  is  the  chief  concern  of  the  visitor  and 
is  usually  made  on  foot  or  on  horseback,  it  is  customary  to  make  the  start  early 
in  the  afternon.  prepared  to  have  a  lunch  beside  the  pit.  in  defiance  of 
Pele,  just  as  Kapiolani  did  almost  a  centurv  ago.      However,  no  one  should  miss 


>♦  Little   Kilauea.  is  ge?  feet  below  the  Volcano  House.         '«  3300x2800   feet. 

'•  The  workshop   of  the   adzcmaker. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  179 

the  view  of  the  eternal  fires  l)y  night,  since  Ihc  night  \\vw  is  e\rii  nidi-c  wdndrr- 
fnl  than  the  display  by  day. 

With  horses,  staffs,  guides,  lanterns  and  lunches  in  readiness  the  start  is 
made.  To  reach  the  tloor  of  the  crater  by  the  usual  route  the  visitor  nuist 
descend  several  hundred  feet  l\v  a  l)ri(lie  path  that  angles  back  and  forth  down 
the  face  of  old  fault  blocks  that  lie  like  steps  one  lower  tliau  the  other,  at  the 
north  end  of  the  crater  at  a  point  just  below  the  Volcano  House.  The  descend- 
ing path  leads  down  through  a  scrubby  Avood  where  native  l)ii'(ls  are  to  be  seen 
fluttering  about,  singing  their  carols  with  little  regard  oi-  concei'u  for  the 
spectacle  so  near  at  hand. 

Arriving  at  the  floor  of  the  crater  4S4  feet  below  the  Volcano  House,  one 
turns  to  look  back  at  the  imposing  wall  known  as  Waldron  ledge, ^"^  Avith  its 
vertical  face  marking  the  extreme  depth  of  the  crater.  Stretching  away  in  the 
opposite  direction  is  the  rough,  irregular,  glistening  black  floor  of  the  crater. 

Heat  Cracks  and  Spatter  Cones. 

One  of  the  first  points  of  interest,  after  pSssing  observation  hill,  is  the 
great  crack  that  opened  on  the  crater  floor,  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  wide  and 
half  a  mile  long.  It  opened  without  warning  a  number  of  years  ago  (Novem- 
ber 4th,  1889)  while  a  party  of  visitors  were  down  at  the  pit.  On  their  way 
back  to  the  Volcano  House  they  found  this  yawning  gulf  where  they  had  passed 
without  fear  l)ut  a  few  hours  before. 

The  journey  across  the  lava  field  is  full  of  interest,  especially  to  one  on  foot. 
There  are  great  hollow  domes  of  lava  one  or  two  hundred  feet  long  by  twenty 
or  more  feet  in  height  to  be  climbed;  cracks  and  fissures  to  be  inspected  and 
many  curious  forms  and  freaks  that  the  lava  takes  in  cooling  to  be  studied 
or  puzzled  over.  Then  there  are  the  steam  crevices,  and  heat  crevices,  and 
gas  crevices  to  be  examined  and  tested.  An  innumerable  number  of  caves  of 
different  sizes  have  been  formed  by  the  change  brought  about  by  the  cooling 
lava.  Among  the  more  important  perhaps  are  Pele's  reception  room,  as  cool 
and  inviting  as  her  kitchen  is  hot  and  oppressive.  Here  hundreds  of  visitors 
have  left  their  cards  scrawled  over  with  messages  to  the  great  goddess.  Then- 
there  are  the  curious  stalactite  caves  Avhere  the  walls  and  floors  are  covered  with 
tube-like  stalactites  and  stalagmites  formed  from  the  mineral-charged  water 
which  percolates  through  tlie  porous  lava. 

The  corral  where  equestrians  dismount  and  tie  their  horses  is  a  rough  en- 
closure beside  the  trail  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  fiery  lake.  Vyo\)\  it  the, 
elevation  to  the  edge  of  the  pit  is  quite  noticeable.  Along  the  path  the  sulphur 
cracks  become  more  numerous.  A  little  way  to  the  right  the  heat  issues  from 
the  cracks  over  an  area  several  acres  in  extent,  that,  owing  to  the  deposits  of 
soda  and  sulphur,  appears  white  against  the  dark  lava  that  surrounds  it.  It  is  • 
here  that  tourists  anuiso  themselves  by  scorchinL;'  souvenir  ]~>ostal  cards  by  tuck- 


Named  for  the  purser  of  the  U.  S.  Exphiriiig  Kxcpdition    (1S40). 


180  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

ing  tlu'iii  iiil..  the  crevices;  or  by  boiling  cofit'ee  and  frying  bacon  and  eggs  over 

the  escaping  heat. 

It  is  quite  common  to  find  scattered  over  the  surface  or  collected  in  crevices 
of  tlic  rock  curious  greenish  and  yellowish  threads  of  spun-glass  called  Pole's 
hair.  AVlien  the  fire  lake  is  in  violent  ebullition  small  masses  of  lava  are  thrown 
into  the  air  as  the  fountains  play.  The  threads,  which  are  drawn  out  after  the 
fiery  drops  harden,  are  carried  high  by  the  uprising  current  of  air  from  the  pit 
;ni(l  are  dropped  later  over  the  floor  of  the  crater. 

Close  to  the  corral  is  a  low  spatter  cone,  the  "little  beggar,"  which  ap- 
peared in  1884  when  the  lava  was  occasionally  overflowing  the  top  of  the  dome 
which  now  surrounds  the  pit.  Near  at  hand  is  "the  devil's  picture  frame,"  a 
hole  in  a  small  la\a  fall  that  ran  down  into  a  shallow  cave  in  the  crater  floor. 
Beginning  at  the  spatter  cone  the  trail  winds  up  to  the  pit  which  is  hidden  from 
view.  After  passing  other  spatter  cones  the  visitor  stands  at  last  on  the  edge 
of  the  great  pit  Halemaumau. 

Halemaumau  by  Day  and  Night. 

There,  scarcely  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  below  the  observer,!'-^  is  the  burning 
lake  perhaps  a  thousand  feet  in  diameter,— dancing,  boiling,  and  flaring  like  a 
gigantic  blast-furnace  crucible.  A  dozen  or  more  splendid  fire  fountains  leap 
from  its  face  and  toss  the  molten  basalt  into  the  air.  A  great  gushing  lava 
spring  wells  up  from  beneath,  pouring  out  lava  steadily,  w^hile  the  fountains 
round  about  leap  and  dance  in  wild  unbridled  fury.  The  heat  is  often  so 
intense  that  it  is  necessary  to  shield  the  face  to  prevent  the  skin  from  blistering. 
The  roar  of  the  fiery  furnaces  is  of  a  solemn,  determined,  indefinable  character, 
comparable  in  a  way  to  that  made  by  a  heavy  canvas  flapping  in  a  gale,  or  to 
the  resistless  roar  of  a  storm  on  a  rock-bound  coast.  Now  and  then  the  wind 
shifts  and  the  fumes  of  sulphur  drive  one  back  from  the  edge,  for  breath.  Occa- 
sionally rocks  loosen  from  their  nitches  in  the  shattered  walls  of  the  pit  and  go 
bonndiiig  down  the  sides  to  melt  away  in  the  lake  below. 

The  main  body  of  the  lake  is  usually  covered  over  with  large,  irregular, 
l)roken  pieces  of  solidified  lava  that  float  on  the  liquid  beneath  like  cakes  of 
ice  in  a  river.  As  the  fountains  play,  waves  run  out  from  them  in  all  directions 
and  set  the  black  cakes  bobbing  about  in  the  lurid  flood.  Now  and  then  the  lava 
shoots  up  a  hundred  feet  in  the  air,  and,  as  the  falling  discharge  strikes  the  sur- 
face again,  waves  roll  across  the  lake  and  break,  as  surf,  against  the  farther 
wall.  The  observer  is  held  in  a  spell  of  fascination  for  hours  at  a  time. 
As  the  daylight  fades  the  fiery  spectacle  increases  in  brilliancy  and  beauty  and 
becomes  more  grandly  majestic  and  imposing.  The  churning,  seething  mass 
takes  on  more  lurid,  flaming  hues,  while  the  opalescent  atmosphere  over  the  pit  is 
resplendent  with  the  most  delicate  ethereal  tints  that  can  be  imagined.  When 
darkness  finally  falls  the  lake  becomes  as  molten  gold.  Apparently  one  can 
look  not  only  into  it  but  through  it.      The  lines  between  the  cooled  dark  masses 


^^  Conditions  of  December,   1909. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  181 

are  far  more  brilliant  by  iiiuiil.  Tliuuyli  not  pei'i-cplililt'  l<i  (uu-  ](jokiii;j;-  diri'etl\' 
into  the  pit  there  is  a  stea(l\-  column  of  vapor  rising  straight  over  it  to 
high  heaven,  where,  as  it  cools,  a  cloud  is  formed  that  becomes  a  pillar  of  fire  by 
night,  visible  thirty  or  forty  miles  at  sea. 

The  wonderful  and  vai'iod  spectacle  produces  in  some  observers  a  sense  of 
profound  reverence  and  awe,  in  others  a  spirit  of  wild,  cliild-like  glee.  However, 
one  and  all  sooner  or  later  grope  as  in  the  presence  of  the  Great  Unknown  and 
ask  for  an  explanation  of  the  wonders  before  them,  so  grand,  so  bewildering,  so 
terrible  to  contemplate. 

In  search  of  the  answer  to  these  questions  men  of  science  with  delicate  instru- 
ments now  camp  day  and  night  at  the  crater  and  record  Pele's  slightest  whim 
in  the  hope  that  some  day,  in  some  way,  the  explanation  to  the  ages-old 
question  as  to  "the  cause  of  the  phenomenon  of  volcanoes"  may  be  gained  from 
Pele  herself.  For  the  present  the  visitor  must  be  content  with  theories  and 
superficial  answers  to  almost  every  question. 

It  is  evident,  how^ever,  even  to  the  most  casual  visitor,  that  Pele  is  in  a 
sullen  mood  and  is  at  work  filling  up  her  great  caldera,  preparing  for  an  out- 
break or  an  overflow.  Every  few  hours  the  lake  recedes  a  few  feet,  only  to  well 
up  again,  swelling  each  time  higher  than  before.  Kilauea  is  active  and  nearing 
the  flood  tide.  Doubtless  before  the  lava  rises  much  higher,  the  expected  and 
oft-repeated  breakdown  in  the  walls  of  the  great  mountain  will  come,  and  the 
fiery  lake  will  vanish  back  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth  just  as  it  has  so  often 
done  before.-" 

The  trip  back  to  the  Volcano  House  is  usually  an  uneventful  and  silent  one 
for  all ;  even  the  most  frivolous  have  food  for  deep  and  reverent  thought. 

Side  Trips  from  the  Crater. 

Those  who  are  able  to  prolong  their  stay  at  the  crater  will  find  a  number  of 
side  trips  may  be  made  that  will  lie  full  of  pleasure  and  interest.  Near  Kilauea 
may  be  seen  tree  molds  formed  in  the  solid  lava,  which,  in  remote  time,  flowed 
through  an  ancient  koa  forest.  In  time  the  charred  remains  of  the  trees  disaj)- 
peared  leaving  their  casts  as  great  holes  in  the  lava  stream.  Holes  formed  in 
this  way  may  be  seen  that  are  from  six  inches  to  six  feet  in  di;mi"tci'.  wliicli  in 
some  cases  are  twenty  feet  deep. 

Fossil  tree  moulds  are  quite  plentiful  in  several  places  on  Hawaii  and  aj)- 
pear  to  have  been  formed  in  different  ways.  In  Puna  Inindreds  of  these 
tree  moulds  stand  above  the  flows,  each  mai'king  the  location  of  a  li-cc.  The 
living  tree  was  enveloped  by  the  molten  on-i'ushing  Ia\'a,  which  (|uickly  cooled 
about  the  tree  tnnik  forming  a  crust.  As  the  wood  bui-ned  nway  fi-esli  lava 
filled  the  inside  of  the  mould.  When  the  stream  iiowcd  on  the  lava  flood  re- 
ceded, leaving  the  cast  in  some  cases,  in  others  the  mould,  standing  above  ils 
surface,  forming  a  forest  of  tree  trunks  of  stone.  The  li\ing  koa  forest  a  coui)le 
of  miles  beyond  the  Volcano  House  will  give  the  visitoi-  ;i  glimpse  of  these  giant 


2"  The  lake  of  fire  disappeared  May.    191H,   leaviiiR  the  i)it  omiity. 


182  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

trees  that  were  so  much  used  In-  the  old-time  Hawaiians  in  their  arts,  and  that 
Euroiieaiis  have  found  valuable  in  many  was  as  a  substitute  for  mahogany. 

The  Road  to  the  Port  of  Honuapo. 

Beyond  the  erater  the  I'oad  passes  b\-  the  point  Uwekahuna,  which  is  117 
feet  higlicr  than  the  A^olcano  House  and  601  feet  above  the  lava  tloor  of  the 
crater  at  the  Jowest  point.  It  was  from  this  spot  that  the  volcano  was  first  de- 
scribed by  Ellis.  As  the  traveler  proceeds  southwestward  towards  the  port  of 
Honuapo  he  passes  close  by  the  series  of  cracks  that  opened  in  the  lateral  slopes 
of  Kilauca  in  1828  and  again  in  1869  to  give  forth  copious  flows  of  lava.  Other 
flows  from  JNIauna  Loa  may  be  seen. 

Near  Punaluu  a  large  underground  stream  of  water  runs  into  the  sea.  and 
the  coast  line  is  dotted  here  and  there  by  fresh  water  springs  that  in  former 
times  were  of  value  to  the  natives  that  lived  in  this  district. 

As  the  road  continues  from  Honuapo  into  the  Kau  district  it  crosses  several 
recent  lava  flows  from  ]\Iauna  Loa,  the  eruptions  of  1868,  1887  and  1007  having 
already  been  mentioned.  There  the  fields  of  aa,  or  rough  lava,  and  pahoehoe, 
or  smooth  lava,  may  be  studied  to  advantage,  and  the  wonders  of  a  great  lava 
flow  appreciated  without  leaving  the  automobile. 

The  Kona  District. 

The  Kona  district  is  made  up  of  decomposed  lava  flows.  Its  soil  is  rich 
and  where  well  watered  is  covered  with  verdure.  There  are  no  rivers  of  conse- 
quence in  the  district,  the  water  being  absorbed  l\v  the  loose  earth  before  it  has 
time  to  run  far  over  the  surface. 

Along  the  shore  line  are  numerous  stone  heiaus  that  are  worthy  of  notice 
since  they  have  many  interesting  traditions  connected  with  them.  At  Honaunau 
is  a  famous  ancient  city  of  refuge  which  occupies  six  or  seven  acres  of  the  low 
rocky  point  on  the  south  side  of  the  little  bay.  A  portion  of  the  structure  was 
destroyed  some  years  ago  l)y  tidal  waves,  though  the  walls  were  twelve  feet  high 
and  eighteen  feet  in  width. 

At  Kealakekua  Bay  may  be  seen  the  monument  to  Captain  Cook  at  Kaawa- 
loa,  on  the  spot  where  he  was  killed.-^  Napoopoo  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
bay,  and  it  was  there  the  chiefs  lived  and  where  Cook's  vessels  were  anchored  near 
the  shore.  Beside  a  pond,  overlooking  the  bay  of  Napoopoo,  is  the  ruin  of  the 
famous  heiau  where  the  great  navigator  was  worshiped  by  the  Hawaiians  as  the 
god  Lono.  At  the  head  of  the  bay  is  a  vertical  clitf  eight  hundred  feet  in  height 
on  eitlier  side  of  which  recent  lava  streams  have  descended.  The  road  from  the 
landing  winds  around  the  bay  and  over  the  cliff  and  continues  northward  to 
Kailua  past  the  great  stone  toboggan  slide  above  Keauhou.  This  portion  of  the 
island  is  rich  and  well  watered  and  is  given  over  to  extensive  coffee,  sugar  and 
sisal  plantations,  while  the  mountains  on  the  slopes  of  Hualalai  are  thickly 
clothed  with  forests  of  koa  and  ohia. 


-•  February    14th.    1779. 


GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  183 

At  Kailua  tlie  traveler  may  take  the  steamer  retiiriiin<:'  to  TTonoliiln.  havint; 
practically  completed  the  circuit  of  the  island. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

CONDENSED  HISTORY  OF  KILAUEA'S  ACTIVITY. 

A  Brief  Chronology  and  History  of  Kilauea  from  the  Earliest  Records  of 
Its  Eruptions  Down  to  the  Present,  with  Dates  and  Observations  on 
THE  Condition  of  the  Lava  in  the  Crater  of  Kilauea  and  the  Pit  of 
Halemaumau. 

The  following  condensed  chronology  and  history  of  Kilauea  and  its  active 
pit,  Halemaumau,  has  been  drawn  from  the  written  testimom^  of  a  multitude  of 
observers,  and  is  designed  to  give  some  important  facts,  dates  and  figures,  as  a 
matter  of  reference,  that  were  not  suited  to  the  more  popular  account  of  this 
great  volcano. 

From  the  time  of  the  first  immigration,  under  the  great  Hawaiian  \Vakea,i 
\uitil  the  last  and  only  historically  recorded  explosive  eruption  at  the  crater  in 
1789,  when  a  portion  of  Keoua's  army  was  overwhelmed,  there  appears  legendary 
and  traditional  evidence  to  prove  that  Kilauea  was  many  times  in  active  eruption. 
.  In  1823,  when  first  visited  by  Europeans,  the  crater  was  active  and  was  being 
emptied  by  a  flow  to  the  south  which  reached  the  sea  in  the  district  of  Kau. 
The  lava  dropped  from  900  feet  -  to  a  point  1,700  feet  below  Uwekahuna,  the 
fixed  datum  point  on  the  highest  bluff  on  the  west  edge  of  the  crater — the  point 
to  which  the  rise  and  fall  in  the  lava  lake  is  herein  referred. 

In  1824  the  crater  was  empty  and  the  bottom  left  black  and  smoking.  In 
1825  it  had  still  farther  discharged,  but  by  the  end  of  the  year  was  filling  again. 
By  1829  it  had  filled  up  200  feet  liigher  than  when  visited  by  the  same  observer 
in  1825. 

1832*.  After  the  last  date  given  (1829)  the  lava  rose  above  the  main  crater 
floor  of  the  earlier  period,  which  was  some  300  feet  below  the  floor  of  the  crater  at 
present  (1913).  During  the  year  (1832)  the  lava  sunk  again  so  that  fire  was 
confined  in  the  pit  400  feet  down. 

In  January  (1832)  an  earthquake  rent  the  walls  between  Kilauea  and 
Kilauea-iki.     Lava  issued  from  the  cracks  thus  opened  and  i-an  into  botli  craters. 

In  1834  Kilauea  had  subsided,  and  was  nnu-h  llic  same  as  when  visiteil  by 
Ellis,  who  was  its  first  chronicler. 

In  1838  the  lava  was  up  to  near  the  present  level,  and  all  over  an  area  four 
square  miles  in  extent.  During  1839  the  crater  continueil  very  active,  and  by 
the  following  year  the  lava  lake  was  one  hundred  feet  higher  than  in  1832. 

In  1840  the  crater  was  vented  to  the  northeast  by  the  Puna  How.  which 
reached  the  ocean.  The  lava  dropped  from  650  to  1,030  feet  below  the  datum 
point.     By  1841  Halemaumau  was  filling  again.      Kilauea  Avas  visited  during  the 


1  140  A.  D.  -  300  feet  below  the  present  floor  of  the  miter. 

*  Years   marked   by   eruptions   on    Mauna   Loa. 


« 

a 

w 

< 

^ 

Ph 

< 

s 

ce 

y 

u 

02 

O 

H 

Ch 

K 

5 

^ 

a 

a 

2; 

CB 

1— 1 

a 

tn 

< 

02 

J 

K 

ClH 

M 

H 

o 

H 

M 

o 

ti 

Ci, 

■^ 

M 

o 

o 

m 

03 

H 

P 

■^1 

m 

o 

>-i 

f^ 

m 

o 

00 

-* 

w 

t^ 

^ 

H^ 

^ 

GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  185 

year  by  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition  party.  In  1842  the  crater  was  filling, 
with  a  dike  built  up  fifty  feet  above  the  surface.  1843.*  Unusual  activity  in 
Kilauea.  The  year  1844  saw  the  large  lake  '■^  overfiowing  on  every  side.  In  1846 
continued  overflows  had  built  the  floor  of  the  crater  up  higher  than  it  was  prior 
to  the  breakdown  in  1840.  During  1847  the  main  crater  continued  iruich  as  in 
the  previous  year.  In  1848  the  lake  crusted  over,  and  the  dome-shaped  crust  rose 
two  or  three  hundred  feet  high  in  the  center;  this  is  the  first  dome  to  be  noted 
in  the  history  of  Kilauea. 

In  May,  1849*  the  crater  was  completely  emptied  by  a  hidden  discharge. 
The  lava  dropped  from  350  to  1,030  feet  below  Uwekahuua.  During  1852  great 
quiet  followed  the  eruption,  but  in  due  time  the  crater  began  to  fill  again.  In 
1852*  it  showed  no  sign  of  sympathy  with  the  Mauna  Loa  eruption.  During 
1854  it  still  remained  quiet,  but  in  1855*  activity  returned,  and  bj^  mid-sunmier 
there  were  many  fountains  of  leaping  lava.  In  October  it  was  less  active,  and 
the  dome  over  Halemaumau  had  fallen  in;  the  lava  was  about  1,200  feet  below 
the  datum  point. 

By  1856  there  was  little  sign  of  activity,  and  during  1857  similar  conditions 
continued;  the  lake  was  about  600  feet  in  diameter.  The  following  year  (1858) 
there  was  sluggish  action  in  the  pit  beneath  what  was  the  old  dome.  In  1862 
the  lava  pool  in  the  pit  had  increased  again  to  600  feet  in  diameter. 

The  vear  1863  saw  continued  and  increased  activitv.  During  1864  Hale- 
maumau  was  800  feet  in  diameter  with  the  lava  but  fifty  feet  below  the  crater 
floor.  A  cone  was  then  active  in  the  locality  now  marked  by  escaping  steam 
to  the  northwest  of  Halemaumau.  In  1865  conditions  were  much  as  in  the 
previous  year,  but  during  1866  a  lava  flow  in  the  crater  two  miles  in  length 
was  reported. 

In  1868*  the  crater  slowly  fllled  up  by  overflows  from  the  "North  Lake" 
and  from  Halemaumau,  until  the  whole  central  portion  was  considerably  ele- 
vated. By  April  the  crater  w^as  very  active.  Earthquakes  were  numerous. 
Eight  lakes  were  in  ebullition  in  the  crater,  and  were  frequently  overflowing. 
The  groat  earthquake  of  April  2nd  threw  do^^^l  fragments  of  the  outer  wall  of 
the  crater,  cracks  opened  and  the  lava  flowed  out,  leaving  two-thirds  of  the 
bottom  caved  in  from  one  to  three  hundred  feet  below  the  remaining  floor,  so 
that  the  lava  dropped  from  600  down  to  1.200  feet  below  Uwekahuua,  and  Hale- 
maumau was  emptied  in  three  days.  The  discharge  was  at  a  point  thirteen  miles 
southwest  of  the  crater,  and  reached  the  ocean  in  Kau.  Kilauea-iki  was  at  this 
time  flooded  over  its  floor  with  black,  shining  lava,  the  first  to  enter  it  since  1832. 


^  Halemaumau.  *  Years  marked  by  eruptions  on   iliuma   Loa. 


Description  of  Plate. 

1.  The  ''Little  Begger";  a  spatter  cone  by  the  trail  on  \\\v  way  to  the  pit.  2.  .-V  tall 
spatter  cone  near  the  northwest  edge  of  Haleiiiauinan.  3.  The  entrance  to  Mnie.  Pele  's 
reception  room.  4.  Popping  corn  over  heat  cracks  in  the  crater,  o.  The  "Great  Crack'' 
which  opened  in  the  floor  of  Kilauea  in  1889.  6.  The  fire-place  at  the  Volcano  House — a 
shrine  famous  for  its  hospitality,  its  history  and  its  past  associations.  Before  it  have  gathered 
many  of  the  world  's  most  distinguished  men  of  science. 

13 


4 


^"    \  A 


£  fl 


C3            B 

^^ 

^^ 

S    o 

rt 

cd 

^< 

o    t>^ 

o^ 

« 

na 

aj  (B 

o 

.  =H 

'^ 

cd 

(D 

-•    3 

>•     T-f 

P     M 

o  Ph     1 

<D 

|o 

■w- 

5   tl 

^ 

^  o 

^ 

o  o 

o 

o 

o  IS 

.2  ° 

p 

^  a 

k/ 

o 

§ 

eg 

p 

cc-=* 

< 

bo 

< 

^i 

w 

gg 

p 

^ 

<1 

2  «d 

I.J 

s 

<5 

a  & 

CC 

>M" 

•2a| 

c; 

^    g  CS 

^ 

K 

l-H 

Oh 

l'-'^'  § 

•C3      •« 

^ ._ 

o  ce, 

a  ,M  -il 

•"   cS  ts 

r-     CO     r- 

■-      r^      fT 

=    c3  c 

^  <a  i:, 

2  v.'S 

^    (D    ^ 

^    4-5  'I^   ■ 

-  ri"^! 

--  ^^  pi 

o 

<       c. 

-tJ  4J  i 

•a  a 

.    r^.n  1 

r^        1 

O    <S  1 

5? 

1^ 

r—   ' 

ew    ?  1 

o-^l 

GEOLOGY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  HAWAII.  187 

In  1869  lava  was  seen  far  down  in  llaleniauiiiau.  Two  years  later  (1871) 
Halemanmau  had  filled  up  to  overflowing,  and  the  lava  ran  two  miles  to  the 
north  over  the  crater  floor.  By  August  the  crater  was  emptied  again.  In 
1872*  Halemaumau  again  filled  and  was  overflowing,  but  the  action  was  confined 
within  the  black  dome,  on  the  summit  of  which  was  the  molten  lake,  on  a  level 
with  the  black  ledge  about  the  crater,  marking  the  height  of  former  eruptions. 

In  1874  the  crater,  after  subsidence,  became  active  again,  and  four  small 
lakes  were  reported.  During  1875*  two  craters  developed  on  the  partially-filled 
floor,  to  which  lava  had  been  gradually  added  by  flows  in  the  crater  since  the 
activity  of  1868.  During  1876  activity  in  the  south  ^  and  the  north  lake  ^  con- 
tinued with  frequent  overflows  on  the  floor  of  the  main  crater  about  them. 

By  May,  1877*  Halemaumau  was  empty  again.  During  this  year  the  pit 
crater  Keanakakoi  was  found  to  be  filled  with  boiling  lava.  By  September,  1878, 
Ijoth  "lakes"  in  the  crater  were  very  active  again;  several  extensive  flows  from 
them  ran  over  the  crater  floor.  In  the  early  part  of  the  year  1879  both  lakes 
were  active,  but  on  April  21st  the  bottom  dropped  out,  the  lava  disappearing 
within  the  pit  from  whence  came  much  vapor  and  gas.  By  June  both  lakes  were 
active  again,  throwing  up  jets  of  lava  above  the  rim  of  the  lake.  Later  exten- 
sive flows  occurred  on  the  main  floor.  On  July  15th  the  sulphur  bank  in  the 
crater  at  the  south  end  was  set  on  fire  by  a  flow  from  Halemaumau.  During 
1880*  both  lakes  continued  active. 

During  the  period  between  1865  and  1880,  the  outer  walls  of  the  crater  were 
found  to  have  completely  changed.  The  floor  was  now  raised  in  the  form  of  a 
broad  flat  dome,  the  apex  of  which  was  but  300  feet  below  the  Volcano  House, 
or  417  feet  below  Uwekahune;  while  the  lov/est  point  on  the  floor  was  near  the 
north  wall  where  the  lava  was  650  feet  below  the  Volcano  House.  Throughout 
the  year  1881  both  lakes  continued  active.  During  1882  the  same  general  con- 
ditions continued  with  occasional  flows  on  the  crater  floor.  Similar  conditions 
to  those  of  1882  continued  through  the  year  1883.  The  "Little  Beggar" 
spatter  cone  along  the  trail  to  Halemaumau  was  formed  on  March  31st,  1884.  At 
this  time  the  "new  lake"  located  beyond  and  to  the  left  of  Halemaumau 
was  active.  In  1885  it  was  noted  that  there  had  been  but  little  change  in  condi- 
tions in  the  crater  since  1882.  The  submarine  eruption  of¥  Puna  on  January 
22,  1884,  was  attributed  to  Kilauea.  On  March  6th,  1886,  both  Halemaumau 
and  the  "new  lake"  were  overflowing.  Thirty-six  hours  later  the  lava  in  both 
had  sunk  out  of  sight,  leaving  a  hole  590  feet  below  the  rim  of  Halemaumau,  or 
1,017  feet  below  Uwekahuna,  but  by  the  middle  of  July  the  lava  liad  retiinied 
again. 

By  August  1887*  lava  was  overflowing  from  the  edge  of  HalemauniHU.  Con- 
ditions continued  during  1888  about  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  years,  with  the 
exception  that  "Dana  Lake,"  a  small  crater  on  the  west  of  the  iiiaiii  pit.  was 
quite  active  with  occasional  overflows.  On  November  4tli,  1889,  the  very  large 
fissure  on  the  floor  of  the  crater'''  opened  without  warning.      The  activit\'  of  tlu> 


*  Halemaumau.  °  Called    Kilauea.  "  Now  .spanned  by  a  hridse. 

*  Years   marked   by   eruptions   on    Mauna    Loa. 


188  XATUKAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

previous  yeai's  at  tlu'  pit  continued  throughout  1890  and  gradually  increased 
duriny-  the  year.  Early  in  the  year  1891  "Dana  Lake"  on  the  west,  and  the 
"new  hike"  on  the  east  of  the  main  pit  were  in  constant  ebullition,  but  on  :\Iarch 
7th  thr  lava  dropped  out  of  the  pit,  which  "smoked  from  the  bottom."  A  month 
later  the  tire  had  returned  and  the  lava  in  the  pit  continued  to  rise  and  fall  dur- 
ing the  year.  By  Jul\-.  1892,  overflows  from  the  edge  of  the  pit  occurred  and 
activity  continued  to  the  end  of  the  year.  Similar  conditions  continued  through- 
out the  year  1893.  By  March  6th,  1894,  Halemaumau,  still  very  active,  had 
built  itself  up  in  a  retaining  wall,  formed  by  the  solidification  of  molten  lava 
sphishing  over  the  edge  of  the  pit,  until  its  surface  was  but  282  feet  below  the 
Volcano  House — the  highest  lake  recorded  in  the  history  of  the  crater.  The 
floor  of  the  crater  had  been  added  to  by  overflows  from  the  pit  during  the  pre- 
ceding year. 

In  July  the  lava  subsided  in  the  pit,  dropping  250  feet  in  ten  hours.  The 
fire  finally  disappeared  in  December,  leaving  the  pit  empty  during  the  following 
year  (1893).  On  January  3rd,  1896,*  the  fire  returned,  but  on  January  28th 
disappeared.  It  reappeared  on  the  bottom  of  the  pit,  600  feet  below  the  rim. 
a  few  days  later.  After  three  weeks  of  very  slight  activity,  it  disappeared. 
The  fire  returned  for  three  days  in  June,  1897.  In  1898  the  pit  was  estimated  to 
be  800  feet  deep. 

A  breakdown  in  the  walls  of  Halemaumau  occurred  in  1900,  filling  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pit.  By  August  15th,  1901,  a  like  had  formed  in  the  floor  of  the 
pit.  During  1902  the  condition  of  the  previous  year  continued  with  some  varia- 
tions for  several  months.  At  the  time  the  writer  made  a  survey  for  the  model 
in  the  Bishop  Museum,  the  pit  was  825  feet  deep.  During  1903*  some  slight 
activity  was  noted  far  down  in  tlie  pit.  The  crater  was  quiet  during  the  year 
1904,  but  in  1905  fire  was  again  seen  in  the  pit  in  ]\Iarch,  and  slight  activity 
continued  throughout  the  year.  The  fire  disappeared  in  1906  leaving  the  pit 
576  feet  deep,  but  in  December  the  pit  became  active. 

By  Januar}^,  1907,*  the  lake  was  more  active,  with  the  lava  steadily  rising. 
Later  it  receded,  but  by  May  it  had  become  active  again.  The  amount  of  fire 
to  be  seen  varied  from  day  to  day,  but  the  lava  continued  to  fill  up  the  pit  until 
during  the  month  of  ]\Iay  the  pit  was  estimated  to  be  only  200  feet  deep,  with  the 
molten  lake  800  by  400  feet.  In  the  early  part  of  1908  the  pool  continued  to 
rise  slowly  and  irregularly  until  it  was  within  ninety  feet  of  the  level  at  the  edge 
of  the  pit.  Later  the  lava  receded,  leaving  a  black  ledge  about  the  inner  edge 
of  the  pit.  Since  that  time  up  to  January,  1913.  the  lava  was  constantly  boiling 
with  varying  intensity,  and  at  dift'erent  levels. 

During  this  long  period  of  activity  the  crater  has  been  visited  by  thousands 
of  tourists.  Early  in  1910  the  new  automobile  road  by  way  of  Kilauea-iki  was 
completed  into  the  crater,  to  a  point  within  one  hundred  yards  of  Pele's  abode 
in  the  inner  pit.  iNFany  have  made  use  of  it  in  making  tlieir  visits  to  her 
sanctuary. 


Years  marked  by   eruptions   on   Mauna   Loa. 


Natural  History  of  Hawaii. 


SECTION   THREE 

FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

PLANT  LIFE  OF  THE  SEA-SHORE  AND  LOWLANDS. 

The  plant  life  of  these  highly  isolated  islands  has  always  been  a  subject 
of  aljsorbing  interest,  and  much  has  been  done  by  botanists  since  the  time  of 
Cook's  memorable  voyages  towards  putting-  a  knowledge  of  the  flora  into  an 
orderly  and  systematic  form.  For  those  who  contemplate  a  serious  study  of  the 
vegetation  of  the  islands,  the  important  volume  of  Dr.  Hillebrand  is,  of  course, 
an  essential,  but  for  those  ^^'ho  A\ish  merely  to  know  something  of  the  more  useful, 
familiar  or  conspicuous  plants,  without  going  into  the  subject  exhaustively,  a 
brief  summary  of  the  more  salient  features  may  here  suffice. 

The  Island  Flora. 

We  have  elsewhere  had  occasion  to  refer  to  Hawaii-nei  as  being  so  far  removed 
from  the  mainland  of  America  and  the  islands  of  Polynesia  that  it  is  indeed 
difficult  to  account  for  the  presence  of  so  varied  and  extensive  a  fauna  and  flora. 
Nevertheless  there  is  no  very  tangible  geologic  evidence,  aside  from  the  evidence 
of  a  deep  subsidence,  to  furnish  ground  for  a  belief  that  the  islands  in  past 
geologic  time  have  been  more  closely  connected  with  other  lands  than  they  are  at 
present.  We  therefore  have  here,  if  anywhere  in  the  world,  a  truly  virgin 
flora — one  of  great  tropical  beauty  and  surpassing  interest  to  students  as  well 
as  to  travelers  and  holiday  seekers  who  ramble  off  into  the  mountains  and  fields 
or  by  the  sea-shore  in  search  of  change  from  the  common  place  of  the  city. 

Those  who  have  studied  the  matter  assure  us  that  the  nearest  land  in  the  Pa- 
cific that  can  be  seriously  considered  as  providing  stepping  stones  that  may  have 
been  instrumental  in  giving  Hawaii  her  original  stock  of  plants  are  the  ^Marquesas. 
Rut  since  those  islands,  like  all  other  lands  and  islands,  are  more  than  two  thou- 
sand miles  distant  and  are  separated  from  the  Ilawaiinti  group  l)y  the  abysmal 
depths  of  the  ocean  on  all  sides,  the  striking  physical  isolation  of  the  group  from 
adjacent  land  areas  is  apparent.  Aside  from  the  intercourse  that  the  Hawaiians 
have  had  with  the  groups  of  islands  to  the  soufli.  an  intercourse  that  undiMiMcdly 
resulted  in  the  bringing  to  the  group  of  all  of  their  more  important  economic 
plants  as  elsewhere  stated,  the  flora  of  the  islands  once  established,  seems  to  have 
developed  naturally  and  continuously  for  a  very  long  jieriod  of  time.  The 
development  seems  to  have  been  continued  to  the  present  time  without  the  com- 
plications that  elsewhere  result  from  geologic  changes,  oi'  olhcr  disturbing  fac- 
tors either  from  within  or  without. 

189 


PLATE  50.  VEGETATION  OF  THE  LOWEE  AND  MIDDLE  FOREST. 

1.     Ki  (Cordyline  terminalis)  ;   the  leaves  are  still  used  by  Hawaiiaiis  as  a  wrapping  for 
food,  fish,  etc.     In  former  times  a  strong  drink  was  brewed  from  the  roots.     2.     Typical  view 

(Ui'scriplwn   of  Plate   Coidinved   on   llie   Opposite   Paf/e.) 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROIIP.  191 

Sources. 

Of  the  movement  of  ocean  currents  and  their  effect  as  transi)orting  agents, 
we  know  but  little.  Without  doubt  some  plants  are  transported  in  this  way. 
As  is  well  known  the  existing  currents  in  the  North  Pacitic  move  in  a  direction 
that  carries  them  toward  the  equator  from  along  the  shores  of  the  colder  Ameri- 
can continent.  Although  Hawaii  is  in  the  direct  path  of  this  cui-rent,  few 
indeed  have  been  the  representatives  of  the  North  American  tiora  that  have 
been  brought  to  the  islands.  However,  we  are  not  sure  that  the  currents  have 
always  had  their  present  motion  or  direction.  It  is  possible  that  in  by-gone 
ages,  long  ago,  the  movement  of  the  currents  of  the  Pacific  may  have  been  re- 
versed, so  that  various  plants  from  the  Australian,  Polynesian  and  South  Ameri- 
can regions  that  are  well  known  here,  might  have  been  carried  to  the  islands  by 
them,  in  one  w^ay  or  another. 

Number  of  Genera  and  Species. 

The  abilit}'  of  birds  to  make  long  and  direct  flights  is  elsewhere  referred  to 
and  without  doubt  they  have  been  able  to  bring  a  small  per  cent  of  the  total 
plant  population  of  the  islands.  But  be  that  as  it  may  we  find  the  flora  of 
Hawaii  remarkable  in  that,  in  proportion  to  the  entire  number  of  plants,  it  has 
more  species  that  are  peculiar  to  the  group  than  are  to  be  found  in  any  other 
region  of  the  same  area  in  the  world.  If  we  take  the  total  number  of  plants, 
including  those  which  have  been  introduced  and  have  become  generally  natural- 
ized since  the  coming  of  Captain  Cook,  and  include  those  undoubtedly  intro- 
duced by  the  Hawaiians  themselves,  we  have  a  grand  total,  for  the  native  and 
introduced  flora,  of  approximately  a  thousand  species  of  flowering  plants  and  a 
trifle  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  species  of  cryptogamic  or  spore-bearing 
plants,  making  a  list,  including  recent  species,  of  perhaps  twelve  hundred  in 
all.  These  are  divided  by  Dr.  Hillebrand  into  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 
genera,  of  which  three  hundred  and  thirty-five  are  flowering  plants  and  thirty 
are  cryptogams.  It  should  be  remembered  of  course  that  this  number  is  being 
added  to  and  altered  and  rearranged  from  time  to  time,  through  contiiuied  re- 
search. It  is,  however,  sufficiently  accurate  to  indicate  the  character  of  the 
flora. 

Endemic  and  Introduced  Plants. 

If  Ave  exclude  from  the  total  list  as  above  given  those  known  to  have  been 
introduced  by  the  Hawaiians  and  Europeans  we  find  over  eight  hundred  and 

(Description   of   Plate    Continued   from    Opposite   Page.) 

in  a  rain  forest.  In  the  Lauhala  tree  (Pandaniis  odoratissinnis)  is  a  bird's  nest  fern  [Ekalia] 
{Asphnium  nidus)  in  its  natural  habitat.  The  Ohia  (Mctrosideros  polymorpha)  trees  in  the 
background  are  overrun  with  leie  (Freycinetia  Arnotti)  while  in  the  forefjround  several  genera 
of  ferns  can  be  recognized  among  them  Sadlcria,  Cibotium,  AspJeuhnn.  Aspiditim,  and  the  like. 
3.  A  famous  tree  fern  [Heii]  (Cihotiuni  Moizicsii)  surrounded  by  a  jungle  of  SadUria, 
Aspidium  and  other  genera  of  ferns  which  abound  in  the  moist  woods  of  Hawaii.  4.  Wild 
Bananas  [Maia]  (Musa  sapirntum)  and  cultivatod  Coffoe  {Coffca  Arabica)  growing  in  a 
forest  clearing. 


PLATE  51.     COMMON   PLANTS   FEOiM   KOCKY   COASTS   AND    SANDY    SHOKES. 

1.     llima  (Sida  spinosa),  a  name  applied  to  several  related  species.     2.     Beach  Heliotrope 
{Heliotroinum    Curassavicum).      3.     Pickle-weed    {Batis    maritima).      4.     Alena    {Boerhaavia 

(Description    of  Plate   Contiuved   on    flic   Opposite   Paye.) 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  193 

sixty  species  distributed  over  two  hundred  and  sixty-five  genera  that  are  to  be 
regarded  as  the  original  inhabitants  of  Hawaii.  Of  this  number  more  than  six 
hundred  and  fifty  species  are  found  nowhere  in  a  natural  state  outside  of  Hawaii 
and  are  therefore  endemic,  precinctive  or  peculiar  to  the  group. 

The  number  of  endemic  plants  found  on  the  different  islands  of  the 
group  varies  in  a  way  contrary  to  what  might  naturally  be  expected,  as  the 
number  is  largest  on  Kauai  and  smallest  on  the  large  island  of  Hawaii.  This 
seems  to  be  in  accordance  with  geologic  facts.  Since,  as  has  elsewhere  been 
said,  Haw^aii  as  a  whole  is  regarded  by  geologists  as  the  youngest  of  the  islands 
geologically^,  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  number  of  endemic  plants  oc- 
curring on  it,  or  on  any  of  the  islands,  furnishes  a  fair  index  to  the  relative  age 
of  that  particular  island.  Thus  Kauai,  which  stands  fourth  in  area,  stands 
first  in  her  list  of  species,  and  the  species  are  as  a  rule  much  better  defined 
than  are  those  on  the  younger  islands  of  the  group. 

]\Tuch  that  is  interesting  has  been  learned  by  tracing  the  orgin  and  affinities 
of  the  plants  of  the  Hawaiian  group.  This  is  done  by  carefully  following  out 
the  relationship  of  the  various  genera,  families  and  orders  with  a  view  to  finding 
if  possible  the  place  from  which  they  have  been  distributed  in  times  past.  Since 
there  are  no  fossil  plants  in  Hawaii  it  is  necessary  to  rely  entirely  on  the  geo- 
graphical method  of  determining  the  source  and  relationship  of  the  native  flora. 

If  the  two-thirds  of  the  list  of  the  plants  that  are  found  nowhere  else  be 
left  out  of  account,  we  find  that  the  remaining  one-third  has  come  from  various 
sources,  in  many  instances  far  remote  from  th('  islands,  by  routes  often  diffi- 
cult to  trace.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  species  that  are  widely  distributed 
throughout  Polynesia  that  are  only  allied  to  American  forms.  Many  others  are 
of  Asiatic  origin  with  Polynesian  affinities.  A  small  number  have  been  con- 
tributed by  Australia,  while  a  limited  number  are  of  African  origin.  Si  ill 
other  species  are  almost  world-wide  in  their  distribution. 

Variation  in  the  Flora  from  Island  to  Island. 

The  plant  life  of  the  several  islands  of  the  group  not  only  varies  as  to  the 
character  of  the  flora  found  on  each,  but  each  individual  island  varies  in  its 
flora  in  dift'erent  localities  to  a  certain  extent,  showing  adaptations  that  accord 
with  variations  in  altitude,  soil,  wind  and  the  amount  of  rainfall.  This  is  true 
to  such  a  degree  that  no  two  valleys  will  have  exactly  the  same  plants,  and 
each  excursion  into  the  mountains  is  liable  to  be  rewarded  by  bringing  to  light 
something  not  seen  elsewhere  and  possi])ly  not  even  known  heretofore  in  the  phmt 
world. 


(Description   of  Plate    Continued   from   Opposite   Page.) 

diffusa),  see  also  No.  7.  5.  Pauohiiaka  (Jaequemontia  Sandwicensis).  6.  La  Platte  Tobacco 
(N'ieotiana  glauca).  7.  Alena  (Boerhaavia  diff'usa).  8.  Nolm  (Tribuhis  cistoidcs).  9. 
Akoko  (Euphorbia  cordata).  10.  Maiapilo  (Cappdris  Saiuhricliiana).  11.  Pili  (Andropo- 
gon  =  {Hcteropocion)  contortus).  12.  Beach  Saiulalwood  |IliabiJ  (^SantaUun  Frci/ciiKiianum 
var.  littorale).  13.  Beach  Morning-glory  [Pohiiehuc]  (Ipomoea  pes-caprce).  14.  Beach  grass 
(Sporobolus  Virginicvs).  15.  Five-fingered  Morning-glory  [Koali  ai]  (Ipomoea  tuberculata). 
16.  Carex  sp.  17.  Akulikuli  (Sesuviiim  Fort ularast rum).  18.  Alaalapuloa  (JValtheria 
Americana). 


o 


'■A 


<1 


o 

a, 

O 

< 

o 

2; 
o 

a, 

s 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  195 

Ilillebrand  and  others  have  found  it  convenient  to  gronp  the  flora  of  the 
islands  into  different  zones  based  mostly  on  the  elevation  they  occupy.  There 
are  six  of  these  arbitrary  zones  that  with  a  little  experience  can  easily  be  recog- 
nized since  their  floras  are  more  or  less  well  defined  though,  of  course,  intergrad- 
ing  from  one  zone  to  another  to  some  extent. 

Floral  Zones:      The  Lowland  Zone. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  sketch  of  the  flora  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  it  will 
suffice  to  speak  of  a  few  of  the  more  important  plants  in  each  zone,  beginning 
at  the  sea-coast,  where  there  is  a  peculiar  strand  vegetation,  and  from  there  make 
an  ideal  ascent  of  the  mountains,  taking  one  zone  after  another  until  the  summit 
of  the  highest  mountains  have  been  explored. 

Starting  with  the  plants  of  the  lower  zone  we  have  species  that  thrive  at 
the  sea-shore,  often  at  the  very  water's  edge.  This  is  known  as  the  littoral  flora 
and  alwa.ys  grows  along  the  sea-shore  or  the  margin  of  brackish  water,  usually 
within  sound  of  the  sea.  It  seems  to  be  indifferent  to  the  salt  in  the  soil. 
Almost  all  of  the  plants  of  this  zone  are  ocean-borne  and  widely  distributed 
species.  As  a  rule  they  have  fleshy  stems  and  leaves  and  possess  great  vitality. 
They  may  be  uprooted  by  the  waves,  borne  out  to  sea  by  the  tides,  and  carried 
away  for  long  distances  by  the  currents,  to  be  set  out  again  by  the  action  of 
the  waves  on  some  foreign  shore.  The  plants  found  growing  on  Midway,  Laysan 
and  Lisiansky,  and  in  fact  all  the  low  Pacific  islands  and  shores,  are  of  this 
littoral  type.  On  Laysan  the  writer  collected  twenty-six  species  that  must  all 
owe  their  origin  to  the  method  of  transplanting  just  described. 

Common  Littoral  Species. 

There  is  very  little  variation  in  temperature  and  conditions  at  the  sea-shore 
throughout  the  group,  and  as  a  result  we  generally  find  the  condition  of  plant 
life  fixed  and  uniform  on  all  of  the  islands.  The  same  littoral  species  may  occur 
wide-spread  about  the  shore  of  the  different  tropical  islands,  while  the  genus 
to  which  the  species  belongs  may  be  represented  inland  where  conditions  are 
more  variable  by  several  species,  often  one  or  more  such  species  being  peculiar 
to  each  island  where  the  genus  occurs.  An  interesting  example  of  this  is  found 
in  the  case  of  the  genus  Sccevola — the  naupaka  of  the  natives  with  a  wide 
spread  shore  species. ^  The  species  of  the  genus  are  all  small  shrubs  bearing 
white  or  pale  blue  and  occasionally  yellow  flowers  that  are  peculiar  in  that  the 
corolla  is  split  along  the  upper  side  to  its  base.      Owing  to  this  peculiarity  the 


1  Sccevola  Lobelia. 


Description'   of   Platk. 

1.  Hawaiian  Mahogany  [Koa]  (Acacia  loa)  from  the  koa  forest  near  tlio  volcano 
Kilauea.  2.  Tree  Ferns  (Cibotium  sp.)  in  the  fern  jungle  near  the  Volcano  House.  3. 
Lichens  on  trees;  a  charcteristic  of  the  forests  above  2000  feet.  4.  Lauhala  (Pandanus  odor- 
atissimus)  by  the  sea-shore  on  Hawaii.  5.  Staghorn  Fern  [Ululie]  {Glcichenia  linearis). 
6.  A  Staghorn  Fern  tangle  near  the  volcano  Kilauea.  7.  Wiliwili  (En/thrina  monospcrma). 
8.    Apeape   (Gunnera  petaloides),  showing  the  comparative  size  of  its  splendid  leaves. 


PLATE  53.     TWENTY    COMMON   WEEDS. 

1.    Cocklebiir    (Xanthium   struinarmm).     2.    False    Mallow    (Malvastrum    tricuspidatum). 
3-4.     Common   Sida   (Sida  spinosa).     5.     Wild   Euphorbia    {Eupliorhia  genicuJaia).     fi.     Yel- 

( Description    of  Plate   Continued   on  the   Opposite   Page.) 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  197 

natives  have  woven  a  pretty  pathetic  story  al)()ut  tlie  ])lossom  which  tells  of 
how  two  lovers,  who  had  long  been  fond  of  each  other,  one  day  (iuarreled  and 
parted.  As  a  token  of  the  unhappy  event  the  maiden  tore  this  flower  down  the 
side.  This  was  a  sign  by  which  her  sweetheart  might  know  that  she  loved 
him  no  longer,  nor  would  she  care  for  him  until  he  should  find  and  carry  to  her  a 
perfect  naupaka  flower.  The  lover  went  in  desperation  from  one  bush  to  an- 
other and  from  one  island  to  another  searching  through  the  flowers,  hoping  to 
find  a  blossom  that  was  not  torn  apart.  But  alas,  he  was  doomed  to  disappoint- 
ment and  it  is  said  that  he  died  of  a  broken  heart.  That  was  long,  long  ago ;  but  the 
naupaka  still  blooms  always  with  a  slit  down  the  side  of  the  flower,  no  doubt,  as  a 
warning  to  petulent  maidens  that  it  is  unsafe  to  interfere  with  the  laws 
of  nature.  Be  that  as  it  may,  through  the  long  ages  since  (and  longer  ages 
before)  this  shrub  has  been  blooming  on  the  different  islands,  and  creeping 
higher  and  higher  into  the  mountains,  and  has  slowly  adapted  itself  to  the  changes 
of  soil,  elevation  and  climate  until  several  distinct  species  and  a  number  of 
varieties  have  been  formed. 

Another  characteristic  plant  of  this  zone  is  the  sea  morning-glory.-  the 
pohuehue  of  the  natives.  This  species  w^ith  its  thick  bright  green  leaves,  lobed 
at  the  tip,  that  grow  on  thrifty  creeping  stems  which  root  down  from  the  joints, 
bears  dusky  pink  flowers  familiar  to  every  one  who  has  strolled  along  the  sea 
shore  anywhere  in  the  tropics. 

A  near  relative  of  the  above  found  on  the  sand  beach  on  lowlands  is  the  na- 
tive island  morning-glory  ^  or  koali.  It  is  recognized  by  its  heart-shaped  leaves 
and  azure  blue  flowers  that  become  reddish  as  they  fade.  The  natives  used  its 
root  in  their  medicine  as  a  cathartic,  and  also  used  it  as  a  poultice  for  bruises 
and  broken  bones. 

Associated  v.dth  these,  often  growing  together  with  them,  is  a  third  species 
of  morning-glory-^  or  Convolvulus,  the  "koali  ai."  It  is  found  in  dry 
rocky  soils  near  the  shore  and  is  recognized  by  its  having  the  leaves  cut  into  five 
fingers  and  its  blossoms  beautiful  purplish-red  flowers.  It  is  of  more  than  pass- 
ing interest  since,  as  the  name  implies,  the  natives  ate  its  tuberous  roots  in  times 
of  scarcity.  They  also  wilted  and  used  its  .stems  for  coarse  cordage.  That  tlie 
natives  should  use  this  root  as  food  is  not  so  odd  as  it  at  first  seems  when  we 
remember  that  the  sweet  potato  ^  or  uala,  a  near  relative  with  more  than  twenty 


2  Ipomoea  pes-caprce.  ^  Ipomoea  insularis.  *  Ipoinoea    tiibiTfiilctfi.  '^  Ipomoeu    Batatas. 


(Description    of    Plnte    Continued    from    Opiioxite    I'ai/e.) 

low  Wood-Sorrel  (Oxalis  cornindata).  7.  False  Geraniiiin,  "Cheeses''  (Malva  rotundifoUa). 
8.  Sow  Thistle  [Pnalele]  (Sonchus  oleraceus).  9.  Eattlebo.x  (Crotahiria  sp.).  10.  Spanish 
Needles  (Bidens  pilosa).  11.  Common  Amaranth  {Euxolus  viridis).  12.  Stick-Tight  Crass 
[Piipii]  (Chrysopogon  verticillata).  13.  Paupilipili  (DrsDwdium  uiicinaium  =  Mciohrmia 
uncinalus).  14.  Purslane  [Ihi]  (Portulaca  oUracea).  lo.  Nut  Grass  [Kaluha]  (KyUinf/ia 
inonocephala.  16.  Thorny  Amaranth  (Amaratitus  .spino.sits).  17.  Dog's  Tail  or  Wire 
Grass  {Eleusine  Indica).  18.  Garden  Grass  {Eragrostia  major).  19.  EcUpta  alba,  coniniou 
about  taro  ponds,  etc.  20.  Crow-foot  {Chloris  radiata).  (No  number)  Garden  Spurge 
(Euphorbia  pihdifera). 


PLATE  54.     COMMON   PLANTS    OF    THE    FIELDS    AND    ROADSIDE    (OAHU). 

1.     False   Koa    (Lcuccena   glauca).      2.     Kou    (Cordia    sub  cor  data).      3.     Han    (Hibiscus 
tiliaceus).      4.     Galingale    (Cyperus    pennatus).      5.     Mexican    Poppy    [Puakala]     (Argemone 

(DescriptioTn    of  Plate   Continned   on   the   Opposite   Page.) 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  199 

v^arieties.  was  one  of  the  principle  sources  of  vegetable  food  used  l)y  the  natives 
at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  islands. 

Associated  with  the  foregoing  is  an  interesting  plant,  the  kipii  kai,"  one  of 
two  species  of  heliotrope  which  occurs  on  the  low  littoral  zone.  As  the  Hawaiian 
name  implies  it  is  invariably  found  near  the  sea.  Both  species,  however,  usually 
grow  on  the  raised  coral  rock  or  the  dry  lava  flows  rather  th.in  the  sand  of  the 
shore.  The  pure  white  flowers  are  in  small  compact  clusters  on  a  low  prostrate, 
wiry  stem.  The  close  rosettes  of  thick  silky  leaves  distinguishes  the  second 
species  "  at  once  from  the  smooth-leafed  larger  form  with  the  longer  spikes  of 
white  flowers. 

Account  of  the  pickle  weed  ( akulikulikai ) ^  should  here  be  taken  since  it  is  a 
common  and  conspicuous  plant  in  brackish  water  marshes  about  Honolulu  and 
Pearl  Harbor  and  one  that  is  rapidly  spreading  to  other  localities. 

Still  another  plant  that  is  of  interest,  especially  to  the  small  boy,  is  the 
nohu.*^  It  is  sometimes  called  oMahukona  violet  by  reason  of  the  fragrance  of 
its  flowers.  The  plant  is  a  trailing  hairy  vine-herb  with  usually  eight  pairs  of 
small  leaflets  to  the  leaf.  The  blossoms  are  yellow  and  an  inch  or  more  across. 
But  the  feature  of  particular  interest  is  the  horny  seed  pods  each  segment  of 
which  is  armed  with  twin  spines.  The  bare-footed  boy  who  steps  on  one  of  these 
pods  as  it  lies  buried  in  the  sand  is  liable  to  remember  the  experience  for  a  long 
time. 

A  common  and  interesting  species  in  the  lowlands  along  the  shore  or  at  the 
mouths  of  streams  where  the  water  is  not  too  brackish  is  the  akaakai  or  bul- 
rush ^"  with  its  long,  gradually  tapering  naked  stems,  three  to  six  feet  or  more 
in  height.  But  there  are  many  plants,  sedges  and  grasses  in  this  zone,  common 
on  or  near  the  sea-shore  of  the  group,  that  are  all  so  widespread  in  their  general 
distribution  that  they  form  a  list  too  extensive  to  receive  mention  here. 

Such  plants  as  the  polinalina  ^^  with  the  underside  of  the  leaves  and  flowers 
nearly  white;  the  nehe,^-  a  low  prostrate  plant  with  small,  thick,  veinless,  silky- 
haired  leaves ;  the  beach  sandalwood,^-^  a  low  shrub  with  thick,  fleshy,  pale  green 
leaves;  the  maiapilo,^^  a  straggling  shrub  with  smooth  leaves  and  large  showy 
many-stamened  white  flowers;  the  maoor  native  cotton,^^  a  Ioav  shrub  witli  hoary 
white,  three-to-five-lobed  leaves  and  sulphur-yellow  hibiscus-like  flowers;  the 
pololo  or  dodder,!*'  a  leafless  thread-like  twining  parasite,  as  Avell  as  such  trees  as 


*  Eeliotropiiim   Curassavicnm.  '  Heliotropium  anomalum.  "  Balis  maritima. 

^  Iribulus  cistoides.         i"  Scirpus  lacustris.         ii  Yitex  trifolia.  ^-  Lipochata  integrifoUa. 

^^  Santalum  littorale.         ^*  Capparis  Sandwichwna.         ^^  Gossypium  tom-ei^tosiim. 
1'  Cuscuta  Sandwiehiana. 


(Description   of  Plate    Continued  from   Opposite  Page.) 

Mexicana).  6.  Hinahina  (Heliotorjnum  anomalum).  7.  .lob's  Tears  (Coi.r  lacryma- 
Jobi).  8.  Sedge  (sp.  indet).  9.  Mint  (sp.  indet).  10.  Bullnish  [Akaakai]  (Scirpu.^ 
lacustris).  11.  Lantana  (Lantana  Camara).  12.  Kolu  (Acacia  Farncsiana).  13.  Jimson 
Weed  [Kikania]  (Datura  Stramnnium).  14.  "Opium"  tree  [Opiuma]  (Inga  dulcis  =^  Pithe- 
eolohium  dvlce).     15.    Club  Rush   (Scirpus  palustris). 


PLATE  55.  VEGETATION  IN  THE  FORESTS,  ALONG  THE  STREAMS  AND  THE 

ROADSIDE. 

1.    Typical  scene  along  the  mountain   streams.     2.    On   the   road  to   Kilanea.     3.    Tyjiical 
forest   jungle   in   the   middle   forest   zone   showing    the    luxuriant    growth    of    vines.      A    fern 


FLORA  OF  Till]  GKOFP.  201 

tlie  milo/^  niu/-   kou,^''  k.iiuatii-"  and  the  noni-'    are  all    liable  to  occur  at  or 
near  the  strand  and  to  attract  notice. 

Plants  from  the  Sea-Shore  to  the  Edge  of  the  Forest. 


The  second  zone  begins  at  tlie  sea-shore  and  extends  back  to  the  lower  edge 
of  the  forest  area  and  reaches  up  perhaps  a  thousand  feet  or  more  on  the  slopes 
of  the  mountains.  This  is  termed  the  lowland  zone.  It  is  open  country,  usually 
covered  with  grass  after  a  rain,  with  isolated  trees  scattered  here  and  llicrc,  repre- 
senting comparatively  few  genera.  Being  either  arid,  sandy  or  rocky  the  region 
nowhere,  except  possibly  in  the  valleys  and  along  the  windward  sid(\  produces 
anything  like  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  It  is  in  this  zone  that  man  has  longest 
had  his  dwelling  and  has  cultivated,  cleared  and  panted  most ;  therefore  since 
the  coming  of  foreigners  and  the  extension  of  irrigation  and  the  cultivation  of 
field  ci*ops  on  a  large  scale  the  native  plants  have  all  but  disappeared  from  this 
costal  or  lowland  area.  They  must  now  ])e  sought  in  the  most  unpromising 
agricultural  districts,  as  about  the  base  of  tuff-cones  like  Diamond  Head;  or 
along  the  lava  ledges  not  accessible  to  animals ;  or  better  still,  on  old  lava  flows 
too  rough  or  too  dry  for  tillage. 

One  of  the  most  common,  persistent  and  useful  of  the  native  trees  of  this 
zone  is  the  hau.--  The  tree  is  very  nearly  related  to  the  Hibiscus  of  the  gar- 
dens from  which  it  can  be  separated  by  the  fact  that  in  the  hau  the  bracts  of 
the  flowers  are  united  to  form  an  eight-to-ten-lobed  cup.  It  is  common  from 
the  sea-shore  to  1500  feet  elevation  and  is  a  freely-branching  tree  growing  in  a 
snarl,  forming  almost  impenetrable  thickets  that  sometimes  completely  fill  small 
valleys.  It  is  a  favorite  tree  with  the  Hawaiians  and  is  frequently  utilized  as 
a  shade  over  arbors  and  lanais.  The  light  wood  served  as  outriggers  for  the 
native  canoes,  the  tough  bark  made  pliable  rope,  and  the  bark  and  flowers  were 
used  as  an  important  medicine.  The  flowers  are  yellow  one  day  and  the  next  day 
mauve,  and  according  to  Hillebrand  double  blossoms  are  occasionally  found 
near  the  sea-shore. 

Very  closely  related  to  the  foregoing  is  the  niilo.-''  Like  the  hau  the  numerous 
large,  showy  yellow  blossoms  make  the  milo  an  attractive  tree  which  often  at- 
tains a  height  of  forty  feet  or  more.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  for  the  novice  to 
recognize  the  tree  as  a  distinct  species.  The  flower  bracts,  however,  are  free  and 
only  three-to-five  in  number,  and  the  seed  pods  are  an  inch  and  a  half  in  dia- 
meter, almost  as  hard  as  horn,  and  hang  on  the  tree  long  after  the  seeds  have 
ripened. 


^'  Tfies/x'sia  poiiiiliicd.  ^'^  Coros  iniriffra.  '^' Cordi/i    subcorihita.         -^  Cal'ipln/Uiini   hioiilij/Utnii. 

-^  iloritida  citrifoUn.         -'-  Puriliutn   tiliaceiini.  -•'  TheKpeiiiu  piipidnea. 


(Descriptioii    of   Plate    Continued   from    O/ijiosite   Pit<ie.) 

stem  corduroy  road  leads  throujili  the  Oliia  forest  which  is  draped  witli  leie  vines.  To  the 
extreme  riglit  and  left  are  graceful  tree  ferns,  while  in  tlu'  foregrnund  are  a  number  of  ferns 
and  under-shrubs  characteristic  of  the  region.  4.  View  along  the  VolcaiKi  House  road  show- 
ing a  nund>er  of  introduced  plants  that  have  escaped  into  the  forest. 

14 


I'LATI-]  .j(K     KUKUI    AND    COMMON    PLANT8    OF    THE    LOWER    FOREST    (OAHU), 

1.     Oloiia    {Tourhardia    lot  if  olid) .     2.    Candlc-mit    tree    |  Kukiii]     (Alenrites    Moluccana) . 
3.    Hawaiian    Moon    Flower    {Ipomoea    bona-nox).     4.     Icic    {Frcijcinetia    Arnotti).     5.    Hala- 

(Deicriptiun    of   Plate    Continued    on    t lie    Oi>iiosite    Page.) 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  203 

Milo  occurs  generally'  over  the  Pacific  islands  and  was  formerly  much  used 
by  the  natives  in  various  ways,  but  especially  iu  making  wooden  dishes,  cala- 
bashes and  other  household  ntensils.  In  many  parts  of  the  Pacific  the  tree  is 
held  in  religious  veneration,  being  planted  iu  or  about  the  native  temples,  but 
this  does  not  seem  to  have  been  the  case  in  Hawaii. 

Two  species  of  native  cotton  are  found  in  this  zone.  The  one  with  sulphur- 
colored  flowers  is  called  mao  -"* ;  the  one  with  brick-red  flowers  is  the  kokio  -^ 
of  the  natives.  Both  species,  unfortunately,  are  rarely  met  with  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  either  as  a  garden  shrub  would  be  most  commendable.  In  this 
same  region  and  belonging  to  the  same  order  -^  as  the  foregoing  are  found  the 
four  or  five  species  of  ilima.-^  They  are  all  low  shrubs  two  to  six  feet  high, 
with  single  yellow  flowers.  The  flowers  are  much  prized  and  have  been  used  for 
centuries  by  stringing  them  together  one  on  top  of  another  on  fibers  of  olona, 
to  make  garlands  or  leis.  They  are  often  called  the  national  flower  of  Hawaii, 
having  long  been  the  favorite  flower  of  Hawaiian  royalty. 

The  ohe  ^^  is  also  a  tree  of  this  region,  and  though  in  no  way  resembling 
the  bamboo,  the  latter  has  been  given  the  same  name  by  the  natives.  It  is  a 
low  scrubby,  thick-trunked  tree  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  high  growing  on  ex- 
posed open  hillsides  and  is  one  of  the  rarer  trees  of  the  region.  The  leaves  are 
a  foot  long  and  bear  from  seven  to  ten  ovate  leaflets.  These  are  lost  in  the 
winter,  the  flowers  appearing  before  the  leaves  in  the  spring. 

The  wiliwili  ^^  is  better  known  than  the  foregoing  and  resembles  it  in  shape 
and  habit.  The  "coral  tree,"  as  it  is  often  called,  is  to  be  seen  in  the  city, 
though  unfortunately  it  is  becoming  yearly  more  rare  in  its  native  habitat — the 
open  country — where  it  was  formerly  a  common  tree  on  the  rocky  hills  and  plains 
in  the  lower  open  regions  on  all  the  islands.  The  tree  rarely  grows  more  than 
twenty-five  feet  high  and  belongs  to  the  bean  family,  or  Legnminosce-  It  has  the 
trunk  and  limbs  armed  with  short,  stift'  thorns.  The  broad  spreading  crown  of 
stiff,  gnarled,  whitish  branches  bearing  bean-like  leaflets  can  hardly  escape  the  at- 
tention of  the  observer;  but  should  it  be  in  flower  (its  flowers  open  before  the 
leaves  come  out)  the  wealth  of  red,  orange,  or  yellow  blossoms  will  be  a  subject  of 
admiration  and  remark  by  the  merest  holiday  rambler.  The  pods  are  from  an  inch 
and  a  half  to  three  inches  in  length  with  from  one  to  several  reddish  bean- 
shaped  seeds  a  half  inch  or  more  in  length.  It  is  not  to  be  mistaken  for  the 
tree  in  parks  and  grounds  bearing  the  small  disk-shaped  seed  calltMl  wiliwili  or 
red  sandalwoods*^  of  tropical  Asia,  that  produces  the  red  lense-shaped  "Cir- 


2*  Gossypiurn  tomentosum.         "^  Gossppium  drynarioides.         ""  Malvacew.         -'  Sida  spp. 
28  Reynoldsia  Sandwicensis.         29  Erythrina  monosperma.         ^o  Adenanthera  pavonina. 

(Description   of  Plate    Continued  from   Opposite  Page.) 

pepe  (Draccena  aurea).  6.  Hauhele  (Hibiscus  Arnottiamis) .  7.  Alaal;iwaiiiui  (Peperomia 
sp.).  8.  Kopiko  (Straussia  Mariniana).  9.  Native  Ginger  [Awapuhi]  (Zinfjibcr  Zerum- 
bet).  10.  Naupaka  (Sccpvola  Chamissoniana) .  11.  Koa  (Acocia  Kna).  12.  Kalia  (E1(po- 
carpus  bifidius)  with  diseased  inflorescence.  13.  Uki  (DiancUa  en.sifoUa).  14.  Uhi  (Smilax 
Sandwicensis) . 


204  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

cassian  seeds'"  which  are  curiosities  with  travelers  and  used  extensively  in  Hawaii 
for  leis  or  necklaces. 

The  wood  of  the  wiliwili  is  very  light,  said  to  be  lighter  than  cork,  and  was 
niucli  used  l)y  the  ancient  Ilawaiians  for  making  the  float  log  of  the  outrigger 
for  their  canoes  and  also  as  floats  on  their  fish  nets. 

Another  useful  plant  native  to  this  region,  though  not  well  known,  is  the 
Hawaiian  soap  plant  or  anapanapa  ^^  which  grows  to  be  a  large  shrub  with  small 
greenish  flowers. 

The  only  really  common  flowering  plant  of  the  islands  among  the  small 
forms  is  the  ^Mexican  thistle  or  puakala.  It  occurs  in  dry  rocky  situations  on 
the  leeward  side  of  the  islands  and  grows  erect  and  stiff  and  from  two  or  six 
feet  in  height.  It  boldly  displays  the  large,  attractive  wdiite  terminal  flowers 
that  are  three  inches  or  more  in  diameter.  Its  flowers  are  amply  guarded 
with  a  mass  of  Avhitish  prickly  leaves.  Though  thoroughly  naturalized  and 
found  by  the  first  collectors,  this  thistle-poppy  was  undoubtedly  introduced  from 
the  warmer  parts  of  North  America. 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  and  abundant  native  trees  of  the  region,  how- 
ever, is  the  picturesque  Pandanus,  better  known  as  lauhala  ^-  or  hala  by  the 
natives.  It  is  common  on  the  dry  plains  and  about  settlements  of  the  lower 
regions  everywhere,  frequently  growing  down  on  the  sand  beach.  The  stout 
branching  trunks  and  numerous  aerial  roots  growing  out  of  the  trunk,  as  well 
as  the  base  of  some  of  the  branches,  are  well  known  peculiarities  of  the  plant. 
It  has  long  linear  leaves  crowded  into  a  head  at  the  end  of  the  branches.  The 
leaves  are  of  great  value  to  the  natives,  since  from  them  they  plait  the  mats, 
fans,  and  other  articles,  elsewhere  described,  that  are  so  serviceable.  The 
fibrous  wood  of  the  old  trees  is  very  hard  and  capable  of  taking  a  high  polish 
and  in  recent  times  has  been  used  in  making  the  modern  turned  wooden  bowls 
or  calabashes.  Picturesque  as  the  lauhala  tree  is,  its  principal  charm  to  the 
natives  is  in  the  bright  orange-red  fruit  from  which  they  will  continue  to  string 
leis  so  long  as  there  are  natives  left  to  wear  them.  The  base  of  the  fruit  con- 
tains a  small,  rich,  edible  nut — about  the  only  native  nut  in  Hawaii  worth  eating. 

The  Pandanus  occurs  widespread  over  Polynesia.  The  seeds  will  stand 
saturation  in  sea  water  for  months  without  loosing  their  vitality.  Hence  they 
can  be  readily  transported  by  ocean  currents  and  planted  by  sea  waves.  In 
addition  to  the  wide  geographical  range  of  the  plant,  geologists  tell  us  that  its 
ancestors  were  alive  and  flourishing  in  the  Triassic  period  in  Europe.  It  is  said 
to  be  among  the  oldest  and  most  persistant  of  plants,  and  one  that  in  every  way 
is  fitted  to  take  part  in  the  pioneer  work  of  starting  plant  life  on  a  new-born 
oceanic  island;  it  is  therefore  strange  that  it  has  not  been  established  in  some 
way  on  the  low  coral  islands  of  this  group. 

In  this  same  lowland  zone  occurs  the  Hawaiian  dodder  or  pololo,^^  a  species 
that  also  extends  its  range  down  to  the  strand.      This  curious  member  of  the 


^^  Colubrinn  Asicttirri.  '-  I'aiidditiis  odorfitixsimis.  ^^  Cusciita  Sandivicliiana. 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  205 

convolvulus  family  is  a  golden  yellow  leafless  parasitic  vine  that  begins 
life  as  a  herb  with  a  twining  stem.  When  it  comes  into  contact  with 
a  suitable  tree,  shrub  or  vine  it  twines  itself  about  it,  and  at  the  place  where 
it  twines  about  the  host  plant  it  develops  suckers  which  sa])  from  the  tree  all 
the  nourishment  the  dodder  requires  for  its  growth.  Finall\-  the  roots  of  the 
parasite  die  and  the  ignoble  plant  continues  to  live  on  its  victim  much  as  the 
mistletoe  does.  In  various  places  about  the  group  as  in  Kau  on  Hawaii, 
it  covers  the  bushes  and  the  plant  growth  over  hundreds  of  acres  of  the  low 
lands. 

Introduced  Plants. 

As  has  been  said,  the  region  from  the  sea-shore  up  to  and  above  one  thou- 
sand feet  elevation  has  been  most  used  by  man,  and  as  a  result  the  character 
of  the  flora  has  been  changed  by  many  plants,  both  of  native  and  European  in- 
troduction, that  have  here  found  congenial  surroundings. 

A  note^vorthy  example  of  undoubted  Hawaiian  introduction  is  the  noni.'^^ 
It  is  a  small  tree  with  stout  angular  branches  clothed  with  thick,  smooth,  green 
leaves  six  or  eight  inches  long  by  half  as  broad.  The  tree  is  most  easily  recog- 
nized by  its  curious  potato-like  greenish  fruits.  They  are  fleshy  and  .juicy,  but 
insipid  to  the  taste,  and  are  very  fetid  while  decaying.  The  noni  occurs  all  over 
Polynesia  from  the  strands  up  several  hundred  feet  in  the  valleys,  and  in  former 
times  Avas  cultivated  as  a  dye  plant  by  the  Hawaiians,  who  secured  a  yellow 
dye  from  the  roots  and  a  pink  dye  from  the  bark.  AVitli  the  addition  of  salt 
they  also  secured  a  blue  color  that  was  very  permanent. 

Of  the  plants  that  have  escaped  from  European  introductions  only  a  few 
of  the  more  conspicuous  or  interesting  can  be  mentioned.  Next  to  the  lantaua  per- 
haps the  Verbena  or  oi,-"*-^  an  erect  perennial  three  to  six  feet  high  with  spikes 
of  small  lilac-blue  flowers,  is  one  of  the  most  troublesome  introductions,  especi- 
ally where  large  tracts  of  land  are  used  for  pasture.  The  cassia  flower-^"  or 
kolu  bean  was  an  early  introduction  into  the  islands  and  grows  luxuriantly  along 
the  road  sides  and  elsewhere  in  unproductive  regions.  Its  finely  pinnate  leaflets 
and  yellow,  sweet-scented  ball-like  flowers  are  characteristic  of  this  hush,  but  are 
no  better  known  to  the  cross-country  rambler  than  are  their  sharp  needle-like 
spines.  India  furnishes  tons  of  the  dried  blossoms  of  this  plant  to  connnerce, 
and  France,  we  are  told,  has  plantations  devoted  to  the  culture  of  this  or  a 
closely  allied  species,  the  aromatic  blossoms  of  which  are  much  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  perfume.  Experiments  have  proven  that  the  quality  of  th(^  Hawaiian 
grown  flowers,  if  properly  dried,  excel  in  fragrance  those  gi-owii  -.wmI  cured  in 
India. 

Perhai)s  a  dozen  species  of  Acacia  are  grown  in  Hawaii,  some  of  which  have 
established  themselves  in  the  open.  With  these  should  be  mentioned  several 
species  of  the  genus  Cassia,  belonging  with  their  cousin  the  kolu  to  the  great 
order  of  pod-bearing  plants  •^'  that  are  both  wild  and  cultivated. 


^*  Morinda   ritrifolia.  ^^  Verbena   Poiiai-ieiixis.  '"  Arariit   Farnesiaita.  *"  Legiiminosa. 


o  a 


— '        .«            O 

•—             -.             > 

:"    -^    71 

-^.S  p 

"sis 

— 

-  -  M 

>^  o 

old 

-     n  » 

-OS 

o  ^  ^ 

5  S  1  1    , 

°J0   .       rt 

O  1 — 1 

CO    o    o    o 

3  H  >  n 

^    c3          03 

O  jj    5j    o 

^.2^^ 

'^  -^  > 

"+'    O  tJ    <3 

m 

)=H        Cti     ^ 

H 

.      ^^                    "^ 

z; 

5      r-    ^-2 

, — ^    ^  ^   c6 

<^ 

J 

O  ^  o  .-^ 

A 
M 

O     O    S    «i 

a 

=H  ~  ;:i 

> 

—1 

:7H 

<^  1-1  e  ^ 

<^ 

-r^  CO  '-S   g 

^ 

m 

d  s^  e 

o 

k— 1 

2  S'^o 

sill 

t;  CO  c 

o 

^W^^ 

. 

2-t^-^ 

I- 

<—     K*^ 

LO 

W 

^ 

^    ^    S    K 

<1 

fe  s  =*  > 

03                      C3 

.2  =>  p  .5 

c3  ^  --H 

>  s      ® 

2  ^-c 

M-*  .2  ■♦^ 

S     o    cc    - 
•rt     ^     ^     w 

>  -^  r-  o 

>  -^^  ^ 

o        u  ^ 

CO  ^  ^   0 

o"^  ^ 

o^'S  ^ 

r-   .rt  --O     f- 

^  ^           C 

co"  a>  S  -^ 

-•S  S  ■£ 

CO  -^'S 

..  .  "^    o 

-^    2l,   ?■ 

-T     ^--^^ 

H 

^'^    P    tl 

O   Cl  t- 

2-^ 


FLORA  OF  TIIH  (IROFP.  207 

Tile  iicarJy  related  lalse  koa  •''*  Mitli  white  Isall-like  hlossoins  often  ;iti  iiidi  in 
diameter  is  one  that  has  escaped  and  t)ec(inie  eoniiiHui.  Its  senls.  known  as 
mimosa  seeds,  are  about  the  size  of  those  of  an  apple  and  are  used  by  the  natives 
in  making  leis  and  other  ornaments  for  sah^  to  tourists. 

The  wild  indigo  or  iiiiko''''  of  the  na1i\'es  growing  two  to  tive  feet  hiirh.  with 
small  leaflets  in  from  Iwo  to  eiuht  pairs  to  the  leaf,  is  an  introdueeil  weed.  It 
was  brought  in  183()  from  Java  by  Dr.  Sei'riere  who,  it  is  said,  was  a1)b-  to 
manufacture  a  good  grade  of  indigo  from  it.  The  sj)eeies  is  of  American  origin, 
l)ut  is  now  grown  in  many  eountries  in  preference  to  otlier  indiizo-yielding 
species.  This  plant  is  frequently  confused  with  the  native  ])lant  ahuliu  or 
auholo  ^^  found  growing  in  the  same  region  and  very  closely  resembling  the 
indigo  in  size  and  general  appearance.  The  latter,  however,  has  the  flowers  and 
seed  terminals  on  opposite  leaves.  The  pods  of  the  ahuhu  are  easily  recognized, 
being  two  inches  long  and  straight,  while  those  of  the  indigo  are  a  half  ineli  long, 
much  incurved  and  usually  thickly  crowded  together  on  the  stems. 

The  ahuhu  was  nuich  used  by  the  natives  for  stupifying  fish,  as  the  plant 
possesses  a  narcotic  i)roperty  similar  to  that  of  digitalis.  It  is  said  to  have  a 
similar  effect  on  the  action  of  the  heart. 

The  common  Vinca,-'^  a  native  of  troi)ical  America,  has  escapetl  in  nuiny 
places  and,  as  about  Tlalawa  on  ^lolokai,  flourishes  on  the  rocky  hillsides  in  the 
open  country  below^  the  forest  line. 

Black-eyed  susans,  or  Indian  licorice,^-  known  to  some  as  prayer  beads, 
has  also  escaped.  The  plant  has  leaflets  in  seven  to  ten  pairs  each  a])out  half 
an  inch  in  length.  The  flowers  are  pink  or  pale  purple  and  are  followed  by 
])ods  an  inch  or  so  long  filled  with  scarlet  seeds,  each  with  a  Itlack  spot  at  the 
base.  The  plant  probably  came  originally  from  Asia,  l)ut  it  is  now  scattered 
everywhere.  Its  seeds,  like  so  many  othei-  introdueed  seeds,  are  woi-n  in  Hawaii 
in  the  form  of  leis. 

Job's  tears,'*-^  like  the  foregoing,  no  doubt  escaped  from  the  gardens  of  the 
early  missionary  settlers  and  found  a  congenial  soil  along  the  wat(M'  eoiu'ses, 
ponds  and  waste  places  in  the  lowlands.  The  plant  is  corn-like  in  apjiear- 
ance,  and  the  large,  white,  shining  fruits  have  some  resemblance  to  heavy  drops 
of  tears,  hence. its  fanciful  name.  The  plant  was  originall\-  a  native  of  eastern 
Asia  but  is  now^  found  everywhere  in  gardens. 

AVith  the  foregoing  should  be  mentioned  the  ('anna  ov  Indian  shot.''  The 
common  species  that  has  escaped  grows  along  the  streams  and  lias  been  widely 
scattered  about  the  valleys  on  the  diiferent  islands.  The  tlowei's  ai'e  generally 
red  but  are  frequently  yellow  and  are  often  varieitated  as  well.  The  roniid 
black  seeds  are  responsible  for  the  English  name  though  the  |ilanl  is  known 
to  ITawaiians  as  aliipoe.  Other  species  of  ('anna  have  escaped,  especially  on 
Hawaii,  where  this  genus,  which  belongs  in  the  same  family  as  the  banana,  finds 
conditions  especially  favoral)le  for  its  gi-owth. 


'^'^  Leucwna  glauca.         '^"  I iidii/'ifci-n   Anil.         *"  Ti'iilinisid   iiinfiitdnn.         •"  Viii<-(t   msra. 
*- AbfKs  iiercritiiriiis.  *'•' Coi.v  lacryiim  =■-  ('.  IncriniiiiJ  ubi.  ^'  Ciiiiiki   Iiiilica. 


208  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

AVatercress  ^''  is  in  reality  a  species  of  Nasturtium.  It  was  an  early  arrival 
and  has  spread  in  the  streams  about  Honolulu  and  the  islands  generally.  It  is 
the  same  species  as  that  so  nnieh  esteemed  as  a  food  in  Europe.  While  it  nour- 
ishes in  Hawaii  and  is  especially  tine  in  flavor,  it  rarely  flowers.  Th^  air-plant  '^^' 
is  another  escaped  plant.  It  grows  two  to  five  feet  tall  with  erect  fleshy  stems 
and  large,  thick,  ovate  leaves,  aiul  has  green  bell-shaped  nodding  flowers  tinged 
with  reddish  yellow.  The  air-plant  is  a  familiar  species  in  suitable  localities 
of  tlic  lower  levels.  While  it  is  a  native  of  Africa,  it  flourishes  here  and  is  a 
well  known  curiosity  owing  to  the  fact  that  a  leaf  left  lying  on  the  table  will 
begin  to  grow  from  the  crenate  notches  along  its  edge,  apparently  deriving  its 
sustenance  from  the  air. 

Grasses. 

Grasses  of  various  species,  both  native  and  introduced,  form  the  principal 
field  vegetation  of  the  costal  region.  No  fewer  than  three  dozen  genera  of 
grasses  have  been  recognized  in  Hawaii  by  botanists.  Many  genera  found  in  the 
lowlands  enjoy  a  considerable  range,  extending  well  up  into  the  mountains,  and 
have  numerous  species  of  more  or  less  nnportance.  Of  the  genus  Panicum  fifteen 
species  and  several  doubtful  varieties  have  been  recorded  by  Hillebrand  and 
others.  They  are  found  in  various  places  under  varying  conditions  throughout 
the  group.  At  least  a  half  dozen  and  perhaps  more  introduced  species  belong- 
ing to  this  genus  are  conunon  in  the  cultivated  districts. 

The  original  manienie  ^"  that  formerly  occupied  the  lowlands  up  to  2,000 
feet  elevation,  belongs  to  a  different  genus  from  the  creeping  grass  introduced 
in  1835  which  is  the  familiar  grass  '^^  of  the  yards  about  the  city.  The  former 
is  a  coarser  grass  creeping  with  ascending  branches  six  to  eight  inches  long 
bearing  four  to  eight  pairs  of  leaves.  The  latter  has  slender  rooting  stems,  with 
four  to  eight  pairs  of  alternate  leaves  with  three  to  six  spikes,  an  inch  or  more 
long,  at  the  end  of  the  stem.  Owing  to  its  creeping  hal)it  it  has  been  called  by 
the  natives  manienie.  It  forms  a  dense  mat  in  pasture  lands  and  has  crowded 
out  other  grasses  up  to  the  upper  limit  of  the  lowland  zone.  It  is  of  great 
use  in  dry,  sandy  pastures  as  it  binds  down  the  soil  and  thrives  where  other 
grasses  fail,  since  its  roots  penetrate  deep  down  in  the  loose  soil.  Like  the 
algaroba  tree,  which  is  a  similar  fortuitous  introduction  occupying  this  zone, 
it  is  a  most  valuable  acquisition  to  the  island  flora  from  every  point  of  view. 

Two  species  of  Paspalum  occur  in  this  zone;  one,  the  well  known  and 
generally  despised  Hilo  grass,^^  occurs  in  moist,  heavy  soils  in  the  lower  zone  and 
grows  well  into  the  higher  regions  in  suitable  places.  The  Hilo  grass,  which  is 
an  introduced  species  as  has  been  said,  has  crowded  out  almost  every  other 
species  of  grass  where  it  has  gained  a  foothold.  It  is  a  large,  rank  grass,  taller 
than  the  native  species,  growing  two  to  four  feet  high,  and  has  two  spikes  at 


*^  Nasturtium    officinale.  i"  Bn/opfit/Hum    rah/riuum.  *"  Sltruntafihrum.  Ameriraiium. 

**  Cynodon  dactylon.         <»  Paspalum  CDUjugatum. 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  209 

the  top  of  the  stem,  a  peculiarity  separating  it  at  once  fi-om  the  siiuiller  species  '■'^ 
havinu'  three  to  six  alternately  arranged  spikes. 

The  well  known  in'li  yr^ss  •"''  is  nn  important  species  in  1liis  zone,  as  is  also 
the  kakonakona.'""- 

Tavo  plants  formerly  connnonly  grown  in  the  lower  zone  l)y  the  llawaiians 
were  their  calabash  and  bottle  gourd  vines.  The  calabash  gourd  •''■•  is  a  prostrate 
climber  with  lobed  leaves  and  large  yellow  flowers  bearing  large  depressed  globe- 
shap)ed  red,  green  or  yellow  fruits,  sometimes  two  feet  or  more  in  diameter. 
While  the  original  country  from  which  this  useful  gourd  came  is  unknown,  it 
was  common  in  Hawaii  at  the  time  the  islands  were  discovered  l)y  Cook,  but 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  known  in  the  rest  of  Polynesia  until  after  the  coming 
of  the  white  man.  As  has  elsewhere  been  explained,  the  hard  shell  of  ihc 
ipu  nui  was  made  use  of  as  containers  for  food,  water  and  clothing. 

The  bottle  gourd"'-'  differs  from  the  foregoing  in  having  the  leaves  niidi- 
vided,  the  flowers  white  and  the  fruit  elongate,  often  measuring  four  feet  or 
more  in  length.  The  ipu  grows  on  a  thrifty  musk-scented  vine  that  was  lariiely 
cultivated  by  the  natives  of  most  tropical  countries  and,  unlike  the  ipii  nui.  it 
was  well  known  all  over  Polynesia.  The  hard,  woody  shell  of  the  fruit  served 
as  war  masks,  bula  drums,  containers  (as  water  bottles)  and  in  many  other 
ways  in  the  household  and  general  economy  of  the  primitive  inhabitants.  One 
of  the  ingenious  arts  of  the  ancient  Hawaiians  was  the  ornamentation  of  these 
gourds.  The  gourd  to  ])e  ornamented  was  first  cleared  of  the  seeds  and  pulp 
and  then  coated  on  the  outside  with  a  thin  layer  of  lireadfruit  gum,  which 
made  it  impervious  to  water.  With  a  sharp  instrument,  usually  the  tlunnb 
nail,  the  gum  was  carefully  removed  from  the  part  where  the  pattern,  wlii'-h 
varied  greatly  in  design,  was  to  show.  This  done  the  ipu  was  Iniried  in  taro 
patch  mud  for  a  considerable  period.  When  the  color  of  the  soil  had  become 
thoroughly  set  in  the  shell  of  the  gourd,  it  was  taken  from  the  water  and  the 
remaining  gum  removed,  leaving  the  desired  design  in  two  shades  of  rich  brown 
indelibl,y  dyed  in  the  shell. 

The  Lantana,^''  which  belongs  in  the  lower  zone,  extends  its  range  in  many 
localities  up  to  the  three  thousand  foot  level.  The  conunon  cactus,"'"  or  panini. 
is  the  prickly  pear  of  Hawaii,  and  is  common  in  this  region,  especially  on 
Oahu  Two  species  of  ilima  occur  in  the  lower  zone  throughout  the  group. 
Their  bright  yellow  flowers,  so  much  used  in  leis,  are  well  known  to  every  one 
The  smaller  species"'"  is  a  low  shrub,  usually  with  ovale,  hairy  leaves,  and 
differs  from  the  second  species  "''^  which  usually  has  heart-shaped  ovat(>  leaves 
that  are  hairy  below  and  greenish  above.  Both  of  Hie  foregoing  have  the  leaves 
rounded  at  the  base,  while  a  thii'd  species"'"  has  the  leaves  bi-oadesi  about  th'^ 
middle. 

In  the  open  edge  of  the  forests,  or  occasionally  descending  far  down  into 
the  lower  zone,  the  ohia  lehua  "^  is  first  met  with.      The  ohe  "^  seldom   n^aehes 


^^  Paspalinv    orbiciilare.  ^^  Andropogon   contortiis.  ^•"  Pan i rum   torrid iitii.  '-^  Ciiciirhita   maxima. 

^■>  Lagenaria    riilr/aris.         ^5  Lantana   Camara.         ^o  Opinifia   Tuna.        ^'  Sida   falla.v.        ^*  Hida   cordifolia. 
^*  Sida  rhombifolia.         ^^  ^etrosideros  polymorpha.  "^  Reynoldxia   Sandwicensis. 


210  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

tlu'  lower  forest,  wliilc  its  compMiiioii  on  the  fore  hills,  the  wiliwili,"-  seldom 
reaches  ihr  tlioiisniul-foot  level;  hut  the  hast;ird  sandalwood, '■■■  Avhile  it  reaches 
Ihc  upper  liiiiil  of  vegetation  on  the  highest  mountains,  may  also  oeeur  well  down 
into  this  lower  zou'.'.  thus  exliiliitinu'  a  great  vertical  range  in  habitat. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

PLANT  LIFE  OF  THE  HIGH  MOUNTAINS. 

Passing  now  from  the  lowland  zone  to  the  lower  forest  zone,  we  find  it 
troi)ical  in  appearance.  Though  not  sharply  defined  it  is  by  common  agree- 
ment said  to  begin  at  al)out  one  thousand  feet  elevation  and  to  extend  as  a  belt 
about  the  high  mountains  \\p  to  al)out  three  thousand  feet. 

Plants  op  the  Lower  Forest  Zone. 

The  range  of  the  kukui  '  is  almost  confined  to  the  limits  of  tlie  h)wer  fon^st 
zone,  and  since  it  is  the  most  abundant  and  conspicuous  tree  of  the  region, 
it  is  regarded  as  the  characteristic  tree  of  the  lower  forests.  The  pale  green 
foliage  of  this  useful  tree  sets  it  out  in  marked  contrast  with  the  darker  greens, 
and  adds  a  touch  of  variety  to  the  Hawaiian  forest  that  delights  the  eye  of  the 
lichohler.  Tlie  plants  of  tliis  n^gion  are  lai'gei"  and  more  thrifty  than  those  of  the 
costal  plain,  and  being  more  numerous  the  open  sylvan  eharacter  of  the  zone  is 
Well  defined. 

The  ki  -  (now  commonly  written  ti)is  at  home  on  the  steep  valley  sides  and 
in  the  gulches,  at  the  lower  edge  of  the  forest  zone  all  over  the  islands,  and, 
indeed,  through  all  Polynesia,  the  Malayan  Archipelago  and  China.  Specimens 
fifteen  feet  in  height,  with  leaves  from  one  to  three  feet  in  length  and  three  to 
six  or  more  inches  in  width,  are  not  uncommon.  The  ki  belongs  to  the  lily  order 
and  the  leaves  are  peculiar  in  having  many  parallel  nerves  diverging  from  a 
short  mid  rib.  I'he  large  saccharine  root  was  made  use  of  in  ancient  times  by 
the  natives  in  makin^g  a  eui'ionsly  fiavored  beer.  Later  they  learned  a  method 
from  the  sailors  of  distilling  a  strong,  intoxicating  drink  from  the  soaked  roots. 
The  ki  root  was  leaked  1)\-  the  Hawaiians  in  their  imus  (underground  ovens, 
elsewhere  described),  and  eaten  ])y  them  as  a  confection;  it  was  their  substitute 
for  candy,  now  so  generally  eaten  by  all  ])eoples.  The  ki  root  prepared  in  this 
way  is  very  sweet,  much  like  molasses  candy;  it  is  offered  for  sale  in  the  market 
ill  Honolulu  every  Saturday.  Among  other  uses,  a  stalk  with  the  leaves  at- 
tached served  as  a  flag  of  truce  in  native  warfare,  and  the  juice  of  the  plant 
was  used  by  the  Hawaiian  belles  to  stiffen  their  hair.  The  leaves,  known  as  la-i 
or  lauki.  served  and  still  serve  as  wrapping.  And,  since  the  coming  of  domestic 
animals,  the  plant  has  })roved  useful  as  fodder. 

Closely  related  to  the  ki  or  ti,  belonging  to  the  same  order  in  fact,  is  the 
cin'ions  halapepe  or  cabbage  tree,-^  sometimes  called  a  palm  lily.  Its  ehief  in- 
terest lies  in  the  fact  tlmt  it  helps  to  give  the  foliage  that  weii-d  character 
which  is  expected  of  troi)ical  verdure.      The  plant   is  the  largest  of  the  order 


"-  Erythrina  monosperma.  "'  Mynporum  Sandwieense.  '  Aleuritcs  Moltirc/nia. 

-  Cordylirie   terrniiifdis.  ^  Drarioia   aurea. 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  211 

to  which  it  belongs,  often  growing  twenty-five  feet  or  more  in  height.  It 
prefers  the  bold,  rugged  valley  slopes  and  is  a  marked  tree  wherever  it  occurs. 
Its  thick  trunk  branches  freely  and  roots  are  sent  out  above  the  ground,  so  that 
the  tree  very  much  resembles  the  lauhala  in  this  respect.  The  leaves,  which 
are  two  feet  or  more  in  length,  are  born  in  crowded  tufts  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  leaving  the  trunk  and  stem  rough  with  leaf  scars  and  marks  of  slow 
growth. 

The  botanical  name  Draccena,  lueaning  a  'she  dragon,'  was  given  the  genus 
to  which  the  Hawaiian  species  belongs  because  of  the  dragon's-blood  resin  of 
commerce  which  exudes  from  the  bark  of  certain  species,  a  character  shown  to 
some  extent  by  the  sap  bark  of  the  native  species.  The  old-time  Hawaiians 
carved  some  of  their  hideous  idols  out  of  its  soft,  white  wood. 

Another  plant  peculiar  to  the  lower  woods,  that  extends  its  range  far 
beyond  the  line  arbitrarily  assigned  for  the  upper  limit  of  the  zone,  is  the 
ieie,'*  a  climbing  shrub  with  many  of  the  habits  of  its  covisin,  the  lauhala.  It 
needs  no  introduction  to  the  forest  rambler.  Climbing  over  the  tallest  trees 
or  trailing  on  the  ground,  it  often  forms  impenetrable  thickets.  The  rigid 
stem  is  about  an  inch  in  diameter  with  numerous  climbing  and  aerial  roots. 
The  stiff  rough  leaves,  from  one  to  three  feet  long,  are  crowded  into  a  tuft  at  the 
ends  of  the  stems.  The  male  flowers  are  on  two  to  four  cob-like  cylinders  five 
or  six  inches  long  by  less  than  an  inch  in  diameter  and  are  surrounded  by  a 
whirl  of  rose-colored  leaf  bracts.  They  are  among  the  more  showy  blossoms  of 
the  woodlands.  From  the  pendant  roots  the  natives  formerly  made  ropes  of 
great  strength  and  durability. 

It  is  usually  at  about  this  elevation  that  the  koa  -^  is  first  met  with,  though 
it  does  not  attain  its  maximum  size  and  importance  as  a  forest  tree  until  well  up 
in  the  middle  forest  zone.  Hillebrand  recognized  two  closely  related  species 
and  several  varieties ;  while  the  cabinet  makers,  basing  their  classification  en- 
tirely on  the  character  of  the  wood,  recognize  a  dozen  or  more  as  curly  koa, 
red  koa,  yellow  koa,  and  so  on,  all  of  which  are  collectively  called  Hawaiian 
mahogany,  owing  to  the  superficial  resemblance  which  the  wood  bears  to  that 
well-known  cabinet  material.  ^Mahogany,  by  the  way,  is  a  native  of  Central 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  and  belongs  to  an  entirely  different  order  of 
plants,  of  which  the  introduced  Pride  of  India  is  an  example,  but  an  order  of 
which  there  are,  so  far  as  known,  no  representatives  in  the  native  flora. 

The  koa  is  a  tree  of  rare  beauty  with  its  laurel-green,  moon-shaped,  leaf- 
like bracts.  The  tree  often  attains  a  height  of  sixty  to  eighty  feet,  witli  enor- 
mous trunks  frequently  six  to  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  with  wide-spreading 
branches.  Canoes  seventy  feet  long  were  made  of  a  single  trunk;  it  was  in  such 
canoes  that  Kamehameha  the  Great  made  his  conquest  of  this  group  and  contem- 
plated using  them  in  a  war-like  expedition  to  the  Society  Islands  two  thousand 
seven  hundred  miles  distant. 

In  addition  to  the  many  uses  made  of  the  wood  by  the  natives  in  making 
canoes,  calabashes  and  the  like,  it  has  long  been  esteemed  as  one  of  the  choice 


*  Freycinetia  Arnotti.  ^  Aeacia  Koa. 


PLATE  58.     PLANTS  OF  THE  OPEN  FIELDS  AND  LOWER  FORESTS   ON  OAHU. 

1.    Hoawa    (Pittosporum   filahrum).     2.    Mainake    {Pipturus   albidus).     3.    Kaniole    (Jus- 
sicra  villom).    4.     Lobelia  [Ohia  wia]    (Clcrmontia  macrocarpa).     5.     Akoko  (Eupliorbia  muUi- 

(Descnptidii    of   Plate    Cdiiti  n  iifil    mi    flii'    Oji/ioxitt'    Puge.) 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  213 

cabinet  woods.  Combining  as  it  does  a  rich  rod  wood,  with  a  beautiful  grain 
that  is  susceptible  of  a  high  polish,  it  is  much  used  in  tlic  iiuinufacture  of  furni- 
ture and  as  an  inside  finishing  wood  in  public  buildings.  The  bark  is  also  of 
use  in  tanning  leather. 

Botanically  the  koa  belongs  to  the  genus  Acacia  of  whicli  fully  half  of  the 
known  species  are  Australian,  while  the  rest  are  scattered  widely  over  the  world, 
many  having  been  introduced  into  Hawaii. 

Examples  of  the  native  Hibiscus  occur,  but  they  are  rather  rare  j^lants. 
Four  species  are  known ;  the  flowers  are  all  single  and  are  pink,"  white,^  j^ellow* 
and  red^  respectively.  One  with  ovate  leaves  and  white  flowers,  often  growing 
twenty -five  feet  tall,  is  found  in  the  mountains  back  of  Honolulu  and  occasion- 
ally on  the  other  islands.  All  of  the  native  species  have  been  held  in  cultivation 
as  garden  shrubs  and  much  has  already  been  done  along  the  line  of  producing 
new  varieties  by  cross  polinization.  A  closely  allied  genus,  Hibiscadclphus,  has 
been  recently  established  to  include  three  rare  species  found  on  ilaui  and 
Hawaii. 

The  native  Smilax^*^  is  by  no  means  the  tender  hot-house  plant  one  might 
be  led  to  expect.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  a  robust  climber  with  stems  a  third 
to  a  half  inch  in  diameter  and  fifty  feet  in  length  that  trail  across  the  forest 
path.  The  leaves  are  three  to  five  inches  long  and  broadly  ovate,  having  a 
width  in  proportion.  They  are  easily  recognized  as  they  are  dark  glossy  green 
and  have  five  to  seven  parallel  nerves  running  lengthwise  of  the  leaf.  The 
natives  know  this  striking  vine  by  various  names — uhi.  ulchihi  and  pioi  bciug 
among  them.  It  is  said  that  they  formally  ate  the  tuberous  roots  in  times  of 
scarcity. 

Another  attractive  vine  of  the  lower  forest  zone  is  the  hoi  or  yam.'^  The 
scattering  large,  broad,  heart-shaped  leaves  are  five  to  seven  inches  long  and 
have  from  seven  to  eleven  nerves  converging  towards  the  tip.  It  is  a  plant  of 
wide  distribution,  extending  its  range  as  far  as  Africa.  To  the  botanist  it  is  of 
peculiar  interest  because  of  the  large  potato-like  bulbs,  called  alaala  by  the  na- 
tives, that  grow  here  and  there  at  the  base  of  the  leaves.  The  large,  irregular, 
fleshy  roots  of  the  yam  were  much  used  as  food  l\v  the  natives,  aiul  formci'ly 
were  cultivated  to  supply  ships  calling  at  Hawaii  before  the  common  potnttt  was 
introduced. 

The  native  ginger^-  is  a  conspicuous  and  to  a  certain  extent  characteristic 
plant  of  this  zone.  Growing  one  or  two  feet  high  Avith  leaves  six  or  eight  indies 
long,  and  bearing  a  pretty  pale  yellow  flower  on  a  curious  cone-like  iiitlorc^sciMice, 


^  Hibiscus  Toungianus.  ''  Hibiscus  Arnottianus.  ^Hibiscus  Brackenridgei.  ^  Hihiscus    l\<,l,i 

^"  <S'?Jii7ax  Sandwicensis.         ii  Dioscorea  sativa.         ^-Zingiber  Zerumbet. 


(Description   of  Plate   Continued   from   Opposite  Page.) 

formis).  6.  Plantain  (Plantar/o  major).  7.  Flpa]);uio  or  Horse-weed  [Tlioho]  (Erigeron 
Canadensis).  8.  (Solanum  triflorum).  9.  Indijjo  |  Iiiikoa]  (Indigofera  Anil).  10.  Wild 
Ipecac  [Nuumele]  (Asclepias  Cura.s.savica) .  11.  (Carer  Oahueiusis).  12.  Painter's  Brush 
{Com'posite  Family).  13.  Kaluha  (Kyllingia  oitiisifolia).  14.  Lobelia  (HoUandia  calycina) 
young.     15.    Popolo    (Solatnan    arulrali.ssiminu).      (No    inimhrr)    =  Ljithrum    niarifinnini. 


PLATE  59.     THE   MAILE   AND   ITS   PLANT   ASSOCIATES   ON   OAHU. 

1.     Maile   (Alyxia  olivoeformis) .     2.    Akoko   (Eiipliorhia  clusice folia).     3.    Kapana   (Phyl- 
lostegia    grandiflora) .      4.     Composite    (Sp.  indei.).      5.     Phyllostegia  sp.      6.     Gronud   Pine 

(Description    of  Plate   Continued   on  the   Opposite   Page.) 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  215 

the  awapuhi  often  entirely  covers  the  ground  in  llic  lower  forests.  Tin-  natives 
made  no  use  of  the  hoi'i/outal.  tleshy  root  stocks,  hut  the  slimy  juice  I'fom  the 
infldrescence,  heiny  "as  slippery  as  water  oil'  au  crl/^  was  used  hy  llie  heauty- 
doctors  of  a  former  time  as  a  dressing  for  the  hair.  This  sul)stance,  as 
also  the  juice  of  ki,  and  the  sap  of  the  han  tree  mixed  with  poi  for  use  in 
cooling  the  skin,  were  three  of  the  chief  cosmetics  to  be  found  on  the  dressing 
table  of  the  Hawaiian  belle.  The  Chinese  ginger^-''  of  commerce  is  occasionally 
grown  in  the  islands  in  a  limited  way  by  the  orientals.  A  number  of  other 
species  are  also  grown  as  ornamental  plants. 

Kauila,!-^  or  the  more  widely  ranging  foi'm^"'  known  by  the  same  luitive 
name,  was  one  of  the  useful  woods  of  old  Hawaii.  By  reason  of  its  remarkably 
close,  heavy  grain  it  was  especially  useful  in  making  spears,  kapa  beaters,  and 
other  tools  and  implements.  The  second  species  mentioned  was  formei-ly  fairly 
common  on  the  lower  slopes  of  all  of  the  islands,  where  it  formed  a  tree  fifty 
to  eighty  feet  high  with  alternate,  parallel-veined  haii'y  leaves,  and  small 
terminal  tiowers. 

The  uulai,^*^  a  low,  much-branching,  stiff  shrub  with  small  leaflets  and  small 
white  inconspicuous  flowers  which  were  followed  by  whitish  roseapple-like  fruits, 
was  used  for  making  arrows  for  the  toy  bows  used  in  killing  rats. 

The  ohia,!'  or  ohia  lehua,  though  growing  best  in  altitudes  where  rain  is  more 
abundant,  is  common  and  one  of  the  characteristic  trees  of  the  lower  forest  zone. 
From  about  1,500  feet  elevation  to  at  least  6,000  and  even  8,000  feet,  it  is  an 
important  and  abundant  tree,  to  be  seen  in  every  landscape.  Often  it  forms 
dense  shaded  forests  where  the  trees  are  festooned  with  vines  and  the  ground  is 
carpeted  with  moss  and  ferns.  In  such  localities  trees  four  feet  in  diameter^ 
and  nearly  one  hundred  feet  tall  are  occasionally  seen.  Unfortunately  the  root 
system  of  this  important  forest  tree  is  very  shallow,  often  spreading  ovei'  the  sur- 
face of  the  hard  soil  beneath.  As  a  result  they  are  especially  liable  to  be  blown 
down  in  the  high  winds  and  heavv'  storms  of  the  higher  forest  zones.  Its  wood 
is  very  hard  and  durable,  but  warps  badly.  With  the  coming  of  the  v.iiites  it 
was  used  to  some  extent  in  the  framework  of  their  houses  and  as  fence  jxists. 
More  recently  its  hard  and  durable  Avood  has  been  found  to  uiake  vei-y  excellent 
railroad  ties,  street-paving  blocks,  antl  it  is  also  much  used  as  a  hardwood  floor- 
ing in  dwellings. 

The  ohi;i  occurs  on  many  of  the  important  islands  of  l'ol\nesia.  and  its  many 
and  intergrading  forms  long  puzzled  the  native  botanists,  ami  it  is  oidy  fair  to 
say  that  their  European  friends  have  1)\'  uo  means  satisfactorily  disposed  of  the 


^•^  Ziiiinhfr   oljicinfili'.  ^*  CnJiibriiia   oiiiio-iififiilia.  ^^  Aliiliifaiiin    cxrclsn. 

'^"  Ostcomi'Ii's  aiitlnjUidijolia.  ^'  Mftro,sid<'riis  /loli/iiii/riiha. 


(Description    of    Plate    Cohtinued    from    Oii/iosite    I'aije.) 

fWawao  iole]  Li/copndiitm  rernuum).  7.  Linm  Kolin  (ITrpatiea).  8.  H(>]i:itica.  !».  Hawai- 
ian .Mistletoe  [Kauiiiahaiia]  (riscum  arlicuJdtuin).  10.  Xcrtera  depreH.sa.  11.  Wawac  iole 
{Li/ropodinm  pnrIi//.'<facIn/o)i).  12.  Ci/rtandra  sp.  K?.  Budlcija  (usiaiicn.  14.  Olia  wai  {Her- 
mont'ia  pcrsic(efoUa).  1.5.  Papala  (Pisonia  umbellifeni).  Ki.  Kaawau  (Ilex  =  (Bi/roiiia) 
Sa7idicicensis) .     17.    Lycopodiiim   serratum. 


216  NATURAL   IJl^TORY   OF    HAWAII. 

problems  of  classifying  the  many  forms  that  under  varying  conditions  occur  on 
every  island  in  Hawaii.  The.v  may  be  either  trees  or  shrubs  with  leaves  op- 
posite or  alternate,  smooth  or  rough,  round  or  linear,  witli  flowers  axillary  or 
terminal,  red  or  rarely  yellow ;  in  short  any  plant  in  the  forest,  about  which 
there  may  be  any  doubt,  is  liable  to  l)e  an  ohia  or  an  ohia  lehua,  though  lehua 
is  generally  and  more  correctly  the  name  of  the  beautiful  blossoms  which  are 
ciiiiiposcd  iiKistly  of  clusters  of  the  red  pistils  and  stamens. 

Of  tliese  flowers  the  natives  are  both  fond  and  proud.  Few  indeed  are  the 
mountain  climbers  that  do  not  return  at  nightfall  decked  out  with  garlands  of 
the  sweet-scented  maile^''  and  bearing  a  lei  of  the  beautiful  lehua  to  the  never- 
forgotten  ones  at  home. 

It  is  about  the  modest  maile  vine  that  the  sweetest  perfume  and  the 
fondest  memories  linger.  It  is  of  the  maile  that  the  voyager  first  hears  as  ho 
hinds  in  the  islands  of  sunshine  and  smiles.  It  is  for  the  maile  that  he  learns 
to  seek  on  his  day-long  rambles  in  the  mountains,  and  it  is  a  braided  strand  of 
maile  thrown  about  his  neck  at  the  fond  parting  by  the  shore  that  tells  with 
its  fresh  breath  of  the  enchanted  forest,  in  an  enchanted  land,  and  with  its 
lingering  caress  brings  the  dew  of  human  tenderness  to  the  eyes  of  the  one  de- 
parting. And  at  last  it  is  the  faint  perfume  from  a  withered  half -forgotten 
keepsake, — a  maile  lei,  that,  though  the  oceans,  and  half  a  life  time  may  inter- 
vene, will  set  the  heart  throbbing  and  make  the  eyes  grow  dim  at  the  memory  of 
the  fond  aloha  that  it  breathes,  calling  the  wanderer  back  again  to  the  happiest 
of  lands. 

The  straggling,  somewhat  twining,  inconspicuous  maile  shrub  is  common 
in  the  woods  of  the  lower  and  middle  regions  and  is  recognized  by  the  elliptical, 
smooth,  oval  leaves  from  one  to  two  inches  in  length ;  by  the  flower  which  is  small 
and  yellowish  and  by  the  elliptical,  fleshy,  black  fruits  that  are  more  than  half  an 
inch  long.  Tlie  maile  lei  is  made  from  the  flner  stems  which  are  broken  off  and 
the  bark  removed  from  the  wood  by  chewing  the  stems  until  it  will  peal  off 
readily.  The  perfume  is  not  noticeable  until  the  bark  has  been  bruised  in  this 
manner. 

The  ohia  ai,i"  the  mountain  apple,  or  edible  ohia,  belongs  to  a  different 
genus,-''  but  in  the  same  family  as  the  true  ohia.  Frequently  clumps  of  the 
mountain  apple  will  occur  surrounded  by  ohia  or  kukui,  especially  at  the  foot  of 
cliff's,  and  besides  the  mountain  waterfalls.  It  is  a  tree  from  twenty  to  fifty 
feet  in  height  with  large  green  leaves  and  red  flowers  followed  bj"  refreshing, 
crimson  fruits  that  grow  from  the  trunk  and  main  branches. 

The  awa  -^  is  best  known  owing  to  the  intoxicating  drink  the  Polynesians 
manufactured  from  the  large,  thick,  soft  woody  roots  of  a  plant  of  the  same 
name  which  was  cultivated  by  the  natives  of  the  various  groups  of  islands 
of  the  Pacific.  The  plant  often  grows  two  to  four  or  more  feet  high,  bearing 
large,  alternate  heart-shaped  begonia-like  leaves  six  inches  long  by  more  than 
that  in  width.      It  thrives  in  Hawaii  and  was  always  planted  by  the  natives  in 


^^  Alyxia  olivceformis.         ^^  Eugetiia  Malaccensis.        -" 'i.love  properly  Jumhnsa.         -^  Piper  methysticum. 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  217 

the  moist  valleys  of  the  lower  zone.  The  plants  were  carefully  cared  foi-  mid  the 
roots  when  gathered  were  nsed  either  fresh  or  dried.  To  make  the  drink  the 
root,  which  is  astringant  to  the  taste,  was  first  clnnved  and  thoroughly  mixed 
with  saliva.  It  was  then  put  into  a  wooden  bowl  and  a  (|uan1ity  of  water  added. 
After  it  had  stood  a  short  time  the  liquid  was  strained  olT:  it  was  then  ready 
for  drinking.  The  effect  was  that  of  a  narcotic  and  invai'ial)l>-  produced  stupi- 
fication  if  taken  in  any  quantity. 

Native  Fiber  Plants. 

The  natives  formerly  cultivated  several  other  plants  in  the  lower  forest  zone. 
Olona  --  was  one  of  the  most  important  of  these.  The  plant  growls  best  in  regions 
of  great  rainfall,  usually  in  the  wet  forests  on  the  windward  side. 

The  olona  plant  is  a  low  woody  perennial,  w^ith  a  viscid  .juice,  seldom 
growing  more  than  a  dozen  feet  in  height.  It  has  large  ovate  leaves,  often  a  foot 
in  length  and  proportionately  broad.  The  genus  is  a  Hawaiian  one  with  but  a 
single  species,  but  botanists  tell  us  that  it  belongs  to  the  same  order  as  the 
ramie, 2^  which  is  grown  in  many  places  as  a  fiber  plant.  The  fiber,  "olona,"  is 
contained  in  the  bast  of  the  stem  and  is  remarkably  fine  and  straight  and  is  en- 
tirely free  from  gum. 

In  former  times  every  chief  had  an  olona  plantation  somewhere  in  the  moun- 
tains, as  the  fiber  from  the  wild  plants  was  not  vised  to  any  extent.  In  raising 
the  crop  the  ferns  were  carefully  cleared  away  from  about  the  patch  to  give  the 
plant  all  the  strength  of  the  soil.  The  old  plants  were  broken  or  rolled  down 
to  allow  the  young  shoots  to  grow'  straight  and  rapidly.  When  of  sufficient 
size  the  crop  was  cut,  stripped  and  hackled  by  the  use  of  crude  implements 
and  allowed  to  dry  and  bleach  until  such  time  as  the  fiber  was  white  and  ready 
for  use.  Being  resistant  to  the  action  of  salt  water  it  made  fine  rope,  seines  and 
fish  lines.  Certain  of  the  natives  formerly  paid  their  taxes  in  olona,  and  it  was 
always  regarded  as  a  valuable  possession. 

The  paper  mulberry  or  Avauke -^  of  the  natives  has  a  milky  sap  and  is  a 
small  tree  with  ovate  leaves.  The  leaves  are  either  entire  or  three-lolxnl  and 
usually  from  five  to  seven  inches  long,  dentate  along  the  edges  and  roughened 
on  the  upper  surface.  The  use  and  culture  of  the  plant  has  been  explained 
elsewhere.  It  is  now  to  be  met  with  growing  in  clumps  here  and  there  through 
the  lower  open  portions  of  the  forests.  Wauke  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
mamake,-^  which  is  a  low  shrul)  seldom  over  ten  feet  high,  with  fiowers  in  axilhii-y 
clusters,  that  was  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tapa.  ]\Ianiake  lias  the  ovate 
leaves  three  to  four  inches  long,  and  the  sap  always  watery  and  the  flowers  uni- 
sexual. The  leaves  vary  greatly  in  several  respects,  but  generally  are  whitish 
Ijeneath.      The  species  seems  to  be  unknown  outside  of  this  iii-oiq). 

SANDALWOOD. 

That  portion  of  Hawaiian  history  wliich  tells  of  the  diseovery  of  sandal- 


22  Touchardia  latifolia.  "^  Boelnneiia   nivea.  -*  Brommonetia   pnpyrifera.  *^  Pijitiiriis  nlbidiis. 

15 


i^ 

K 

o 

a 

CO 

W 

W 

H 

rK 

's^ 

^^ 

z; 

s 

/^ 

'w' 

< 

J 

P4 

-^ 

„ 

^^ 

r^ 

^ 

73 

Z 

? 

<1 

^ 

o 

GC 

2; 

la 

<1 

oS 

H 

« 

2-* 

< 

O 

03 

z; 


o 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  219 

wood  -^  in  the  islands,  and  the  events  which  led  to  its  being  almost  wiped  out  as 
a  forest  tree  as  a  conseciuence  of  its  great  value  in  commerce,  may  i)roperly  be 
sketched  here,  since  the  iliahi  furnished  the  first  article  of  export  which  attracted 
commerce  to  the  islands.  Sandalwood  is  still  occasionally  found  at  rare  intervals 
and  in  out-of-the-way  places  in  the  lower  forest  belt  on  all  of  the  islands,  though 
the  range  of  the  several  imperfectly-defined  varieties  and  species  extends  the 
distribution  from  near  the  sea  shore  up  to  as  high  as  ten  thousand  feet  on  Maui, 
where  the  species  ^^  becomes  a  low  dense  shrub,  six  to  ten  feet  high. 

The  delicately  scented  wood  is  from  a  tree  usually  growing  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  feet  high  with  opposite  ovate  to  obovate  leaves  two  and  a  half  to 
three  inches  long  by  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  widtli,  which  are  somewhat 
thickened  and  perhaps  ochraceous  underneath.  The  flowers  occur  as  small  ter- 
minal and  axillary  inconspicuous  cymes. 

The  sandalwood  trade  began  about  1792,  the  first  authentic  mention  of  it 
being  made  by  Vancouver.  It  is  thought  that  the  knowledge  of  there  being 
sandalwood  in  the  islands  was  an  accidental  discovery  by  one  Capt.  Kendrick 
and  that  the  wood  was  probably  brought  to  his  vessel  with  other  timber  as  fire 
wood.  From  this  time  on  the  development  of  the  business  was  raj)id  until  in 
1816  it  had  developed  into  an  important  industry  among  the  natives,  chiefs  and 
foreigners.  Between  1810  and  1825  the  trade  was  at  its  height.  The  wood  was 
at  first  sold  in  India,  but  later  the  market  shifted  to  Canton,  where  the  large 
pieces  were  used  in  manufacturing  fancy  articles  of  furniture  and  in  carvings, 
and  the  smaller  pieces  made  into  incense. 

For  export  the  green  wood  was  cut  in  the  mountains  into  logs  three  or  four 
feet  long.  These  varied  from  two  to  eight  inches  in  diameter.  The  logs  were 
carried  on  the  heads  and  shoulders  of  the  natives  to  the  shore  where  they  were 
sorted  and  tied  into  bundles  weighing  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  and  a  half 
pounds  each.  While  green  and  wet  the  wood  has  no  aromatic  smell,  but  when 
dry  the  odor  is  powerful  and  impregnates  the  whole  atmosphere. 

The  bundles  of  sandalwood  were  eagerly  purchased  by  American  traders 
for  export.  The  business  flourished  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  reported  that 
during  the  height  of  the  industry  three  hundred  thousand  dollars  worth  of 
sandalwood  was  exported  in  a  single  year. 

The  king,  as  well  as  many  chiefs,  engaged  in  this  profitable  business  on 
their  own  account.     At  about  this  period  each  man  was  required  to  deliver  to  the 


2"  Santolum  elHpticum.        27  Santalum  Haleakalae. 


Description    of    Plate. 

1.  The  erest  of  the  MajJulahu-\Vail;ai  trail.  :\rol()kai  (3151  t'(>ct).  showing  the  character 
of  the  growtli  in  the  rain  forest.  2.  View  from  near  the  .summit  of  the  l*ah)h)  trail,  Oaliu ; 
a  typical  mountain  scene.  3.  An  leie  (Freycinetia  Arnotti)  junfjk-  on  Oahu.  4.  Typical 
view  of  the  vegetation  on  the  mountain  ridges  of  Oahu.  5.  A  mountain  path,  showing  a 
natural  graft  between  two  neighboring  Ohia  trees,  fi.  Wow  showing  tlu^  bog  flora  at  the 
head  of  Pelekultu  valley,  Molokai.  7.  Sand  beach,  showing  Pohuelmc  {Ipomoca  pcs-caprae) 
trailing  down   to   the  water's  edge. 


PLATE  61.     OHIA   AND   SOME   OF   ITS   PLANT    ASSOCIATES   OX   OAHU. 

1.     Kadua  sp.,  one  of  many  Hawaiian  species.     2.    Ohia   (Metroaideros  rugosa).     3.    Ohia 
ha   {Syzygkim  =   {Eugenia)   Sandwicensis) .     4.    Tall  Ohelo   {Vaccinium  jjenduliformis  var.). 

(Dcsrriiitinn    nf    rJnte    Contbiin'il    mi    tlir    Oiipnsile    Pnr/e.) 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  221 

governor  of  the  district  in  which  he  lived  oiu'-hjilf  ''picul''  of  sandalwood  or 
else  pay  four  Spanish  dolhirs. 

The  drain  on  the  supply  was  enorinons.  It  was  not  uncommon  for  lum])er- 
ing'  parties  of  three  hundred  or  four  hundred  people  to  go  into  the  mountains. 
On  Hawaii,  Ellis  relates  that  he  saw  two  or  three  thousand  men  returning  from 
the  forest,  carrying  sandalwood  for  shipment  tied  on  their  backs  with  ki 
leaves,  each  one  carrying  two  or  three  pieces.  Even  the  roots  were  dug  up  in 
many  places.  As  earl}'  as  1831  the  business  was  on  the  decline,  ;ind  l)y  1856 
the  wood  had  become  very  scarce.  By  1835  the  government  recognized  the  dan- 
ger of  exterminating  the  valuable  trees  and  steps  were  taken  to  prevent  the  cutting 
of  the  3'oung  wood.  But  according  to  the  historian  Dibble  credit  nuist  be  given 
to  Kamehameha  I  for  being  the  first  to  attempt  to  conserve  the  supply  of  this 
valuable  wood.  It  is  related  that  the  men  cut  the  young  as  well  as  the  old  trees, 
and  that  some  of  the  small  trees  when  brought  to  the  shore  attracted  the  great 
warrior's  attention.  "Why  do  you  bring  this  small  wood  hither?"  he  inquired. 
They  replied,  "You  are  an  old  man  and  wall  soon  die,  and  we  know  not  whose 
will  be  the  sandalwood  hereafter."  Kamehameha  then  said,  "Is  it  indeed  that 
you  do  not  know  my  sons?     To  tlieni  the  young  sandalwood  belongs." 

Nevertheless,  the  drain  on  the  forests  continued  until  only  an  occasional 
tree  was  left  here  and  there  on  the  more  rugged  and  inaccessible  heights,  and 
even  these  have  suffered  from  the  attacks  of  wnld  goats,  which  find  its  bark  especi- 
ally toothsome. 

It  is  said  that  the  odor  of  the  Hawaiian  sandalwood  is  inferior  to  that  from 
Malabar,  Ceylon,  and  certain  parts  of  India.  The  fragrant  wood,  called  laau 
ala  by  the  natives,  is  quite  heavy  even  after  the  sap  has  dried  out.  It  is  then 
a  light  yellow  or  pale  brown  color,  and  retains  the  scent  indefinitely. 

While  the  sandalwood  was  the  most  important  among  the  Hawaiian  plants 
producing  pleasant  odors,  it  was  by  no  means  the  only  one.  There  were  many 
others  whose  flowers,  fruits,  leaves,  sap,  bark,  wood  or  roots  furnished  perfume. 
The  most  highly  scented  of  all  are  the  seed  pods  of  the  mokihana  -'^  used  in 
making  leis.  They  are  much  esteemed  as  they  retain  their  perfume  when  dry 
and  hard.  The  best  specimens  of  this  plant,  as  of  almost  all  the  scented  varie- 
ties of  native  plants,  come  from  Kauai.  P^or  temporary  adornment,  the  leaves 
and  blossoms  of  wild  ginger  or  awapuhi,-'*  the  drupe  of  the  lauhala  or  screw 
pine,^"  the  leaves  of  the  maile-"  and  the  fronds  and  stems  of  sevei';il  sjiecies  of 
ferns,  especially  the  palapalai  •'-  (a  highly  scented  species)  wei-e  all  used  because 


^'^  Pelea   anisata.         "^  Zinf/ihcr  Zi'nniihrf.         '"  rantJnnii/i  odomtix.siiiniii.         ^^  Alyxia   oliffcfornis. 
''-  Microlepia  strigosa. 


(Description   of  Plate    Continued  from   Opposite  Page.) 

5.  Naupaka  (Sccpvola  moUis).  6.  Kokolau  (Campylotheen  sp.).  7.  Akoko  (Euphorbia  clu- 
sicpfolia).  8.  Hoawa  (Pittosporum.  spatliuIatHm).  9.  Kopiko  (Siraussia  Kddudiia) .  10. 
Naeuae  puamelemele  (I)ubaiitia  laxa).  11.  Ohia  leliua  (Mctrosidcros  poli/Diorpha,  rar.). 
12.  MetrosUleros  polymorpha  var.  13.  Metrosideros  polymorpha  var.  14.  Meirosidcros  tre- 
maloidfs.  15.  Naenac  (Dubautia  pJantaf/inea).  16.  Alaiii  (Pdca  cJmia-folia)  with  tree 
snail  attached  to  the  leaf.  17.  Syzyfjiuni  =  {Eugenia)  Sandwiccnsis  with  deformed  inflor- 
escence. 


222  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

of  their  pleasing  odors.  The  scent  of  the  lij)oa,-'^=^  a  sea  moss,  was  also  used  as  a 
perfiuiie.  Cocoa  nut  oil.  scented  with  sandalwood,  was  used  to  some  extent  on 
the  hair  and  body. 

The  bastard  sandalwood  or  naieo  ^^  is  a  tree  common  on  the  summit  of 
Kaala,  and  the  higher  forest  belt  generally,  that  becomes  fragrant  on  drying  and 
has  an  odor  tliat  resembles  sandalwood.  After  the  exhaustion  of  the  sandalwood 
it  was  exported  to  China  for  a  time  as  a  substitute  for  that  valuable  vrood.  The 
naieo  is  found  dead  in  many  localities  at  as  low  a  level  as  1,500  feet. 

In  the  lower  forest  region,  on  Oahu  especially,  occurs  the  pretty  white- 
tiowered  napaka-^^  in  the  form  of  low  shrub.  The  heads  of  the  valleys  in  this 
region  are  usually  marked  by  clumps  of  wild  bananas,^''  of  which  there  are  many 
varieties,  and  various  species  of  the  interesting  and  curious  Lobelia  first  appears, 
and  ferns  of  many  species  abound. 

A  marked  difference  exists  in  the  nature  of  the  flora  of  this  zone  on  the 
windward  or  wet  and  the  lee  or  dry  side  of  the  islands,  and  the  student  of 
plant  life  soon  learns  that  there  are  many  floral  districts  in  this  zone,  each  of 
which  usually  has  its  characteristic  species  of  plants. 

The  Middle  Forest  Zone. 

The  next  important  area  is  usually  designated  as  the  middle  forest  zone 
and  extends  up  the  mountains  from  three  to  six  thousand  feet  elevation.  It  is 
well  marked  by  the  greatest  luxuriance  in  tree  and  jungle.  As  it  is  within 
the  region  of  mist  and  clouds,  it  is  well  watered  and  furnishes  conditions  in  every 
Avay  suited  to  plant  growth.  It  is  in  this  zone  that  the  native  Hawaiian 
flora  finds  its  fullest  development.  The  tree  ferns,  the  giant  koa,  the  ohia  and 
kamani  forests  are  the  predominating  species.  Though  none  of  these  larger  and 
more  important  growths  are  wholly  confined  to  this  region,  it  is  here  that  they 
reach  their  maximum  of  size  and  development. 

On  visiting  the  region  one  is  impressed  at  once  by  the  number  and  variety 
of  ferns  to  be  found  in  this  zone.  Probably  the  most  important  among  them 
are  the  giant  tree  ferns,  the  hapu^"  and  hapu  ili  "•''  and  the  smaller  amaumau^^ 
being  the  most  striking.  The  hapu  with  trunks  that  are  from  a  few  inches  to 
three  feet  in  diameter  and  often  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  in  height  are  especially 
abundant  aljout  Kilauea  and  there  reach  their  greatest  development.  Their 
plume-like  fronds  are  often  fifteen  feet  or  more  in  length,  giving  the  top  a 
spread  of  more  than  twenty-five  feet.  The  native  name  hapu  has  been  applied 
to  two  or  three  closely  allied  species.  But  with  the  conmiercial  importance  the 
tree  gained  a  few  years  ago  through  the  use  made  of  the  soft,  glossy,  yellowish 
wool  at  the  base  of  the  young  leaves,  these  and  other  large  ferns  have  come  to  be 
known  as  piilu  ferns,  pulu  being  the  name  of  the  wool-like  fiber  from  the  fern. 
The  fiber  was  used  to  some  extent  in  stuffing  mattresses  and  pillows,  and  in  a 


•■'^  naliseris  pidi/iogramma.        •''*  Myoporiim  Sandwicense.  ^^  Srmi^oln  Chamissoniana. 

'"  Musa  sa/nenttim.  ^7  Cibotiuin  Chaviissoi.  38  Cibotium  Menziesii. 

^' -Sadleria   Soulej/tianri    on    O.ihn ;    S.    pallida    on    Hawaii,    and    .V.    ryafheoides   on    all    islands    at    lower 
elevations. 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  223 

small  way  as  a  surgical  dressing  in  cases  of  excessive  bleedint^.  The  old-time 
natives  made  use  of  it  in  their  crude  attempts  at  embalming,  liiiman  bodies 
buried  in  dry  caves  and  elsewhere  if  wrapped  in  pulu  were  lial)lo  throuoh  ab- 
sorption by  the  pulu  to  dry  out  or  mummify. 

Giant  Ferns. 

Like  several  other  species  these  giant  ferns  spring  up  again  from  the  fallen 
trunk,  particularly  in  the  damp  and  congenial  atmosphere  of  the  middle  forest. 
It  is  a  common  sight,  along  the  volcano  road,  to  see  the  fern  stems  used  for  walks 
and  fences  continuing  their  growth,  by  means  of  lateral  shoots.  But  space  is  not 
sufficient  to  enumerate  all  or  even  the  more  interesting  ferns.  Botanists  recognize 
twenty-two  genera  and  at  least  one  hundred  and  forty  good  species,  more  than 
half  of  which  are  confined  to  the  islands.  The  great  majority  of  these  are  found 
most  abundantly  in  the  middle  forest  zone  of  the  different  islands  of  the  group. 

A  species  of  considerable  interest  is  the  pala  fern.^"  It  grows  with  glossy 
dark  green  leaves  three  to  five  feet  long  rising  from  a  thick  tieshy  root  stock. 
This  latter  abounds  in  starch  and  a  mucilagious  substance  so  that  when  cooked 
in  the  native  fashion  it  made  a  very  good  food  and  was  much  used  by  the  na- 
tives in  times  of  scarcity. 

The  bird's-nest  fern  or  ekaha  ^^  belongs  to  a  large  genus  that  is  a  widespread 
form  of  which  there  are  forty  species  in  Hawaii.  The  English  name  is  there- 
fore rather  loosely  applied  to  any  species  of  the  genus.  They  are  common  on 
the  trunks  and  in  forks  of  trees  in  the  forests  where  they  are  striking 
and  curious  objects  resembling  birds'  nests  in  many  ways.  They  are  mncli  culti- 
vated in  the  city  where  specimens  with  leaves  four  feet  long  and  eight  inches 
wide  are  to  be  seen. 

The  common  brake,  kilua  or  eagle  fern,-*-  is  everywhere  common  on  nil  the 
islands  from  eight  hundred  to  eight  thousand  feet  elevation,  especially  on  rocky 
ridges.  The  species  is  broken  up  into  many  varieties  and  occurs  in  one  form  or 
another  all  over  the  world.  The  roots  of  this  fern  were  never  used  for  food. 
The  wild  pigs,  however,  are  very  fond  of  them  and  often  turn  up  great 
patches  in  the  mountain  in  search  of  the  roots,  thus  doing  nnieli  damage  to 
the  forest.  The  maiden-hair  fern  or  iwaiwa-*^  is  found  in  the  wet  gulches, 
particularly  about  waterfalls  on  all  the  islands.  The  black,  glossy  stems  of  this 
fern  and  also  of  the  larger  closely  allied  species,'*-^  known  under  the  same  name 
by  the  natives,  was  for  a  time  used  by  them  in  making  hats  and  baskets,  several 
specimens  being  preserved  in  the  Bisliop  Museum. 

A  conspicuous  and  serious  impediment  to  travel  in  this  region  are  the 
tangled,  forked  fronds  of  the  common  ululii  or  staghoi-n  ^■'  or  one  of  its  two 
other  closely  allied  species.  The  polished  brown  stem,  little  larger  than  a  slate 
pencil,  often  grows  six  feet  or  more  high,  forming  a  tangle  that  may  extend  for 
miles  along  the  ridges  in  the  whole  of  the  forest  /one  up  to  tliree  or  four  thou- 


*°  Marattia  Douglusaii.  *'  Aspleniiiin   nidus.  *-  I'ti'ria  a<ii>ilina.        *^  Adiautini)   capilhis-Vetieris. 

**  Pteris  decipiens.  *^  Gleichenia  dichotoma. 


PLATE  62.     PLANTS  FROM  NEAR   THE   SUMMIT   OF  KONAHUANUl,  OAHU. 

1.     Species   of  Lobelia    (Enlhiiidia   cali/ciiia)    adult.      '2.    Lajialapa    (Cheirodendron  pJati/- 
phyllum).     3.    "  Kahili "  Lobelia  (Cy/r/^m  rt/fr/Hsf/yo/K;)-    -i-    Kawaii   {IJe.r  =^  (Byronia)  Sand- 

( Description    of   Plate    Continaed    on    the    Ojipnsite    Paye.) 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  225 

sand  feet  elevation.  The  stems  are  so  touuh  and  have  the  fronds  so  locked  to- 
gether that  they  often  form  a  barrier  through  which  it  is  most  fatiguing  to 
force  one 's  way. 

The  enormous  rhubarlj-shaped,  thick,  rough  leaves  of  the  apeape,"'  tliree 
to  five  feet  across,  are  occasionally  to  be  seen  by  the  more  hardy  mountain 
climbers  who  visit  the  Waianae  Mountains  and  the  higher  mountains  on  the  other 
islands  of  the  group.  The  leaves  are  the  largest  of  any  plant  in  Hawaii  and 
are  said  to  be  the  largest  of  any  of  the  dozen  or  more  species  belonging  to  the 
genus  Gunnera.  Nearly  the  same  name  (ape  or  apii)  was  applied  by  the  natives 
to  a  plant  ^"  that  grows  on  dry  land  in  the  lower  zone.  The  latter  plant  belongs 
to  the  taro  family  and  is  a  native  of  India,  but  has  long  been  naturalized  and 
cultivated  in  Polynesia  as  a  substitute  for  taro  and  is  generally  known  in  Ha- 
waii as  dry-land  tarn.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  strong,  sickening  smell  (if  the 
flowers. 

The  ohelo,"^-  described  in  the  chapter  on  fruits,  is  common  in  the  high 
mountains  of  this  zone,  and  its  shining,  fleshy  berries,  famous  in  native  song 
and  story  as  an  ofit'ering  to  Pele,  are  also  delightful  for  their  slightly  astringent, 
but  cool  and  refreshing  flavor.  They  are  much  enjoyed  by  those  who  visit  the 
region  in  which  they  grow. 

A  much-branching  shruli  of  the  region,  growing  from  three  to  six  feet 
high  with  very  small,  stiff  thick  leaves,  is  known  as  the  Christmas  berry  or 
puakeawe.-^^  It  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  plants  of  the  islands,  particu- 
larly of  the  higher  mountain  regions.  The  minute  white  flowers  are  followed  by 
small  red,  or  red  and  white  berries.  The  berries  and  leaves  do  not  readily  fall 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  increasing  in  favor  for  use  in  Christmas  decorations. 

The  Hawaiian  mistletoe  ^^^  is  a  curious  parasitic  plant  of  the  forest  belt 
that  is  found  growing  quite  commonly  on  the  koa  and  ohia  branches,  securing 
its  substance  entirely  from  the  host  plant. 

The  Hawaiian  representatives  of  the  order  LoheUacece  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  characteristic  groups  of  plants  in  the  whole  island  flora.  They 
are  herbs,  shrubs  and  small  trees,  all  with  woody  stems  and  a  milky  juice. 
jMore  than  sixty  species  are  now  known,  belonging  to  six  well-defined  genera 
which  differ  widely  in  appearance.  The  majority,  however,  are  tall  and  shruli- 
like  with  simple  undivided  trunks,  and  of  somewhat  palm-like  growth  owing  to 
the  fact  that  they  have  rough  scars  on  the  trunks  to  mark  the  attachment  of 
of  discarded  leaves.  They  are  without  doubt  survivors  of  an  ancient  flora  which 
has  been  superseded  by  other  forms,  and  doubtless  we  have  at  present  only  a 


*^  Gtinnern   petnloidea.  *'  Alnmnin   marrorrhizn.  ^^  Yacciniion   retirtilatum. 

*8  Cyathodes  lameianieice.         ^'^  Yiscum  articulatum. 


(Description    of   Plate    Continued   from    Opponite   Page.) 

wicensis).  5.  Ahaniu  {ClafJ'mm  =  (Baumca)  Mci/niii).  (i.  Typical  Lobelia  (Lobelia  hypn- 
leuca).  7.  Gahnia  beecheyi.  8.  Ohe  (Tetraplasandra  wcianclra).  9.  Kanawau  (Broussai.sin 
ixilJucida).  10.  Emoloa  {Eragrostis  variabilis).  11.  Painui  (A.slclia  venifroi<hs).  12.  lihyit- 
chospora  ih)/r.soidea. 


226  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

remnant  of  the  species  that  once  flourished  in  our  mountains.  The  natives  recog- 
nized their  striking  form  and  beauty  and  gave  names  to  most  of  the  species. 
One  of  the  commonest  names  is  oha  wai,  which  is  applied  indiscriminately  to 
species  of  the  more  abundant  genu's  Clermont ia.  They  are  known  to  modern 
Hawaiians  as  plants  from  which  the  old-time  bird-catchers  made  a  sticky  glue 
for  capturing  birds.  Oahu  has  perhaps  twenty-five  species,  and  as  many  more 
sub-species  and  varieties  of  these  interesting  plants,  that  are  about  equally 
divided  among  five  of  the  six  Hawaiian  genera. 

An  important  forest  tree  that  extends  its  range  from  two  to  eight  thousand 
feet  elevation,  often  becoming  the  dominant  tree  in  extensive  areas  on  Kauai, 
IMaui  and  Hawaii,  is  the  native  mamani.-^^  It  grows  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet 
high,  with  six  to  ten  pairs  of  obtuse,  rich-green  leaflets  to  each  leaf.  The  pale 
yellow  flowers  are  followed  later  with  long  straight  pods  four  to  six  inches 
long.     The  hard  wood  has  proved  valuable  as  fence  posts. 

The  foregoing,  together  with  the  bastard  sandalwood  or  naio,^^  and  several 
species  of  shrub-like  trees  •'^^  with  yellow  flowers,  are  found  growing  up  to  and 
giving  character  to  the  upper  limit  of  the  forest  zone ;  in  some  places  reaching  an 
altitude  of  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  indicate  the  tropical  luxurance  of  this  zone ;  but  the 
ferns,  lobelias,  creeping  vines,  lichens  and  mosses,  all  form  an  undergrowth  that 
is  varied,  striking  and  interesting.  The  middle  zone,  however,  is  primarily  the 
region  of  the  native  forest. 

Of  the  native  woods  there  are  upwards  of  two  hundred  species,  of  which 
over  one  hundred  are  well  knoAvn  forms.  The  list,  as  well  as  the  total  list  of 
Hawaiian  plants,  has  been  somewhat  extended  through  the  exploration  of  ]Mr. 
Forbes  and  others  who  have  been  active  in  this  field  recently.  The  majority 
of  the  trees  are  met  A\ith  in  the  lower  and  middle  zone.  The  Avhole  forest  region 
is  distinctly  tropical  in  character,  since  none  of  the  familiar  trees  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  are  present.  The  new-comer  from  America  looks  in  vain  for  the 
oaks,  the  elms,  the  maples,  the  spruce  and  the  pine.  In  their  stead  he  finds  the 
forest  trees  dominated  by  the  koa,  ohia,  mamani  and  kukui,  and  that  these  are 
combined  with  koaia."'^  kopiko,''"'  kolea,  naio,  puu,-^"  and  a  long  list  of  ecjually 
conspicuous  trees  that  occur  in  almost  every  landscape. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  accessible  and  in  many  ways  interesting  regions 
in  this  zone  is  that  found  about  the  volcano  Kilauea.  The  most  casual  observer 
is  there  impressed  with  the  size  and  beauty  of  the  tree-ferns  that  occur  in  such 
profusion  in  that  localitj^ ;  but  the  botanist  will  find  a  rich  field  filled  M-ith  many 
interesting  species.  Up  to  a  hundred  years  ago  the  forests  were  only  limited 
by  the  natural  conditions  of  rainfall,  elevation  and  lava  flows.  Since  the  coming 
of  the  whites  there  have  been  many  causes  as  elsewhere  enumerated  that  have 
been  at  work  bringing  about  a  change  in  the  natural  conditions.  Chief  among 
the  disturbing  elements,  however,  have  been  the  cattle.      As  early  as  1815  they 


^1  Sophora  chrysophylla.  °-  Myoporiivi  Sandwicense.  ^^  RaiUardia.  ^*  Acncia   koaia. 

^^  Straussia  spp.  ^^  Olea  Sandwicensis. 


FLORA  OF  TITE  GROUP.  227 


were  recognized  as  a  serious  inenace  to  the  native  forests.  Roaming  at  will 
through  the  forests  they  and  other  animals,  as  goats  and  pigs,  have  done  untold 
damage,  and  brought  about  conditions  that  have  been  most  serious  in  many 
places.  It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  they  have  been  fenced  out  of  the  forest 
and  their  number  reduced  so  as  to  more  nearly  correspond  with  the  beef  require- 
ments of  the  islands. 

The  Upper  Forest  Zone. 

The  plant  growth  of  the  upper  forest  zone  begins  at  about  five  or  six  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  sea  and  extends  as  high  as  eight  or  nine,  and  in  some  in- 
stances, ten  thousand  feet.  It  is  made  up  for  the  most  part  of  more  or  less 
stunted  representatives  of  the  trees,  vines  and  shrubs  met  with  in  the  middle  and 
lower  zones.  There  are,  however,  a  number  of  species  found  in  the  higher  alti- 
tudes which  do  not  descend  even  into  the  middle  zone. 

The  akia,-^"  a  name  applied  to  several  species  with  small  leaves  and  flowers 
in  terminal  and  axillarv  clusters  that  are  followed  bv  orange-colored  fruits,  is 
well  represented  in  this  zone;  although  species  of  the  genus  are  first  met  with 
in  the  lower  woods.  It  was  used  by  the  natives  as  a  fish  poison  in  much  the  same 
way  that  the  awa  and  ahuhu  were  used.  Its  strong  flexible  bast-fibers  were  also 
used  in  many  ways. 

The  pilo,^^  a  large  diffuse  shrub  four  to  eight  feet  high  with  small,  ovate, 
thick  leaves  with  nerves  impressed  on  the  upper  surface,  is  also  represented  here, 
and  is  one  of  the  several  species  of  the  genus  to  be  met  with  throughout  the  forest 
area.  The  shrub  naenae,  a  species  of  Duhautia  with  opposite  lanceolate  leaves 
four  to  eight  inches  long  and  small  orange-colored  flowers  borne  in  loose  panicles, 
also  has  much  the  same  distribution  as  the  preceding  genus. 

Conspicuous  composites  of  which  several  species  and  varieties  occur  in 
various  altitudes  are  especially  common  in  the  upper  forest  zone  under  the  name 
kokolau,^"*^  a  name  applied  generally  by  the  natives  to  all  the  species.  The  genus, 
with  a  dozen  species,  is  purely  Hawaiian  and  is  closely  related  to  the  Spanish 
needles  of  the  lower  levels.  The  plants  grow  from  two  to  five  feet  high  and  in 
many  places  cover  large  patches  of  ground  with  the  warm  yellow  color  of  its 
blossoms.  The  flowering  plants  of  the  region  are  mostly  peculiar  to  Hawaii, 
but  the  ferns  which  become  more  and  more  scarce  as  the  upper  limit  of  the 
forest  is  approached  are  those  that  belong  to  the  wide-spread  forms,  such  as  the 
o\\alii,''"  kaupu  *^i  and  a  few  similar  species  belonging  to  the  high  mountain  (iora. 

The  Silverrword. 

The  native  strawberry,  and  the  ohelo  mentioned  in  another  connection,  are 
also  found  in  the  upper  forest  zone.  The  distinct  flora  of  th(^  hi'jher  moun- 
tains, well  above  the  cloud  belt,  is  affected  more  or  less  by  snow  and  frost.  The 
species  of  the  region  are  comparatively  few  in  number.      The  most  interesting 


=^  Wikstroemia  spp.         ^^  Coprosma  spp.  ^^  Campylotheca  spp.  ""  Asplenium  Irichomanea. 

^1  Aspidium   nculeatum. 


PLATE  63.     COMMON  GENERA   OF   FERNS   ON   OAHU. 

1.     Amaiiiiiau     {SadJeria    ryalhcoUlcs) .      2.    Uluhe    laumii     (Gleichenia    longissima).       3. 
Okupiikupu      (Nephrolepis     exaltata).     4.      (Microlepia     tenuifolia).     5.     Asplenium     sp.     6. 

(De.icriiitioti    of   Plate    Contitiiied    (in    the    Opimsite    Page.) 


FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP.  229 

and  unique  species  in  its  aspect,  perhaps,  is  a  composite  belonging  exclusively  to 
the  higher  elevations  known  as  the  silversword."-  In  ils  general  appearance 
it  might  be  related  to  almost  anything  more  nearly  than  the  sunflower  and  the 
chrysanthemums  to  which  botanists  make  it  next  of  kin.  Its  stout,  woody  tiower 
stem,  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter  and  several  feet  high,  is  surrounded  at  the 
base  by  a  dense  head  of  slender,  rigid,  dagger-like  leaves,  eight  to  sixteen  inches 
long,  that  are  covered  with  white  glistening  silvery  hairs.  The  tiower  heads  are 
large  and  striking,  objects  much  admired  by  mountainers.  The  securing  of  a 
specimen  of  the  ahinahina,  or  of  a  second  closely  related  species  known  as  the 
green  silver-sword,*'^  from  their  home  on  the  high  mountains  of  Maui  and  Hawaii, 
seven  to  twelve  thousand  feet  aliove  the  sea,  is  a  feat  that  even  as  yet  l)ut  com- 
paratively few  have  performed. 

In  Hawaii  the  gathering  of  a  silversword  corresponds  with  the  gathering  of 
the  edelweiss  in  the  Alps,  and  furnishes  the  adventurous  elim])er  a  prize  well 
worth  keeping  as  a  memento  of  a  trip  that  invariably  costs  much  in  exertion  if 
not  in  actual  peril. 

Another  plant  peculiar  to  the  region  is  one  of  the  half  dozen  species 
of  the  shrubby  Geranium,  or  nohuanu  of  the  natives.  The  leaves  are 
usually  covered  on  both  surfaces  with  silvery  hairs  like  the  species  just  men- 
tioned, l)ut  unlike  them  they  are  small  and  the  flowers  are  regular  and  red  or 
white  in  color. 

The  ^Mountain  Bog  Flora. 

Leaving  these  few  plants  and  their  less  striking  associates  struggling  for 
existence  at  the  limit  of  vegetation,  we  now  return  to  consider  for  a  moment  the 
most  unique  of  all  the  Hawaiian  flora,  that  which  belongs  to  the  mountain  sum- 
mits and  table  lands  that  are  almost  perpetually  concealed  in  clouds  at  an  elevation 
of  approximately  5,000  feet.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  here  and  there  about  the 
group  are  several  curious  mountain  bogs  that  are  nearly  destituto  of  shrubby 
plants  of  any  size,  but  are  clothed  with  a  mat  of  grass,  sphagniun  moss  and 
sedges,  together  with  a  number  of  interesting  plants  of  small  size  whose  near 
relatives  are  natives  of  the  mountains  of  New  Zealand,  the  Southern  Andes  and 
the  Antartic  regions.  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  represent  the  survivors 
of  an  ancient  flora  that  has  been  crowded  out  l)y  the  arrival  of  new  plants. 
Whether  it  is  that,  or  some  equally  interesting  and  significant  fact  in  distribution 
will  doubtless  long  remain  open  to  discussion.  The  occurrence  in  such  a  locality 
of  several  species  of  violets  is  remarkable  to  say  tlie  least,  but  a  more  curious 


""  Argyroxiphium  Sandwicense.         ^^  Arygroxiphium  virescens. 


(Description    of   Plate    Continued   from    Opposite   Page.) 

Kaapeape  (Asplenium  pseudofalcat uin) .  7.  Asplenium  sp.  8,  9.  10.  Cibotium  sliowing  the 
development  of  a  fern  frond.  11.  Asplenium  ro)iti<iuii)»-  12.  sp.  indet.  13.  Poalii  (Pol}/- 
podium  spectrum) .  14.  Aspidium  sp.  in.  Kilau  (T ricliom manes  davallioides).  Ki.  Stajjliorn 
Fern  [Uluhe]  (Gleichenia  linearis)  =  (67.  iIk-Ik, Ionia).  17.  Waliine  noho  niauna  {Pol i/ podium 
tamariwinum).  18.  Asplenium  ereetum.  19.  Kkaha  {Elap]toglossum  =  (Scrostichum)  coin- 
forme). 


230  NATURAL   HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

fact  is  that  some  of  them  grow  on  upright  and  other  on  procumbent,  creeping 
stems  three  to  five  feet  in  length.  These  familiar  sweet-scented  flowers,  together 
with  the  moss  and  lichens,  the  stunted,  creeping  kolokolo  kuahiwi  ^-^  and  maieli 
or  pupukeaAve  ^-^  combine  to  form  one  of  the  most  striking  and  interesting  pro- 
vinces in  the  flora  of  the  whole  group. 

I>ut  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  all  the  interesting  and  remarkable  forms^ 
in  the  plant  life  of  the  islands  could  be  touched  upon  in  a  few  short  pages. 
Only  a  few  have  been  mentioned;  but  omissions  cannot  be  wondered  at,  as  the 
largest  books  on  the  subject  leave  much  that  is  interesting  unnoticed  and  often 
fail  to  give  the  information  that  one  would  wish  about  even  the  common  trees 
and  plants. 


■*  Lysimachia   da pini aides.  ^^  Cyothodes  Tameiameice. 


Natural  History  of  Hawaii. 


SECTION  FOUR 

THE  IXTEODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  OF  FOREST,  FIELD  AND 

GARDEN. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

A  RAMBLE  IN  A  HONOLULU  GARDEN:  PART  ONE. 

To  anyone  coming  to  the  islands  from  the  more  rigorous  climate  of  the 
mainland,  the  verdure  to  be  seen  in  Honolulu  is  little  short  of  a  dream  of  para- 
dise come  true.  In  many  ways  the  city  of  Honolulu  appears  as  a  great  tropical 
botanical  park,  conducted  on  a  cooperative  plan,  the  advantage  being  that  the 
residents,  as  shareholders  in  the  enterprise,  have  their  homes  dotted  about  here 
and  there  over  the  spacious  well-kept  lawns.  The  houses,  covered  as  they  are 
with  vines  and  surrounded  with  luxuriant  foliage,  add  to  the  i)icturesque  beauty 
of  it  all,  so  that  more  than  one  person  has  been  heard  to  exclaim,  "This  Pacific 
Paradise  is  indeed  the  land  of  heart's  desire." 

First  Impressions  op  Honolulu. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  from  the  morning  of  the  day  of  one's  landing 
after  a  wear}'  sea  journey  to  the  very  hour  of  their  departure,  be  it  in  a  day,  a 
year,  or  a  life  time,  the  rare  tropical  trees  and  plants  to  be  seen  on  every  hand, 
but  especially  in  Honolulu,  furnish  a  source  of  never-ending  pleasure  and  delight. 

If  one  has  an  interest  in  plant  life,  it  is  a  rare  treat  to  be  brought  face  to 
face  for  the  first  time  with  living  examples  of  such  symbols  of  the  tropics  as  the 
breadfruit,  the  cocoanut  palm,  or  the  banana.  One  is  made  to  feel  that  no 
picture  has  ever  done  justice  to  such  visions  of  beauty  as  they  often  present  in 
their  natural  setting,  and  the  observant  person  is  at  once  alive  with  interest, 
anxious  to  know  something  of  the  multitude  of  interesting  and  curious  trees 
and  plants  with  Avhicli  these  conspicuously  tropical  species  are  often  grouped. 
The  visitor  is  always  keen  for  a  ramble  through  any  of  the  attractive  gardens 
that  abound  on  every  hand  and  anxious  to  know  more  of  th(^  wondorfnl  exotic 
flora  that  embowers  the  thrifty  island  capital. 

Perhaps  the  first  general  observation  in  this  connection  is  one  made  from 
the  deck  of  the  steamer  as  it  rounds  Diamond  Head  and  reveals  Honolulu  as  a 
city,  not  built  on  a  hill,  ])ut  hidden  beneath  a  canopy  of  waving  green  ti-ces  that 
are  so  large  and  dense  that  only  the  tallest  1)uildings  and  spires  can  be  seen 

231 


232  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

above  the  tree  tops  to  serve  as  a  giuirantee  that  beneath  the  wealth  ot*  green 
lies  one  of  tlie  most  eosmopolitan  and  beautifnl  cities  in  the  world. 

As  one  walks  or  rides  abont  the  streets  he  observes  that  so  far  as  the 
tiora  is  concerned  Honolulu  may  ])e  said  to  be  simply  a  very  good  reproduction 
of  the  Kew  gardens  of  London,  the  diiference  being  that  in  tropical  Hono- 
lulu the  gardens  are  done  on  a  very  large  and  elaborate  scale.  In  most 
instances,  in  l)otli  places  the  plants  that  one  sees  are  not  native  to  the  country 
but  are  those  that  have  been  brought  hither  from  the  very  ends  of  the  earth  and 
set  growing  for  the  interest,  the  benefit  or  the  pleasure  of  those  who  know  how 
to  en.joy  them. 

The  streets  of  Honolulu  are  often  narrow  and  winding,  but  most  of  them, 
even  the  very  broadest,  are  shaded  by  various  species  of  trees  that  reach  out 
from  the  yards  on  either  hand.  Often  great  trees  will  be  left  in  the  center  of  the 
sidewalk  and  occasionally  the  street  itself  is  divided  by  some  fine  specimen  that 
has  been  allowed  to  stand,  by  an  appreciative  and  public-spirited  road  overseer. 

Palms. 

Palms  are  to  be  seen  in  great  variety  and  abundance.  Of  the  more  than 
seventy  species  occurring  everywhere  about  the  city  all  but  two  or  three  are 
foreign  to  the  islands.  The  most  conspicuous  and  stately  among  the  introduced 
species  is  the  royal  palm.^  It  was  brought  to  the  islands  long  ago  from  its  home 
in  the  West  Indies.  Planted  singly,  in  straight  avenues  or  in  irregular  groves, 
it  is  an  attractive  tree  that  cannot  fail  to  arrest  the  eye,  since  it  everywhere 
gladdens  and  enriches  the  landscape.  Their  lofty,  clean,  grey  trunks  are  abso- 
lutely vertical  and  as  symmetrical  as  though  turned  in  a  lathe.  No  scar  of 
growth  or  blight  of  disease  mars  their  marvelous  straight  Ionic  shafts  up  to  the 
crowning  tuft  of  long,  beautiful  balanced,  pinnate  leaves  of  deep  shining 
green  that  form  fitting  capitals  for  such  splendid  stately  pillars.  The  slightest 
stir  of  breeze  sets  every  leaf  waving  and  singing,  and  night  and  day  one  knows 
"when  the  wind  is  in  the  palm  trees"  by  the  gentle  rustle  that  they  make. 

The  blossoms  are  small,  sweet-scented,  cream-colored  flowers  that  hang  in  a 
great  pendant  cluster  from  the  base  of  the  lowest  leaves.  Their  faint  odor  is  a 
pleasant  one  in  the  soft  balmj^  evening,  and  by  day  a  source  of  great  concern  to 
swarms  of  busy  bees  that  reap  a  rich  harvest  of  honey  during  the  few  days  that 
the  blossoms  last.  At  length  the  blossoms  are  followed  by  the  fleshy  fruits  that 
are  eaten  by  the  mynah  birds,  and  by  them  the  seeds  are  carried  from  place  to 
place. 

A  Falling  Leap. 

I  well  remember  witli  what  surprise  and  alarm  I  first  heard  a  palm  leaf 
fall.  It  was  in  the  still  of  the  night  soon  after  my  arrival  in  the  islands. 
Scarcely  a  breath  of  air  was  stirring  when  suddenly  I  was  aroused  with  a  start  at 
hearing,  somewhere  in  the  garden,  a  mighty  ripping  noise  that  ended  abruptly 


^  Oreodoxa  regia. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS.  ZS.'^ 

in  a  loud  cracking  sound  ;is  though  a  whirlwind  li<hi  hnikcii  loose  anions  llie 
tree  tops.  Then  followed  a  swirl  and  a  swish,  a  rustle,  ;iiid  a  i-iisli  that  seemed 
to  leave  no  doubt  but  that  all  the  trees  in  the  garden  had  been  siiddcidy  set 
whirling  through  the  air.  But  after  a  moment  of  breathless  suspense  the  whole 
affair  ended  in  a  terrific  clatter  and  thump,  after  which  all  was  again  as  silent 
as  before.  In  the  morning  when  the  leaf  was  shown  to  me  there  remained  no 
doubt  but  that  it  was  the  cause  of  the  "cyclone"  of  the  night  before.  The  leaf 
was  a  trifle  over  eighteen  feet  in  length  and  weighed  several  pounds !  Though 
accustomed  to  regard  a  falling  leaf  as  an  exceedingly  melancholy  thing,  I  had 
never  before  thought  of  the  harm  that  might  be  received  in  tlic  ti-opics  a  least, 
from  so  simple  and  ordinary  a  thing  as  having  a  withered  leaf  strike  one  un- 
aw^ares  as  it  circled  gracefully  to  the  ground. 

The  Cocoanut  Palm. 

The  cocoanut  palm-  is  perhaps  native,  or  at  least  of  very  early  introduc- 
tion by  the  natives,  and  is  among  the  most  showy  of  the  palms.  It  is  the  cocoa luit 
palm  by  the  sea  that  first  greets  the  stranger  on  his  arrival  in  Hawaii.  Basking 
in  the  languid  warm  sunshine  it  has  stood  for  generations  at  the  post  of  honor  by 
the  broad  portal  of  this  earthly  paradise.  Breathing  the  very  spirit  of  the 
tropics  it  has  come  to  be  the  symbol  of  true  hospitality  and  stands  ever  ready  to 
east  that  magical  spell  that  none  can  resist.  At  the  parting  it  is  this  stately 
sentinel  by  the  water's  edge  that  is  always  the  last  living  thing  to  reluctantly 
wave  a  fond  good-bye  to  those  who  must  depart,  knowing  in  their  heart  of  hearts 
they  are  to  return  again. 

Its  feathery  plumes  tower  out  above  everything  else,  as  they  are  often  si.xty 
feet  or  more  in  height.  All  things  considered  there  are  indeed  few^  trees  among 
the  wild,  semi-cultivated  or  exotic  flora  in  Hawaii  that  equals  in  picturesque 
beauty  this  "the  prince  of  palms." 

Few  trees  so  frequently  and  effectively  figure  in  the  domestic  setting  for 
the  Honolulu  home.  They  are  of  fairly  rapid  growth  and  come  into  bearing, 
in  favorable  soil,  in  ten  or  fifteen  years.  The  tree  continues  to  grow  in 
height  until  thirty  or  forty  years  of  age,  when  they  seem  to  have  attained  their 
limit  of  growth,  but  they  continue  to  live  on  indefinitely  without  gaining  ma- 
terially in  size  or  height.  On  the  beach  at  Waikiki  are  trees  that  arc  known 
to  be  several  hundred  years  old,  while  a  splendid  grove  neai-  l)y  has  very  nearl\- 
caught  u})  with  them  in  heiglit  in  a  single  life  time.  This  i)alin  will  never  branch 
and  never  sends  up  shoots  from  the  gronnd.  and  like  many  oilier  trees  in  the 
tropics  that  belong  to  a  great  group  known  as  Kndogenous  plants,  they  are  easily 
killed  by  destroying  the  plume-like  top. 

The  cocoanut  trees  thrive  best  at  or  near  the  sea-shore.  Howevei-.  tlie\-  do 
reasonal)ly  well  in  some  localities  two  or  three  miles  inland.  Klevation  app.-sr- 
ently  has  more  influence  in  retarding  growth  than  the  absence  of  the  effect  of  tlie 
sea.     Where  water  is  to  be  had  in  al)undance  any  soil  seems  to  do  so  long  as  it  is 


-  Coros  It  ticifirn. 

16 


5  -« 

pftn 


fcaCt, 


^     CO 

-  vT 


—       =:    > 


o 

^ 

^ 

,/-s. 

::^  :^ 

c 

^H 

M 

^     G 

2; 

'-^ 

r>^    +J 

CK 

C;    '^ 

Z; 

o 

K 

a 

^    0 

'*.-• 

5  a 

<: 

■+^ 

o 

o  o 

Q  -^ 

ac  in 

k^ 

-H 

o 

tn 

rt   ^~  *  — 

2; 

"s^     --^ 

32 

a  -^  c 

^ 

t^t^ 

y 

'"  ^  c 

r' 

525^ 

r^  e  ,^ 

-^ 

S    2  'T 

o 

bt? 

&^ 

_  s  s 

P 

=3  :;'^ 

<J 

■-  O  r- 

k_ 

C           C 

;-.         -*- 

"— 

^  -S  cc 

-i^ 

^  ""r^" 

r-      ^ 

O       r-' 

-^   ^  rS 

is  n  ci 

^t;.5 

^-s 

J1 

"^  «  = 

i  ^ 

r*.      ^ 

-»^      >. 

f-    ^ 

sj  "^ 

!M    >— 

INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANI^MALS.  235 

easily  penetrated  by  the  roots  of  the  palm.  For  this  reason  tlie  sandy  soil  near 
the  sea-shore  fnrnishes  its  best  environment.  The  strncture  of  the  tree  fits  it  to 
withstand  wind  of  almost  any  force  and  they  seem  to  prefer  plenty  of  rain,  wind 
and  snn. 

The  yield  of  nnts  Unctuates  greatly  from  year  to  year  and  from  tree  to  tree. 
There  are  reports  of  as  many  as  -HH)  nuts  having"  been  gathered  in  one  season 
from  a  single  tree  in  some  of  the  more  favored  islands  of  the  south  Pacific. 
In  Hawaii  as  many  as  200  nuts,  besides  innumerable  blossoms,  have  been  counted 
on  a  tree  at  one  time,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  an  average  of  eighty  mature  nuts 
could  be  gathered  during  a  year.  It  is  a  curious  thing  that  nuts  perfectly  green 
in  appearance  will  be  as  ripe  as  those  having  yellow  husks.  For  this  reason,  it  is 
desirable  to  pick  the  oldest  nuts  on  the  tree  without  waiting  for  them  to  ripen 
and  fall  to  the  earth.  While  no  one  in  Honolulu,  to  my  knowledge,  has  ever 
been  injured  by  a  falling  cocoanut,  the  constant  danger  from  that  source  is  ap- 
parent since  a  good-sized  nut  in  the  fiusk  weighs  several  pounds.  Those  who  are 
familiar  with  the  delicate  flavor  of  the  young  nut  prefer  to  gather  them  when 
half  mature  and  spoon  the  soft  meat  out  of  the  shell  before  it  has  had  time  to 
solidify  and  become  oily. 

Of  late  years  the  tree  rat  has  become  a  great  pest  in  the  cocoanut  trees  and 
does  great  damage  to  the  young  nuts  by  gnawing  holes  in  them.  They  readily 
pass  from  one  tree  to  another  along  the  leaves,  and  when  a  colony  of  rats  becomes 
established  in  a  grove  the  tin  sheaths  so  commonly  placed  about  the  trunk  of  the 
tree  does  ])ut  little  good,  unless  the  tops  of  the  trees  are  kept  clear  of  the  neigh- 
boring foliage. 

While  it  is  considered  a  difftcult  thing  to  tell  how  the  milk  gc^ts  into  a  cocoa- 
nut,  the  rate  of  growth  and  the  remarkable  changes  that  take  place  during  the 
period  of  germination  and  early  growth  when  the  milk  is  getting  out  of  the  nut 
can  be  easily  studied  and  well  repays  the  trouble  of  making  tli(^  observation. 
The  time  occupied  in  germination  varies  greatly,  owing  to  a  number  of  condi- 
tions, especially  the  amount  of  moisture  and  sunshine,  but  in  general  many  weeks 
must  pass  before  the  first  leaf  opens. 

Just  how  the  cocoanut  came  to  Hawaii  in  the  first  })lace  will  never  be  knovrn. 
Its  legendary  history  dates  far  back,  and  doubtless  the  tree  has  acc(mi])anied 
the  Polynesians  on  all  of  their  wanderings  about  the  Pacific.  To  this  day  the 
native  country  of  the  cocoanut  is  not  definitely  known.  DeCandolle  finds  twelve 
reasons  for  thinking  it  of  Asiatic  origin,  but  singularly  enough  there  is  one 
reason — an  almost  unsurmountable  one,  for  believing  it  to  be  an  American  plant. 
Botanists  have  proven  that  none  of  the  other  nineteen  species  of  the  genus  exist 
anywhere  in  a  wild  state  except  on  the  American  continent,  and  therefore  con- 
clude that  the  familiar  species  must  have  had  the  same  origin.  Somo  say  that 
the  Philippine  Islands  is  its  ancesteral  home,  and  that  it  was  from  thence  carried 
in  all  directions  by  ocean  currents  or  hy  artificial  means.  At  any  rate  it  ranges 
over  the  whole  of  the  tropics,  and  within  that  range  there  are  many  varieties 
based  mainly  on  the  size  and  shape  of  the  fruit.      However,  these  variations  are 


2^6  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 


strongly  marked  and  retain  their  charaeteristies  when  grown  from  seed.  For 
the  reason  jnst  stated  we  may  regard  those  grown  in  Hawaii — at  the  northern 
limit  of  the  range — where  the  climate  is  scarcely  warm  enongh  for  their  best 
development,  as  forming  a  fairly  distinct  variety,  namely  the  Hawaiian  cocoanut. 
The  eocoainit,  or  niii,  had  many  uses  in  Hawaii  a  century  ago.  The  trunk 
of  the  tree  furnished  fairly  heavy  timber,  while  the  long  pinnate  leaves  were 
used  in  former  days  as  thatch,  and  laced  together  they  formed  the  walls  of  the 
native  lanai.  From  the  husk  of  the  nut  a  durable  rope  v.'as  made,  and  various 
household  utensils  were  manufactured  from  the  shells.  The  natives  drank  the 
juice  and  ate  the  meat  of  the  nuts.  They  also  healed  their  wounds  with  a  balm 
made  from  the  juice,  and  with  the  oil  extracted  from  the  meat  of  the  nut  they 
anointed  their  limbs  and  embalmed  the  bodies  of  their  dead. 

The  Date  Pai.m. 

Less  striking,  perhaps,  but  even  more  beautiful  in  certain  Avays  than  the 
foregoing,  are  the  date  palms  '•"'  with  their  splendid  fronds  that  are  often  larger 
and  always  more  numerous  than  are  those  of  the  cocoanut  palm.  To  many  these 
sturdy,  thrifty  trees  are  the  symbol  of  strength,  beauty  and  repose. 

The  date  palm  was  long  ago  introduced  into  Hawaii  and  it  has  been  a  con- 
spicuous tree  in  the  islands  ever  since.  Though  it  bears  large  bunches  of  orange- 
colored  dates,  the  fruit  is  seldom  eaten,  as  the  pits  are  usually  so  large  that  the 
little  flesh  that  surrounds  them  is  not  worth  the  effort  required  to  secure  it. 
Without  doubt,  however,  a  good  quality  of  dates  can  be  produced  here,  when 
suckers  are  secured  from  selected  parent  plants. 

The  leaves  of  this  and  other  species  of  palms  are  often  used  for  decorations, 
especially  on  Palm  Sunday.  It  is  thought  that  for  this  reason  the  parent  plants 
were  of  very  early  introduction  into  the  new  Avorld  l)y  the  Spanish  missionaries. 

Ornamental  Palms. 

The  betel  nut,^  though  with  a  very  slender  stem,  is  in  superficial  appear- 
ance not  unlike  the  royal  palm.  It  bears  a  yellow  fruit,  the  size  of  a  hen's 
egg  which  has  one  seed  surrounded  l)y  a  fibrous  husk.  The  seeds  are  chewed  by 
the  natives  of  certain  south  Pacific  and  East  Indian  islands  to  blacken  the 
teeth.  The  word  betel  is  erroneously  applied  to  this  fruit,  as  it  is  the  name 
of  the  leaf  of  a  totally  different  plant. 

Of  the  native  palms  a  few  specimens  of  the  louln  i)alm  are  to  be  seen  here 
and  tliere  about  the  city.  They  are  a  fan  palm  with  smooth  trunks  and  in  their 
wild  state  grow  in  secluded  places  in  the  forests  often  to  an  elevation  of  three 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  One  species,  the  lonlu  lelo."'  has  small  ovid  fruit, 
while  the  loulu  hiwa ''•  has  large  globulur  fruits.  Of  the  innumerable  varieties 
of  fan  palms  to  be  seen  only  a  word  can  be  said,  since  their  number  and  variety 
defy  a  lu'ief  characterization.      TTov;ever,  the  class  can  be  easily  recognized  by 


^Phoenix  dactylifcra.  *  Arcea   caihecK.  ^  Pritrlinrdin  (Iniidirhniidii.  '^  Pritchnrdin   Martii. 


IXTROnrCEl)  PLANTS  AND  AXT^FALS.  237 

their  fan-shaped  leaves.  Tlie  mow  coninion,  thoujili  less  attractive  wine  palm/ 
can  at  once  be  recognized  owing  to  its  large  coarse  ])i pinnate  h'aves  and  wedge- 
shaped  leaflets  that  are  strongly  toothed  at  the  extremities.  The  wine  made 
from  this  palm  in  India  is  drawn  ofiP  by  cntting  the  ends  of  the  flowering  stems 
from  which  exndes  the  sweetish  sap.  This  is  then  boih-d  down  inlo  a  s\  i-iij)  or 
by  fermentation  made  into  a  toddy.  The  splendid  exam[)les  of  llie  WasliinLiton 
palm,^  with  their  tall  robust  trnnks  clotb'd  with  the  pen(huit  i-eiiiains  of  dend 
leaves,  are  sure  to  attract  attention  from  travelers,  especially  those  from  ('ali- 
fornia,  where  this  "weeping  palm"  is  a  native. 

Two  or  three  species  of  the  beautiful  Khapis  ])alms  occnr  in  the  islands, 
where  they  are  usually  planted  in  pots  and  tubs.  They  are  one  of  tiie  few  palms 
that  produce  suckers  at  their  base,  thereby  forming  thick  clumps.  The  large 
species  '■'  often  grows  eight  or  ten  feet  in  height  and  has  the  stems  armed  with 
prickles.  The  smaller  species^**  most  commonly  have  the  stems  unarmed  and 
the  leaves  with  about  ten  segments.  It  can  easily  be  identified  as  a  different 
species  from  the  plants  having  leaves  wdth  from  five  to  seven  segments.^  ^  All 
of  the  species  are  native  to  Japan  and  China  and  are  occasionally  called  Japanese 
or  Chinese  palms. 

Other  plants  of  interest  are  the  sugar  palm,'-  a  spineless  species  growing 
forty  feet  high;  and  the  oil  palm,'-"^  with  a  stout  coarsely  and  deeply-ringed  stem 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  high.  It  has  red  fruits  wdiich  yield  the  palm  oil  of  eoin- 
merce.  The  bottle  palm,^^  with  a  curious  bottle-shaped  stem  or  caudex,  and  the 
blue  palm, I''  with  splendid  bluish  fan-shaped  leaves,  are  easily  recognized. 

Only  two  or  three  species  of  the  tropical  palm-like  cycads  are  fonntl  here, 
and  these  are  the  common  kinds  to  be  seen  growing  under  glass  in  more  rigorous 
climates.  The  plants  are  propagated  from  seeds.  They  are  very  curious  in 
their  method  of  flowering  since  the  flowers  appear  in  a  mass  in  the  heart  of  the 
great  crown  of  leaves.  In  time  the  flowers  are  followed  by  the  fertile  seed  from 
which  they  readily  grow.  The  sago  palm^"  is  the  commonest  species  in  cultiva- 
tion, though  the  much  larger  species  '"  is  not  luicoumion. 

Araucaria. 

Passing  to  the  evergreen-like  trees,  the  giant  Araucaria  of  Australia  and 
elsewhere  grows  to  an  enormous  size  and  is  frequently  seen  in  gardens.  Some 
splendid  species  of  the  Norfolk  Island  ])ine  '•''  are  to  be  seen  in  the  older  gardens 
in  Honolulu.  The  monkey-puzzle  oi-  Chili  pine'''  is  also  coninion  about  tli(>  city. 
The  INIonterey  cypress  ^"^  seems  to  thrive  in  the  islands  and  is  much  esteemed  as 
an  ornamental  tree. 

A  tree  which  is  more  common  than  any  of  the  foregoing,  and  one  which 
might  be  easily  mistaken  for  a  pine,  is  the  Aust I'alian  ii-onwood.-''  beet'wood  or 
she-oak.      The    fi-nit    is   cone-lik'c    in    appeai'ance    and    touvthei'    with    the    needlc- 


'' Criri/ntn    lo-inix.  >*  Wfixhiiif/fnnin   filifi'rn.  "Rlinj.ix  C'lrliinrhiiuntsix.  '"  7i"/(((//i.v    hinnihs 

^^  Kliai>i.i  floJii'lUforuiis.  ^■-  A  i->' ii/m  xarclid riffni.  '''A'^r/.v  ;/iii,ii-ii.iis.  '<  II !/(>i>hnrht'   niiuiriraiihii 

^^  Lantania   (/knicuplii/llci.  ^"  Cycas  reruliitn.  ^' Ci/cas  cirriiKilix.  >■*  A  raiiraria    c.rceh.i. 

18  Araucaria   imbricain.  -"  Cvpressus   niarnicnriia.  -i  Casiiarinn    I'ljinsftiiitUn. 


<    5d 
1-^    -^ 


X    .= 


-      it 


z    3 


g    2 
z  --- 


pa 


Z     ^:S 


C         '-c 


INTRODUCED  PLAXTS   AND   AXT^FALS.  239 

like  branehlets  would  seem  to  entitle  it  to  ehiini  relationship  willi  the  eedar, 
cypress  or  pine.  Though  the  tree  is  widely  distriltuted  it  was  ikiI  known  to  the 
native  Hawaiians  before  its  introduction  by  the  whites.  Tlie  tree  has  its  greatest 
use  as  wind-breaks.  However,  it  has  been  extensively  planted  about  the  city 
and  reminds  the  visitors  from  northern  climes  of  the  winter  season  as  Ihc  wind 
whistles  and  soughs  through  its  ])ranches. 

The  Ki^kt^i. 

Look  where  one  will  in  the  city  he  will  find  l)ut  little  that  really  belongs  to 
the  native  flora.  The  few  species  to  be  seen  that  pass  as  native  trees  are  for  the 
most  part  those  brought  here  from  Polynesia  by  the  natives  themselves.  How- 
ever, there  are  a  few  of  these  that  are  of  common  occurrence  and  especially  strik- 
ing" in  appearance.  The  kukui  or  candle-nut  tree  ^-  is  always  identified  by  its 
conspicuous  pale  yellow-green,  almost  silvery  foliage.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  abundant  trees  of  the  group  from  sea  level  up  to  two  thousand 
feet.  In  sheltered  nooks  and  shady  ravines  the  silvery-green  foliage  can  be  made 
out  from  far  out  at  sea,  and  is  usually  proudly  pointed  out  to  the  stranger  from 
the  deck  of  the  steamer  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  picturesque  trees  of 
Hawaii-nei.  It  is  a  luxuriant  shade  tree  and  is  well  worthy  of  a  larger  place 
in  the  jiarks,  private  grounds  and  streets  of  the  city  than  it  now  occupies. 

The  wood  is  soft  and  white  and  is  useless  for  building  purposes;  but  the 
nuts,  which  are  similar  in  shape  and  size  to  a  black  walnut,  were  made  by  the 
natives  to  serve  in  many  useful  ways.  The  shell  of  the  nut  is  hard  and  bhiek 
and  capable  of  taking  a  very  high  polish.  They  were  strung  into  leis  and 
fashioned  into  other  ornaments.  The  oily  kernels  were  strung  on  s])liut('rs  of 
bamboo  to  form  torches,  whence  the  name  candle-nut.  The  acritl  juice  con- 
tained in  the  covering  of  the  nut  was  the  base  for  a  black  dye  for  tapa  and  also 
served  as  an  ink  in  tatooing  the  skin.  The  nuts,  roasted  and  mixed  with  salt, 
form  a  very  pleasant  side  dish  at  native  feasts.  The  oil  was  pressed  from  the 
kernels  and  burned  in  stone  lamps  of  native  manufacture.  It  also  made  a  water- 
proof coating  for  tapa,  and  was  occasionally  used  among  the  old-time  Hawaiians 
to  oil  the  body  for  various  purposes,  especially  to  render  it  sli]>pery  in  evading 
their  opponents  in  ])hysical  encounters.  The  gum  which  exudes  from  Ihc  bark 
also  had  several  uses. 

It  is  of  interest  in  this  place  to  note  that  all  bi'anches  of  the  Polynesian  race 
know  the  kukui  by  the  same  name.  Though  Ihe  kukui  is  generally  dispelled 
over  the  islands,  and  forms  a  large  part  of  the  forest  up  to  the  upi)er  educ  of  its 
range,  it  has  but  few  enemies  among  the  Hawaiian  insects,  'i'liis  fact  is  taken 
to  indicate  its  being  of  comparatively  recent  Hawaiian  introduction,  and  sug- 
gests that  there  has  not  been  sufficient  time  for  it  to  attract  sci-ious  insect  pests. 

The  Breaupruit. 
Another  native  importation  of  nuu-li  value  is  the  breadfi'uil.-''  or  ulu.  of  the 


^"  Aleurites  MoUuccana.  -^  Arlorarpus   ihcisn. 


X 

Z 


o 

t 
O 


-1,      CO 


fc; 


X 

fc. 

o 

^^ 

^ 

z 

H 

c 

"1 

c- 

hJ 

c 

h^ 

» 

n 

0(2 

l£ 

M 

O 

S 

&. 

<£ 

CC 

K 

H 

<ii 

J 

Ph 

IXTRODICED  PLANTS  AXl)  AXiMALS.  241 

natives.  It  is  planted  singly  abont  the  uardeiis  in  the  eit\'  and  is  (jiiite  eom- 
nionly  met  with  in  siroves  of  some  size  in  tlu*  various  valleys  of  the  eroup. 
Wherever  grown  it  adds  materially  lo  llic  lirnuty  of  hiiidseape  and  in  addition 
it  has  a  great  utility  value.  Tlie  young  tree  nsnally  ui'ows  in  Ihi-  form  of  a  per- 
fect cone.  The  leaves  are  often  two  feet  or  moi-e  in  Icnglh.  dark,  vigorous  green 
in  color  and  deeply  lobed.  The  tree  always  has  a  thi'ifty  look  wliicli  it  retains 
long  after  it  has  lost  the  charm  of  perfect  foi-ni.  The  lai-ge  green  iilolmlar  fi-nits 
are  three  to  five  inches  in  diameter  and  are  especially  esteemed  by  natives  and 
Europeans  as  food.  When  very  ripe  the  baked  fruit  has  a  flavor  suggesting 
sweet  potato.  When  cooked  green  the  flavor  is  less  pronounced  and  less  pleasing. 
The  tree  attains  a  height  of  forty  to  sixty  feet.  The  wood  is  a  saffron  color, 
very  durable  and  not  liable  to  split.  Elsewhere  it  has  l)een  used  to  some  extent 
in  the  manufacture  of  wheel  hubs.  l)ut  in  Hawaii  it  is  not  used  commercially. 
The  Hawaiians  used  the  leaves  for  polishing,  the  bark  as  a  medicine,  and  the 
gum  for  capturing  birds.  Like  the  kukui.  the  breadfruit  has  accompanied  the 
Polynesians  on  all  their  wanderings  wherever  the  climate  would  allow  it  to  live. 
The  tree  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  propagate.  As  the  Hawaiian  vai'iety 
rarely,  if  ever,  produces  fertile  seed  the  plant  has  been  distril)nt('d  li.\  root 
sprouts  and  by  layerings.  It  is  not  as  important  hci'e,  however,  as  in  Tahiti. 
where  the  fruit  is  made  into  a  breadfruit  poi. 

Mango. 

The  mango  -"^  is  a  strikingly  beautiful  tree  and  is  as  much  prized  for  its 
shade  as  for  its  delicious  friiit.  It  forms  one  of  the  most  stately  trees  to  be  seen 
in  the  city  or  about  the  islands.  Its  compact  growth  and  its  dense  foliage  of 
large,  dark-green  leaves  serve  to  identify  the  tree,  but  the  rich  purple-red  or 
red-brown  young  leaves,  usually  grouped  on  opposite  sides  of  the  tree  at  dif- 
ferent seasons,  make  it  especially  conspicuous  and  worthy  of  remark. 

INIost  of  the  trees  bloom  in  January  and  the  fruit  ripens  along  in  -Inly  and 
August.  However,  these  dates  vary  greatl\'  and  are  frequently  reversed,  so 
that  there  is  hardly  a  day  in  the  year  when  ripe,  fresh  fruits  may  not  be  found 
in  the  citv.  The  bearing  trees  make  but  little  growth  owim:-  to  llu'  lu'av\  fi'uit- 
age  which  bends  low  the  sturdy  bran<'h('s.  Often  only  one  side  of  a  tree  will 
be  in  fruit  at  a  time. 

The  fruit  of  the  mango  is  of  the  most  excpiisite  shape  and  color.  It  is  abcmt 
the  size  of  a  pear,  ovoid,  slightly  flattene(]  with  \ho  two  sides  developed  uni'(|ually. 


**  Mangifera  Indira. 


Desckiptiox    of    Plate. 

1.  A  fine  Algaroba  tree  |  Kiawe]  (Prosopis  JuU/loro).  2.  Leaves  of  tlie  Saered  Bauiaii 
(Ficus  religiosa).  3.  A  Boiigaiiivillea  in  full  bloom.  4.  A  Kliapis  I'alni  (iniajii.s  Cochin- 
chinensis).  5.  Bird's  Nest  Fern  [Ekaha]  (Asplenium  nidu.'i)  from  tin-  native  forest.  (5. 
Flowers  of  Clerodendron  Thommsnntr.  7.  Fruit,  flowers  and  leaves  of  tlu'  California  Pepper 
(Schinus  Molle).  8.  Air-jdant  {BryoplnilUan  nilt/riitm).  9.  A  ("yeas  (Ci/cas  sp.).  10. 
Thylodendron  in  an  Algaroba  tree;   a  Bottle  Palm   to  the  left,  a    Fan    Palm   to  the  right. 


242  NATURAL   PIISTOEY   OF   HAWAII. 

giving-  it  a  thiclc  comma  shape.  When  ripe  the  fruit  is  a  rich  yeUow  with  apple- 
red  elieok  on  the  side  turned  toward  the  sun.  But  they  vary  in  size,  shape  and 
color  as  much  as  apples  do,  for,  like  the  api)h'.  they  seldom  come  true  from  the 
seed. 

The  tree  is  supposed  to  have  originally  come  from  India.  It  is  the  only  one 
of  thirty  or  more  species  belonging  to  the  genus  3Ia)igifera  that  has  any  value. 
As  many  as  live  hundred  varieties  have  been  reported  from  India,  and  perhaps 
forty  01'  lil'ly  of  the  best  sorts  to  be  found  are  established  in  Honolulu.  While 
usually  gfown  from  seed  they  may  also  be  propagated  by  budding.  This,  un- 
fortunatel\-,  is  a  somewhat  difficult  process  involving  much  care  and  skill.  Within 
the  last  few  years  the  trees  here  have  been  affected  with  a  blight  not  common 
elsewhere.  It  is  due  to  a  fungus  disease  that  is  thought  to  be  aided  in  spreading 
by  tlir  l)luc-l)()ttle  flies  and  other  insects  carrying  the  spores  from  flower  to  flower. 
It  will  Ik'  noticed  that  the  sooty  mould,  when  severe,  often  gives  the  whole  tree  a 
blackened  appearance. 

Monkey-pod. 

In  almost  every  yard  and  square  about  the  city,  and  indeed  over  the  whole 
group,  will  l)e  found  one  or  more  monkey-pod  trees.-^  The  better  name  for  the 
tree  is  samang;  although  it  is  sometimes  called  the  rain-tree,  since  it  blossoms 
at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  in  its  native  home  in  tropical  America. 
It  is  an  exotic,  liaving  long  been  introduced.  It  belongs  to  the  great  group  of 
acacia-like  plants,  and  has  compound  or  multi-compound  leaves.  Like  inost  of  its 
relatives  it  has  the  habit  of  closing  its  leaves  in  sleep  at  night.  After  sun- 
down it  presents  a  wilted  appearance  and  does  much  toward  changing  the  aspect 
of  the  whole  city  after  nightfall.  Trees  of  this  species  that  are  several  feet 
in  diameter  at  the  girth  and  spreading  shade  over  a  space  150  feet  across, 
are  to  be  commonly  seen  about  the  islands.  It  is  a  permanent  shade  tree,  and  aside 
from  the  litter  of  the  discarded  leaves  and  pods  and  a  slightly  ragged  appear- 
ance dui'ing  the  winter  season  it  is  highly  desirable  as  an  ornamental  tree.  As 
a  tree  to  be  planted  along  the  sidewalks  it  is  hardly  to  be  recommended,  as  it 
grows  at  such  a  furious  rate  that  it  is  liable  to  lift  the  walk  and  injure  the 
curbing.  It  is  therefore  a  tree  better  suited  to  ample  lawns,  open  spaces  and 
parks. 

The  Algaroba. 

Of  all  the  introduced  trees  the  algaroba  -*'  is  the  favorite.  It  is  a  mesquite, 
perhaps  of  the  southwestern  United  States  and  IMexico,  and  has  been  greatly  im- 
proved and  modified  by  the  change  of  environment.  The  original  tree  in  Hawaii 
grew  from  a  seed  planted  in  1837  on  Fort  street,  near  Beretania,  by  Father 
Batchelot,  founder  of  the  Roman  Catholic  mission.  It  is  thought  that  the  seed 
was  brought  from  Mexico,  though  this  point  is  far  from  being  settled  by  the  his- 
torians of  the  islands.      The  tree  is  still  in  a  thrifty  condition  and  is  the  pro- 


2^  Pitherolnhiiim   Snmaiuj.  28  Prosnpin  jiilifliira. 


INTRODUCED   I'LANTS  AND  ANIMALS.  243 

genitor  of  more  than  (iO.OOO  acres  of  forest  (listi'ihiitcd  dvci-  llic  entire  group. 
At  first  it  grew  only  at  the  lower  levels,  l)u1.  litlle  by  litlle.  succeeding  genera- 
tions have  crept  higher  and  higher  until  now  th('\-  llirive  ri'om  the  sandy  sea 
beach  to  l,n()0  feet  elevation.  The  lee  coasts  of  Oahu,  .Molokai,  and  parts  of  Ha- 
waii have  been  changed  from  deserts  to  forests  by  the  aluaroba  alone.  (furi- 
ously enough,  the  land  which  it  has  taken  possession  of  is  usually  arid  or  stony, 
or  so  steep  that  it  was  considered  generally  worthless.  If  left  alone  they  shade 
the  ground  with  a  dense  growth  and  attain  a  height  of  fifty  to  sixty  feet.  When 
trimmed  and  thinned,  as  they  are  in  the  city,  their  delightful  shade  moderates 
the  heat  of  the  tropic  sun,  allowing  the  growth  of  the  lawn  grass  beneath,  and 
in  dry  seasons  protecting  it  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Their  slender, 
brittle  branches  are  often  too  much  in  evidence  to  be  asthetic  in  themselves,  but 
nevertheless  they  have  a  weird  picturesqueness  of  their  own.  The  trunk  at  first 
seems  uncouth,  but  there  is  a  grace  and  poise  to  the  slender  vine-like  branches 
and  feathery  leafiets  as  they  toss  to  and  fi'o  in  th(^  trade  wind,  that  over-balances 
the  ruggedness  of  the  gnarled  and  twisted  trunk. 

In  addition  to  its  asthetic  qualities  the  algaroba  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of 
trees.  Besides  yielding  an  enormous  amount  of  wood  of  splendid  quality,  they 
are  valuable  for  the  pods  that  are  produced  with  great  regularity  after  the  tree 
is  three  years  old.  The  pods  ripen  gradually  during  the  summer  months,  and, 
next  to  the  grasses,  form  the  most  important  stock  food.  They  are  eaten  by 
horses,  cattle  and  hogs  with  great  relish.  The  hard,  horny  seeds  which  are  em- 
bedded in  a  sweet  pulp  are  not  digested  by  the  stock,  and  hence  are  in  ])i'inie 
condition  for  growing  and  are  scattered  broadcast  in  this  way. 

The  algaroba  is  also  our  most  important  honey-producing  plant.  Bees  are 
exceedingly  fond  of  the  nectar  of  the  flowers  and  the  sugar  of  the  beans.  Many 
apiaries  in  algaroba  groves  produce  honey  of  attractive  appearance  and  superior 
flavor. 

The  tree  exudes  two  dififerent  kinds  of  gum.  The  most  valuable  collects  in 
clear,  amber-colored,  tear-like  masses  on  the  bark.  It  resembles  the  gum  arable  of 
commerce.  As  it  contains  no  tannin  and  desolves  readily  in  watei-  the  gum  has 
elsewhere  been  used  in  laundries  and  to  some  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  gum- 
drops.  In  Mexico  it  is  also  valued  for  ciM-tain  medical  properties.  In  Hawaii 
it  has  never  been  collected  or  used,  though  large  quantities  of  the  gum  could  be 
secured. 


CHAPTER  NVTTT. 
A  RAiMBLE  IN  A  HONOLULU  GARDEN:    PART  TWO. 

The  Poixciana. 

Turning  to  the  purely  ornamental  trees,  first  ])laee  is  usually  given  to  the 
scarlet-flowered  royal  I'oinciana,^  or  to  one  of  tlie  closely  allied  species  or  varie- 


^  Poinciana    repia. 


244  XATL'RAL    HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

ties.  The  cunaiion  si)ecies  grown  here,  known  as  the  "flame  tree"  or  "flam- 
boyant tree,"  has  been  so  well  named  as  to  scarcely  require  further  description. 
Thouiili  it  is  a  fairly  rapid  grower  it  is  not  a  large  tree  as  a  rule.  The  smooth 
trunk  is  e.\])anded  at  the  base  in  a  curious  way,  forming  buttresses  that  corre- 
spond with  the  principal  roots.  This  peculiarity  in  connection  with  its  rich- 
green  foliage  arranged  in  horizontal  spreading  layers  of  fine  pinnate  leaves, 
makes  it  a  tree  so  dainty  as  to  attract  attention  at  all  seasons.  But  when  it 
bursts  into  full  flower  it  is  one  solid  mass  of  crimson,  the  admiration  of  all,  and 
without  doubt  it  is  one  of  the  most  stinking  of  tropical  trees.  ^.Ithough  it  sheds 
its  leaves  at  certain  seasons  it  is  at  such  times  almost  as  remarkable  for  its  large 
pods  as  for  the  blossoms  which  preceded  them.  The  generic  term,  which  is  the 
one  conunonly  used  as  the  name  of  this  species,  was  given  in  honor  of  Governor- 
General  Poinci,  Avho  wrote  on  the  natural  history  of  the  West  Indies  during  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  species  and  varieties  common  in  warm 
countries  are  found  here. 

I^RIDE  OF  THE  BaRBADOES  AND  THE   GOLDEN   ShOWER. 

The  pride  of  the  Barbadoes,-  with  orange-colored  blossoms  and  a  second 
variety  with  yellow  flowers,  are  quite  common,  the  latter  being  known  as  the  yellow 
poineiana.  But  more  conspicuous  through  the  summer  months  is  the  golden 
shower,-'  or  after  the  pods  have  set  on  it,  the  "pudding-stick"  tree.  The 
foliage  is  quite  scant,  consisting  of  large  pinnate  leaves.  The  flowers  appear  in 
pendant  jninicles  and  for  several  months  there  is  a  succession  of  pure  primrose- 
yellow,  fragrant  blossoms  that  justify  tlie  popular  common  name  of  the  tree. 
Another  species  is  the  purging  Cassia  ^  or  horse  Cassia,  with  pink  and  white 
flowers  and  leaves  that  somewhat  resemble  the  locust.  It  is  most  conspicuous 
when  bearing  the  large  club-like  pods  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  long  and  an  inch 
or  more  in  diameter.  Another  species  known  locally  as  the  "])ink  shower"  re- 
sembles the  latter  in  many  ways,  but  has  the  pods  divided  ofl'  with  transverse 
diaphragms  separating  the  seeds  which  are  embedded  in  pulj).  In  this  species^ 
each  seed  is  enclosed  in  a  tiny  pillbox-shaped  case,  the  seeds  lying  collectively 
in  the  pod  like  so  many  coins  rolled  together  in  a  case.  The  flowers  grow  in 
clusters  closely  resembling  those  of  large,  rich-colored  crabapple  blossoms  and 
surround  the  l)ough  of  the  previous  year's  groAvth.  The  tree  remains  in  full 
blossoin  ten  or  twelve  weeks  and  is  a  delight  to  all  beholders.  But  of  this  large 
genus  there  are  numerous  species  represented  in  the  introduced  flora  of  the 
islands,  many  of  them  producing  handsome  trees  and  shrubs. 

Pride  of'  India. 

The  pride  of  India.^'  also  a  second  and  smaller  species  from  Jamaica,"  l)oth 
with  delicate  lilac-colored  flowers,  are  often  called  the  "umbrella  tree."  The 
flowers  are  followed  by  a   crop  of  yellowish  berries  which  are  eaten  and  dis- 


Civitalpinia   ptdcherriina.  '  Cnxxia  fistula.  *  Cassia   nodosa.  ^  Cassia   (/raiulis. 

"  J\fetia  Azedarach.  '  Melia  seinperrirens. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANDIALS.  245 

tribiited  by  the  mynah  birds.      The  larger  species  withonl  doubt  eame  orig-in;ill\- 
from  India,  but  has  been  extensively  planted  in  warm  climates  everywhere. 

The  tamarind/'*  a  name  which,  by  the  way,  is  derived  from  the  Arabic  mean- 
i]iu'  "Indian  date,"  is  an  exceptionally  beautiful  and  useful  tro^jical  tree.  It 
attains  a  great  height  and  its  delicate  acacia-like  foliage  crowded  together  so 
as  to  produce  a  dense  head  makes  it  a  shade  tree  that  is  considered  by  all 
travelers  to  be  one  of  the  noblest  in  the  tropics.  It  is  probably  ;i  luilive  of  India 
or  Africa,  but  has  been  generally  introduced  in  tropical  eounlrics.  The  pods, 
numerous  and  from  three  to  six  inches  long,  coiilain  an  acid  pulp  that  in  tlie 
islands  is  made  the  base  of  a  cooling  drink  of  much  the  same  character  as  that 
made  from  lemons  or  limes.  Occasionally  the  pulp  is  also  used  in  making  a 
delicious  tamarind  butter,  but  as  a  general  rule  they  are  allowed  to  fall  to  the 
ground  or  to  be  carried  off  by  roving  children.  The  wood  is  greatly  esteemed 
in  the  manufacture  of  furniture.  It  is  3'ellowish-white,  sometimes  Avitli  ^ari- 
colored  sap  streaks,  and  is  very  hard  and  close-grained. 

The  Banian. 

The  Banian  (or  Banyan)  tree,  a  name  derived  from  the  fact  that  it  fni'uished 
shelter  for  the  open  markets  of  the  banians,  or  Hindu  merchants,  and  therefore 
literally  a  "market  place,"  is  a  common  tree  in  Honolulu.  The  family  to  which 
it  belongs  is  well  represented  in  the  gardens  and  parks  of  the  city,  there  being 
at  least  a  dozen  or  more  of  the  large  arboreal  species  that  can  be  easily  recog- 
nized, usually,  though  not  always,  by  the  pendant  aerial  roots.  The  Banians 
all  belong  to  the  great  order''  to  which  the  common  fig  i"  ;  the  Indian  ru])i)er 
plant, ^1  the  Bengal  banian  tree,^-  and  the  creeping  fig^-^  on  our  garden  walls,  as 
w^ell  as  some  six  hundred  other  similar  species  scattered  throughout  the  tropics, 
are  referred.  The  most  ornamental  plant,  perhaps,  is  the  India  rubber  plant.  But 
the  great  spread  of  the  typical  banian  tree,  which  sends  down  some  of  its 
branches  or  aerial  roots  that  in  time  take  root  in  the  soil,  is  one  ()f  the  largest 
and  most  thrifty-looking  trees  growing  in  Hawaii.  ]\Iany  of  the  felateil  s|)ecies 
have  the  same  or  similar  methods  of  reproduction. 

Pepper  Tree. 

Among  other  important  shade  trees  in  the  islands  must  he  mentione-l  the 
pepper  tree^-^  that  grows  so  extensively  throughout  California.  It  is  easily 
recognized  by  its  graceful,  swaying  branches  and  red  berry-like  clusters  of  fruits 
about  the  size  of  peppercorns,  from  whicli  resemblance  it  derives  its  po[)ular 
though  misleading  California  name. 

The  kamani,^'"'  or  tropical  almond,  often  planted  for  llie  sli.ide  ntVoi-ded  by 
its  broad,  horizontal  l)ranches  and  large,  broad  leaves,  is  ;ni  iiilrodiiced  s|)ecies 
coming  origiiuilly  from  Asia.  Before  the  leaves  fall  1liey  lak-e  on  the  brilli.-mt 
autumn  colors  common  in  cold  climates,  and  thus  add  much  to  tlieii-  i)ictures(pie 
beautv.      The  tree  is  also  known  as  tlie   Demei-ai'a   aluiond.   on   ■•iccount    of  the 


^  Tamariiulii.i  I  iidicd,  "  C  liiciuwir.  '"  /'i'ck.s-   (iirirn.  ''  F'uiix  ihslicd.  ^'- Finis  licinilKiloi.tif!. 

"^^  Ficiifi   iiiniiitii.  ^*  Schinus  Molle.  ^■'  Terminal  in   ciita  jiiiii . 


Q 
-    o 


z 

X 


>     - 


>    .:: 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS   AND   AXLMALS.  247 

edible  almond-like,  filbert-tlavored  nut  they  prodiu-e.      Tlie  nuts  iii;iy  be  eaten 
either  raw  or  roasted. 

This  tree  should  not  be  confused  with  the  native  kaiii;iui  "'  w  liirli  lias  beauti- 
ful ii'lossy,  oblong  or  ovate  leaves  and  globe-shaped  nuts  an  inch  or  more  in  dia- 
meter. This  species  is  a  splendid  ornamental  tree  that  is  believed  to  be  an  an- 
cient Hawaiian  introduction,  as  it  occurs  throughout  Polynesia  and  southern 
Asia. 

The  Wattle. 

The  black  wattle^"  and  the  silver  wattle  ^'^  have  been  cultivated  in  Hawaii 
for  nearly  half  a  century,  and  these  or  their  numerous  relatives  are  common 
in  the  city  and  constitute  the  chief  trees  planted  in  the  Tantalus  forest.  Like- 
wise the  Australian  oak  or  silk-oak,^ ^*  is  common  in  parks  and  gardens  and  is 
easily  recognized  by  its  fern-like  leaves  and  sweet-scented  golden-yellow  trusses 
of  flowers. 

Of  the  bananas  and  citrus  fruits,  and  fruiting  vines,  that  have  some  commercial 
value  and  are  grown  both  for  their  fruit  and  foliage,  we  will  say  nothing  here, 
deferring  so  engaging  a  subject  for  another  chapter.  Next  to  the  trees  in  their 
striking  ornamental  effect,  however,  are  the  numerous  species  of  vines  and  vine- 
like plants  everywhere  about  the  city.  The  property  holder  in  Honolulu  feels 
that  his  fence,  his  house,  and  his  out-buildings  are  doing  full  duly  only  when 
loaded  with  a  profusion  of  luxuriantly  flowering  vines,  and  there  are  perfect 
tangles  of  vines  and  blossoms  about  many  homes. 

BOUGAINVILLEAS. 

The  most  conspicuous  of  all  in  this  class  are  the  Bougainvilleas.  ^lagenta, 
scarlet-red  and  brick-red  are  among  the  common  forms,  and  as  to  abundance  they 
occur  in  the  order  mentioned.  Of  the  magenta  colored  species  -'^  there  are  two 
common  varieties,  one  of  which  is  an  ever-blooiner.  Throughout  the  year  this 
species  is  one  continuous  mass  of  purple,  and  is  one  of  the  most  striking  of 
the  introduced  plants.  The  salmon,  brick-red,  orange  and  scarlet  varieties  are 
to  most  people  more  pleasing  than  the  l)rilliant  magenta  species;  but  when  a 
blaze  of  color  is  required,  the  Bougainvillea  of  any  shade  will  never  be  a  disap- 
pointment. The  curious  thing  a])Out  them  is  that  it  is  not  tln'  blossoms  after 
all  that  are  so  remarkable.  An  examination  shows  that  it  is  onl.\  the  bi-aets  that 
enclose  the  inconspicuous  flowers  that  are  so  highly  colored.      All  told  there  are 


^^  Calophyllum   Inophylhnii.  ^''Acacia   decurrens.         ^^  Acacia   dcalbata.        ^«  GrevUlea   robiisla. 

-"  Bougainviilea    spcctabilis. 


Descripttox    of    Plate. 

1.  Japanese  flower  jjeddler.  2.  Night-blooming  Ccreus  (Ccrctis  triuiu/uhiris)  on  Oaliu 
College  wall.  3.  Washington  Palm  (Waslihigtonia  filifera)  ;  to  the  left  a  Royal  Palm  (Oreo- 
do.ra  ref/ia)  ;  to  the  right,  a  Date  Palm  (Phoenix  dart yli fern).  4.  Zamia  sp.  '^.  A  Banian 
tree  (Ficiis  Iiidica),  showing  the  enrious  aerial  roots.  6.  Wine  Palm  in  fruit  an.l  dower. 
7.  Tlie  :Monstera  (Manstera  deliciosa).  8.  A  Mangosteen  {Garcinia  MoreUa)  or  (iaml)oge 
tree. 


248  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

perhaps  a  half-dozen  or  more  of  these  South  American  shrubs  from  which  several 
varieties  have  been  propa<4ate(1.  Tlic  uiuue  was  ti'iven  in  honor  of  Bougain- 
ville, an  eni-ly  French  navigator. 

Allamanda. 

The  Allamanda.  with  two  or  three  species,  one  of  which -^  is  a  conspicuous 
vine  especially  eonnnon  about  verandas,  is  easily  recognized  by  its  thick,  green 
leaves  ;iii(l  large,  fragrant  yellow  flowers  that  are  always  blooming.  Another 
favorite  is  the  trumpet-creeper  or  fire-cracker  vine.--  Its  orange-red  flowers 
are  the  coloi-  of  living  flame  of  varying  shades  and  tints.  When  in  blossom 
(and  it  blossouLs  for  weeks  at  a  time),  the  green  of  its  foliage  is  often  completely 
hidden  from  view,  and  the  porch,  barn  or  out-V)uilding  over  which  it  runs  is  a 
magnificent  sliow  of  flowers. 

Other  Vines  and  Shrubs. 

A  favorite  especially  suited  to  stone  walls  and  to  some  extent  as  a  climber 
in  trees,  is  the  Bignonia  or  bird-claw  vine.--^  The  Bishop  ]\Iuseum  is  literally 
overrun  with  this  rich,  glossy-green  climber,  and  at  certain  seasons  the  beautiful 
yelliiw  blossoms  transform  its  otherwise  uninteresting  exterior  into  a  palace  of 
gold.  The  masses  of  this  flowering  vine  as  they  hang  pendant  from  the  tallest 
trees  about  the  city  produce  a  vision  of  airy,  golden  loveliness  that  lingers  long  in 
the  mind's  eye.  More  prized  perhaps  than  any  of  the  foregoing,  but  unfortu- 
nately less  common,  is  the  Stephanotis,^"^  known  as  "Kaiulani's  flower."  Its 
fragrant  white  blossoms  at  certain  seasons  transform  the  trellises  of  the  city  into 
veritable  banks  of  snow.  With  the  Stephanotis  will  often  be  seen  a  fragrant 
climber,  known  as  the  wax-plant,-"*  so  named  on  account  of  the  thick,  waxy 
leaves  and  wax-like  star-shaped  flowers. 

Here  and  there  in  old  gardens  one  sees  various  species  of  ConvolvuliLS,  giv- 
ing a  touch  of  the  familiar  morning-glory  blue  to  the  scene,  or,  with  as  much  ease 
a  dash  of  yellow  '-''  from  India  and  the  Orient.  The  pretty  climbing  Mexican 
creeper  or  mountain  rose,-"  "Rosa  de  la  jMontana  de  jNIexico,"  with  its  delicate 
sprays  of  pink  l)lossoms,  and  the  more  obscure  though  wonderfully  fragrant 
Chinese  violet  -"^  with  greenish  yellow  blossoms,  are  both  always  in  evidence. 

Several  species  of  jasmine  are  common.  The  beautiful  climbing  snow- 
white  -'•  is  a  favorite,  as  is  the  perpetually  blooming  Arabian  jasmine,^'^  with 
handsome  white  flowers  that  turn  purple  as  they  die.  The  beautiful  purple 
wreath  •■!  is  one  of  the  most  striking  of  the  rarer  climbers;  the  five-pointed 
deep-lilac  flowers  hang  in  graceful  racemes  and  come  into  full  liloom  in  Ajiril 
and  ]\Iay,  lasting  several  weeks. 

More  conspicuous  and  tro])ical  than  any  of  the  foregoing  are  the  several 
species  of  arboreal  plants  with  large  foliage  leaves,  the  number  of  which 
growing  in  Honolulu  is  too  great  to  receive  more  than  passing  notice  here.      The 


'^^  Allamanda   ratfiarfira.  --Bignonia   renasta.  -^  Bir/nonia    iini/is-rati.        -*  Stephanotis  florihinida. 

2^  Hot/a  carnosa.         -"  Ipoemoea   rhri/xi'idi's.  -~  Antif/oiion    l/'iitojiiix.  -^  Xative  name   'Pakalani.' 

^^  Jasminttm   yrandiflorum.  '^o  Jasmin  inn  Sambac.  ^^  Petrca    voluhilis. 


IXTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANBIALS.  249 

South  American  group  of  tree-loving  Pliilodeiidrovs  is  represented  by  perhaps  a 
dozen  species  that  arc  among  the  more  common  cliniijing  i)larits.  Tlicy  are 
usually  characterized  by  broad  coriaceous,  though  often  witli  divided,  leaves  ami 
are  to  be  seen  hugging  palms,  climbing  trees  and  running  over  stone  walls 
everywhere  about  the  city.  The  Monstera  delicioca,  like  tlie  foregoing,  is  a  tree- 
loving  plant  and  is  easily  recognized  by  the  enormous  dark-green  leaves  that 
are  occasionally  two  feet  in  length  and  pierced  by  curious,  large  elliptical  holes. 
The  flowers  are  small  and  betray  the  plant's  relationsliip  to  the  order  Aracece,  to 
which  great  group  the  taro  and  the  calla  lily  belong,  l)y  having  the  boat-shaped, 
creamy -colored  spathe.  The  succulent  fruit  of  coherent  berries  requires  many 
months  to  ripen.  But  it  eventually  becomes  a  fruit  a  foot  long  by  t\V(t  indies 
in  diameter,  resembling  an  ear  of  corn  in  shape  and  having  a  very  delicate 
tang  suggesting  both  the  pineapple  and  banana  in  flavor. 

The  city  abounds  in  ornamental  shrubs.  What  it  lacks  in  annual  and 
perennial  flowering  plants  is  compensated  for  by  the  gorgeous,  highly-colorcil 
and  varied  leaves  of  this  class  of  ornamental  plants. 

The  Christmas  flower,  or  poinsettia,-'-  is  recognized  by  the  stranger  in  the 
islands  from  temperate  climates  as  a  familiar  hot-house  friend.  But  instead 
of  being  a  scraggy  plant  growing  in  a  tub,  it  grows  in  Hawaii  in  the  open  and 
attains  a  height  of  fifteen  to  twenty  feet.  At  Christmas  time  it  is  most  con- 
spicuous, lighting  up  the  city  with  the  splendid  scarlet-red  of  the  flowers,  though 
the  so-called  flowers  are  in  reality  a  cluster  of  large  leaf-like  bracts  that  sur- 
round the  small  insignificant  blossoms.  A  white  variety  is  also  occasionally 
seeu  about  the  city. 

The  ])oinsettia  belongs  to  the  great  tribe  of  euphorbias  and  has  a  white  milk- 
like juice.  The  genus  was  named  as  long  ago  as  1828  for  the  ITon.  J.  R.  Poinsett, 
an  American  minister  to  Mexico,  who  discovered  the  common  species  now  in 
cultivation,  growing  wild  in  that  country. 

Of  recent  years  the  beautiful  Ixora  has  found  much  favor  as  a  Christmas 
flower  owing  to  its  large,  showy  clusters  of  bright-red  blossoms  and  large 
glossy-green  leaves.  The  plants,  however,  do  not  confine  their  flowers  to  the 
holiday  season  but  generally  extend  their  Christmas  cheer  througliout  the  year. 
The  species  most  common  in  Honolulu  is  a  member  of  the  typical  genus  in  the 
tribe  Ixorem  which  belongs  to  the  larger  order  Ruhiacca\  to  which  the  cott'ee  plant 
belongs.  The  generic  name  Ixora  is  given  as  the  name  of  a  IMalabai-  deity  to 
whom  the  flowers  are  ofi'ered  in  their  native  country.  A  mnnhei-  of  llie  hundred 
or  more  species  belonging  to  the  typical  genus  are  occasionally  met  with  in  hot- 
house collections  in  Europe  and  America,  but  in  the  eongtMiial  climate  of  Hawaii 
they  thrive  with  but  little  care,  forming  one  of  oui-  nidst  attractive  and  con- 
spicuous garden  shrubs. 

The  crotons  of  the  floriculturist,  so  extensively  ^i-own  as  foliaL^c  i)hin1s  in 
Hawaii,  are  not  crotons  at  all  but  C^odiaeums,  and  like  the  foregoing,  belong  to  the 
great  order  Euphorbiacece.      The  word  Codiaeum  is  of  Malayan  origin,  and  it  is 


'-  Euphorbia   pulclicrriiiia. 

17 


i:  -;  a! 


X 


5  a) 


^    §  !■§ 


—       ?    ^  Oi 


C 

z 


2i 


■^  ^^ 

^  ffi  e 
'?  '5  Sj 


CO  2  V  => 

C  si  i:  ^ 

%  Iss 

2  ^'-"■^ 


PC 


p 

^ 


(Vj     ^  •** 

G 

^"  4)  e 

^  S  t 

^^  g 

Oh        2 


IXTRODlTCP]D  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS.  251 

from  there  the  single  speeies  with  tlir(M>  well-marked  varieties  have  been  dis- 
tributed all  over  the  wor-ld  to  he  (ieveloi)e(l  into  moi-e  tluiii  ;i  hnndi-ed  cultivjited 
forms  and  sub-varieties.  Whih-  most  of  llic  I'oriiis  have  been  Liixcn  iiatncs,  1  hi; 
practice  among'  botanists  is  to  regard  thejn  all  as  l)eloiigiiiL;  to  one  species. •••'■  A 
majority  of  the  best  known  forms  may  be  found  growiiig  in  lloiKtlnlii  gardens. 

These  l)eai!ti1'ul  plants,  with  their  many  forms  of  odd  and  handsome  foliage 
of  the  most  brilliant  coloring,  are  to  l)e  seen  in  [)r()fusion  everywhcM-e  The  colors 
range  from  almost  pure  white  to  light  and  deep  yellow,  orange-pink,  i-ed-crimson, 
and  all  these  joined  in  the  most  remarkal)]e  combinations.  In  some  cases  one 
color  predominates,  in  others  every  possible  combination  is  represented.  Hut  a 
close  study  of  the  form  of  the  leaves  will  demonstrate  that  three  i)rincipal  types 
exist,  namely,  those  with  ovate,  short-stalked  leaves,  those  with  narrow  and 
spatulate  leaves,  and  those  with  narrow  and  often  cork-screw  twisted  leaves. 
Plant(Yl  in  clumps  and  masses  the  effect  produced  by  the  comliination  of  their 
rich  coloi's  is  charming.  l^lwv  are  often  used  to  advantage  as  hediii^s  and  are 
made  in  one  way  or  another  to  give  color  to  almost  every  lawn. 

The  garden  varieties  of  Coleus  are  also  a  legion,  and  many  of  them  or  their 
near  generic  relatives  thrive  in  the  city  and  occasionally  escape,  as  cm  Hawaii, 
into  the  wooded  stretches  along  the  roads  and  lanes.  A  very  deep-red,  large- 
leafed  foliage  plant  of  this  family  is  in  general  favor.  It  is  planted  in  rows  to 
form  hedges  about  gardens  and  is  wonderfully  varigated  in  foliage. 

Hedge  Plants. 

The  hedge  plant  that  is  most  conspicuous  and,  happily.  tli<^  most  com- 
mon in  Hawaii  is  the  Hibiscus.  Of  this  splendid  shrub  about  si.x;  forms  and  in- 
numerable varieties  are  in  general  cultivation.  Of  tlu'  common  varieties,  miles 
and  miles  of  hedges  have  been  made.  These  are  among  the  lirst  objects  to  attract 
the  attention  of  tourists  and  visitors,  and  one  never  tires  of  the  display  of  blos- 
soms of  all  sizes  and  colors  that  line  the  street.  There  are  at  least  four  native 
species,  two  or  more  of  which  have  been  cultivated  to  some  extent  by  Hibiscus 
enthusiasts.  Much  has  l3een  done  here  and  elsewhere  along  the  line  of  producing 
new  varieties  by  cross-breeding,  so  that  every  color  from  white,  yellow,  salmon 
to  deep  red,  in  double  and  single  blossoms,  are  abtuidant.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
this  splendid  shrub  may  become  so  populai'  as  to  be  regularly  adopted  as  tin' 
"City  Flower"  of  Honolulu.  As  the  hedges  of  scai'let  and  |>iiik  Hibiscus  ai'e  ev<'r 
a  delight  to  the  eye  a  keen  rivalry  ma>'  well  develop  among  househoUlers  in  the 
production  of  rare  forms,  since  new  varieties  are  easily  prodn.ced  by  cross 
pollenization. 

Ki. 

A  plant  that  is  common  in  the  mountains  and  is  often  planted  in  hedges  is 
the  ki  •'+  plant,  the  Draciena,  or  more  pi'operly  the  ("oi-dyliiie  of  boiainsts.  TIkmv 
are  several  cultivated  varieties,  especially  one  with  wine-i-eil  leaves  that  ai-c  coin- 


'•'■' Codia'iinis   rariri/ntinii .  ^*  Citnliiliiu'    ti>niniintif!. 


252  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

moil  ill  Huiiululu  gardens.  The  natives  find  many  uses  for  it  that  must  be  men- 
tioned elsewhere.  Its  leaves  are  articles  of  daily  use,  however,  especially  as  a 
wrapping  for  fresh  fish  in  the  markets. 

Still  another  shrub  that  is  a  favorite  for  hedges  in  the  city  is  the  beautifully 
variegated  FJiijIhnilli us  rosio-pictus.  The  leaves  are  small,  alternate,  and  entire 
in  two  rows  on  small  branchlets,  so  that  they  appear  like  pinnate  leaves.  They 
vary  in  color,  being  variously  mottled  with  pink  and  red  as  well  as  with  white 
and  green. 

]\Iost  of  Hawaii's  visitors  who  come  from  northern  climes  for  their  first  visit 
to  the  tropics  are  greatly  surprised  to  find  the  Oleander,^^  variously  called  rose- 
bay,  rose-laurel  or  South  Sea  rose,  growing  in  beautiful  ever-blooming  hedges 
ten  to  twenty  feet  in  height.  This  old-fashioned  evergreen  shrub,  so  common  as  a 
hot-house  pant,  flourishes  here  with  but  little  care  and  blossoms  in  various 
shades  of  pink,  white  and  cream  color.  It  is  not  generally  known  that  all  parts 
of  the  Oleander  are  poisonous,  and  that  there  are  authentic  records  of  people 
who  have  died  ^rom  eating  the  flowers ;  death  has  also  occurred  from  using  its 
wood  as  skewers  in  cooking  meat. 

A  beautiful  tree  frequenty  seen  in  gardens  about  the  islands  is  locally 
known  as  the  "bestill-tree,"  owing  to  the  fact  that  its  large,  slender,  daintily 
poised,  shining  green  leaves  are  set  in  motion  by  the  slightest  breeze.  It  is  also 
called  the  yellow  Oleander,  on  account  of  its  golden,  funnel-shaped  flowers  that 
are  further  characterized  by  having  the  edge  of  the  corolla  made  up  of  a  series 
of  over-lapping  lobes.  The  flowers  and  the  foliage  suggest  the  typical  Oleander — 
to  which  it  is  distantly  related — and  makes  the  name  not  inappropriate  even 
though  it  is  not  a  true  Neruim.  This  common  species  (Thcveia  neyiifolia)  is  else- 
where known  as  the  quashy-quasher,  and  is  widely  distributed  in  the  tropics, 
particularly  in  the  West  Indies  and  tropical  America.  The  wood  is  hard  and 
even-grained,  and  its  seeds  yield  the  fixed  oil  called  exile-oil.  The  genus  belongs 
to  the  great  order  Apocynacece,  which  includes  in  its  numerous  tribes  such  well- 
known  and  widely-differing  ornamental  i)lants  as  the  Vinca,  Oleander,  Alla- 
manda,  and  the  Plumieria. 

Pandanus. 

Several  species  of  Pandanus  or  screw-pine  are  found  growing,  in  old  gar- 
dens, some  forms  attaining  great  size.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  stilt-like 
aerial  roots,  and  the  perfect  spiral  arrangement  of  their  long  sword-like  leaves, 
which  are  held  aloft  on  a  few  scarred,  naked  branches.  The  aerial  roots  gradu- 
ally lift  the  trunk  out  of  the  ground,  but  at  the  same  time  anchor  it  firmly  in  all 
directions.  Two  species  are  common,  one  of  which  is  a  variegated  form.  There 
is  not  space  here  to  go  deeply  into  the  question  of  varieties,  for  there  are  as  many 
as  fifty  species  known  and  many  of  them  are  in  cultivation  in  Honolulu  gardens. 

The  splendid  specimens   of   Hercules'   club,   or   angelica  tree,^*^   commonly 


35  A'ertMm   Oleander.  '"'^  Aralia   spinosa. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS.  253 

called  Aralia,  are  often  among  the  more  showy  pliiiits  about  lioiiscs  atul  (ni  Imwiis. 
Another  species^"  has  white  margins  to  all  the  leaves  and  is  much  esteemed  and 
used  as  a  quick-growing  hedge.  The  cjuidicd  lo;if-st;ilks  of  angelica  are  not  an 
uncommon  confection. 

The  Plumeria -^'^  is  a  favorite,  especially  with  the  natives,  and  few  of  their 
gardens  are  without  one  or  more  of  these  curious  plants.  Pt-om  the  white-and- 
yellow  flowers  they  are  accustomed  to  make  leis  (wreaths)  that  i-ival  in  sweetness 
the  jasmine  or  the  tuberose.  Though  they  may  be  unsightly  in  appearance 
for  a  month  or  two,  when  the  leaves  drop  from  their  thick,  club-like  stems,  they 
make  ample  atonement  for  this  defect  during  the  rest  oi  the  year  when  they  are 
bedecked  with  a  profusion  of  rich-colored,  star-shaped,  sweet-scented  blossoms. 
The  genus  was  named  for  a  celebrated  French  botanist,  Charles  Plumier,  and 
includes  about  forty  species,  three  or  four  of  which  are  grown  in  Hawaii. 

Ferns. 

Although  ferns  abound  in  every  garden,  there  are  but  few  that  belong  to 
the  native  flora.  Perhaps  the  curious  bird's-nest  fern^^  or  ekaha,  is  the  most 
conspicuous  of  this  class.  It  stands  out  boldly  against  the  background,  formed 
by  the  trunk  of  the  tree  in  the  fork  of  M^hich  it  is  established  and  is  often  five  or 
six  feet  in  diameter  aross  the  curious  whirl  of  paddle-shaped  leaves.  It  grows 
naturally  in  the  mountains,  but  stands  transplanting  in  tubs  and  rockeries  in 
the  city.  The  tree  ferns  which  abound  in  the  native  forests  are  seldom  seen 
in  the  city.  They  do  not  thrive  in  the  drier  climate  of  the  lower  zone.  This  is 
unfortunate  as  nothing  in  the  native  flora  could  be  more  ornamental.  Owing  to 
the  difficulties  encountered  in  growing  native  mountain  ferns  the  town  gardener 
has  come  to  depend  to  a  large  extent  on  the  hardy  fish-tail  or  Boston  fern  ^'^ 
and  everywhere,  in  the  ground,  in  pots  and  hanging  baskets  this  species 
thrives.  The  beautiful,  graceful,  dark-green,  always  fresh  looking,  maile-scented 
Staghorn  fern  {GleicJienia  longissima),  a  favorite  for  hanging  ))askets  or  rock- 
eries, is  a  vigorous  grower  in  the  low  altitudes,  and  prevents  the  fishtail  from 
having  an  apparent  monopoly  of  this  style  of  ornamentation.  But  in  hot-houses, 
where  the  amount  of  moisture  and  sunlight  are  more  easily  regulated,  a  profusion 
of  rare  and  beautifully  delicate  ferns  are  grown  that  ai-e  the  source  of  just 
pride  among  growers  and  furnish  the  basis  for  much  rivali-y  among  tlie  inhabi- 
tants of  Honolulu.  Some  of  the  larger  collections  have  scores  of  species  repre- 
sented, among  them  some  of  the  most  delicate,  as  well  as  the  largest  and  most 
showy  forms  known. 

Coming  to  the  garden  flowers,  the  visitoi-  is  usually  doomed  to  disiippnint- 
ment.  Although  almost  any  of  the  flowers  in  general  ciillixation  elsewliei'(>  will 
grow  with  little  care  and  many  of  them  thrive  here,  it  is  the  exception  to  tiud  a 
yard  in  which  any  attempt  is  made  to  have  a  flo\ver-])ed  of  annuals,  nuu'h  less 
an  old-fashioned  flower  garden.  In  place  of  flowering  ])lants  l)ordering  the  drive- 
ways, foliage  plants  and  ferns  are  (piite  coninK)nly  substituted.     Occasionally, 


^'Aralia  Guilfoylei.  ^'^  PUniteria  acutifolia.  ^^  Aspletiiiiia   itidiis.  *"  Xcphrolrpis  exaltata. 


254  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

howevei".  tlowers  are  planted,  hut  usually  sueh  hardy  lilouniers  as  Aviiite  and  pink 
Vinca  ^'  will  have  their  place  about  the  base  of  a  palm  tree  or  by  the  garden 
wall,  and  likewise  the  beautiful  l)hie  phlox-like  leadwort  ■*-  will  be  seen,  but  as  a 
rule  the  flowfrs  lliat  one  sees  are  sueh  as  require  little  eare  and  are  perennials. 
As  thei'e  is  abundant  color  in  the  Howi^ring  trees  and  shrubs  one  does  not  miss 
the  old-fashioned  tiowers  as  nnicli  as  otherwise  would  be  the  case. 

The  old-fasliioned  four  o'clock  ^-^  is  a  familiar  tlower  so  long-  established  in 
ilawjiii.  1ha1.  in  favoi-able  situations,  it  has  escaped  and  grows  by  the  roadside, 
'i'hey  ai-e  handsome,  branching  herbs  nitli  o|>posite  leaves,  the  lower  ])etiolate, 
the  uppcn-  sessile,  and  with  quite  large,  often  fragrant,  tiowers  which  are  white, 
scarlet,  or  variegated.  There  are  perhaps  a  dozen  other  species  that  are  native 
to  the  warmer  parts  of  America,  a  few  of  which  are  occasionally  cultivated,  but 
the  common  four-o'clock,  or  marvel  of  Peru,  is  the  one  usually  seen.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  fact  that  the  tiowers  open  daily  in  the  late  afternoon. 

Occasionally  the  curious  sprouting-leaf  ])lant.  or  "air"  plant. "^-^  will  be  seen 
in  some  neglected  corner,  and  will  be  identitied  as  a  l)egonia-like  plant  that  may 
be  propagated  by  leaf  cuttings.  In  fact,  if  one  of  the  thick,  fleshy  leaves  is 
pinned  to  the  wall,  little  i)lants  will  spring  up  from  the  notches  on  the  edge  of 
the  leaf. 

XlGIIT-BLOOMING    C'eREUS. 

It  would  not  do  to  draw  this  long  chaptm-  to  a  close  without  mention  of  the 
wonderful  blooms  of  the  night-blooming  Cereus.^^  Likely  as  not  fragments  have 
been  carelessly  piled  on  the  stone  fence  at  the  bottom  of  the  garden  where  they 
have  grown  unnoticed  until  they  have  transformed  an  unsightly  fence  into 
the  semblance  of  a  sprawding  evergreen  hedge.  At  intervals  of  not  more 
than  a  few  weeks,  especially  during  the  summer,  it  clothes  its  ungainly,  fleshy, 
trianuular  stems  with  giant  creamy-white,  lily-like  blossoms  a  foot  or  more 
in  diameter.  Few  there  are  who  have  visited  Honolulu  and  not  been  delighted 
by  the  famous  cactus  hedge  at  Punahou  Academy.  On  the  wall  about  the  campus 
is  a  continuous  stretch  of  Cereus,  five  or  six  hundred  yards  in  length,  on  which 
thousands  of  these  great  flow^ers  may  be  seen  in  blossom  each  year.  They  open 
soon  after  the  sun  goes  down  and  remain  in  full  bloom  during  the  night.  But 
by  nine  o'clock  of  the  following  day  the  glory  of  the  night  before  will  have  de- 
parted, although  the  following  night  belated  blossoms  will  somewhat  restore  it. 
Fortunate,  indeed,  is  the  visitor  whose  'ramble  in  a  Honolulu  garden"  has  been 
so  timed  that  he  may  l)e  present  at  the  "Cereus  season,"  since  the  occasion  is 
without  doubt  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  wonderful  of  the  city's  many 
fioral  exhibitions.  The  night-blooiuing  Cereus  is  a  wonderful  climber;  it  has 
clambered  high  into  many  large  algaroba  trees  in  Honolulu,  its  magnificent 
blossoms  tantalizing  beholders  by  being  out  of  reach. 


"Vinca  rosea.  *~  Plumboi/o   Capcnsis.  *'■'  Mirnl/ilis   Jaliiim.         *■>  liriio/ilnilliiiii   riihiciiniin. 

*^  Cereiis  triangvlnris. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS.  255 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

TROPICAL   FRUITS   IN   HAWAII. 

Until  recently  the  brains  and  energy  of  the  people  in  ILiwaii  liave  been  so 
centered  on  developiiiL''  the  mure  profitable  field  (•ro])s.  that  hiii  lilth'  systematic 
effort  has  becMi  i)ut  forth  towards  the  iiiti'odiiclioii  and  cull  ixjiliini  of  edible 
frnits.  NIevertheless  many  delicious  fruits  are  found  iirowiuu  in  llic  isliiuds 
in  l)oth  a  wild  and  cultivated  state.  In  much  the  snmc  \\;\y  iliat  we  compare 
Honolulu  to  a  botanical  garden,  by  reason  of  the  number  and  variety  of  its 
ornamental  jdants,  we  may  compare  Hawaii  to  a  great  unkempt  experimental 
orchard. 

Native  and  Introduced  Fruits. 

]\Iany  rare,  curious  and  toothsome  frnits  have  been  brought  to  Hawaii  from 
the  ends  of  the  earth  in  times  past  by  fruit  lovers.  But,  unfortunately,  they 
have  too  often  been  planted  i»ut  among  ornamental  plants,  in  out-uf-the-way 
places  or  left  in  neglected  corners  to  shift  for  themselves.  With  few  excep- 
tions such  plantings  have  not  materially  advanced  the  cause  of  fruit-growing 
more  than  to  help  demonstrate  that  a  long  list  of  worthy  fruits  will  gi-ow  in 
Hawaii  almost  without  attention. 

jMany  native-grown  species  of  our  most  common  fruits  are  seldom,  if  ever, 
seen  in  the  markets  of  Plonolulu,  while  the  great  majority  of  the  list  of  island 
species  are  to  be  seen  only  in  the  private  grounds  of  the  older  residents.  Although 
it  is  true  that  most  of  the  varieties  as  yet  have  a  greater  ornamental  than  com- 
mercial value,  a  few,  as  the  pineapple  and  the  banana,  are  extensively  culti- 
vated. Their  production  has  come  to  be  important  industries.  It  is  to  a  brief 
review  of  some  of  the  more  interesting  and  important  of  the  island  fruits,  both 
native  and  introduced,  that  this  chapter  is  devoted. 

Botanists  tell  us  that  the  islands  at  the  time  of  their  settlement  ])y  the 
aborigines  had  few  native  indigenous  fruits.  The  Chilian  strawberry  ^  has 
long  flourished  on  the  high  mountains  of  Hawaii  and  East  Maui  at  an  elevation 
of  from  four  to  six  thousand  feet.  The  natives  have  always  held  tliis  small 
though  delicious  berry  in  high  esteem  under  the  name  ohelo  papa.  It  seldom 
reaches  the  market,  but  from  May  to  September  it  is  abundant;  on  Hawaii  it  is 
one  of  the  principal  articles  of  food  for  the  Hawaiian  goose.  Thei-e  are  several 
cultivated  species  of  better  quality  that  find  their  way  to  market.  Strawberries 
do  not  thrive  well  at  seadevel.  but  prefer  the  higher  and  coolei-  regions.  As  a 
result  they  are  gro^\^l  in  beds  in  Nuuanu  Valley,  at  AVahiawa  and  elsewhere, 
where  conditions  are  favorable.  By  changing  the  elevation,  moisture  and  soil 
conditions,  an  extended  period  of  bearing  is  secured.  As  a  mattei'  of  fact,  if 
they  were  more  skilfully  handled,  fresh  strawberries  could  be  grown  for  tlie 
market  every  day  in  the  year.  As  it  is  there  is  not  moi-c  than  a  month  or  so 
when  fresh  fruit  cannot  be  secured. 


1  Vrcn/arlfi   Cliilcrtsis. 


256  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAAVAII. 

Native  Raspberries. 

There  are  at  least  three,  and  probably  more  species  of  the  native  raspberry, 
or  akala.  They  prefer  the  high  altitudes  and  have  been  found  growing 
on  all  of  the  high  islands  with  the  exception  of  Oahu.  In  the  deep  woods  on 
Molokai,  at  the  head  of  Pelekunu  Valley,  I  have  found  the  spineless  Hawaiian 
raspberry  -  growing  under  ideal  wild  conditions,  as  a  perennial,  attaining  a 
height  of  twelve  to  fifteen  feet,  with  stems  three  or  more  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  ground.  AVhile  the  fruit  is  neither  abundant  nor  of  especially  good  quality, 
the  few  berries  that  it  produces  are  of  large  size  and  attractive  appearance. 
The  species  is  worthy  of  propagation  by  horticulturists,  on  account  of  the  im- 
portant characteristics  possessed  by  it  that  might  be  developed  through  cross- 
fertilization. 

In  the  mountains  of  Hawaii  and  Maui  is  found  a  low-spreading,  prostrate 
shrub  with  long,  stiff,  trailing  branches  that  bear  round,  black  fruit  about  a 
half  inch  in  diameter  known  to  the  natives  as  kukui  neenee.^  The  fruit  is  not 
pleasant  to  the  taste,  but  the  wild  Hawaiian  goose  feeds  voraciously  upon  it. 
They  are  common  in  the  open  country  about  the  Volcano  House. 

The  Ohelo. 

Of  more  importance  and  general  interest  than  the  foregoing  are  the  beauti- 
ful and  delicious  ohelo  berries  ■*  found  especially  abundant  about  Kilauea.  They 
belong  in  the  same  genus  with  the  familiar  bog-cranberry  of  commerce.  The 
berry  is  like  tlie  cranberry  in  size,  shape  and  color.  It  is  slightly  astringent, 
but  not  enough  to  render  it  unpleasant  to  the  taste,  when  eaten  out  of  the  hand. 
It  also  makes  excellent  pies  and  preserves,  and  being  a  very  prolific  bearer  is 
worthy  of  attention  by  those  interested  in  the  production  of  new  fruits.  The 
berries  vary  greatly  in  color  from  almost  white,  through  various  shades  of  yel- 
low and  red  to  almost  purple,  and  are  covered  with  a  waxy  bloom.  They  grow 
crowded  together  along  the  branching  stems  of  the  low  erect  shrub,  which  at- 
tains a  height  of  from  one  to  two  feet.  The  bush  grows  more  or  less  in  patches, 
often  covering  considerable  areas.  In  former  times  it  was  used  as  a  propitiatory 
offering  to  the  goddess  Pele,  and  a  century  ago  no  Hawaiian  would  approach 
her  abode  without  first  making  a  suitable  offering  of  these  berries  to  the  far- 
famed  goddess  of  the  volcano.  The  Hawaiian  islands  have  two  distinct  species 
and  several  recognized  varieties,  though  the  berries  of  the  taller  species,  fairly 
common  in  the  highest  mountains  of  the  different  islands  of  the  group,  are 
seldom  eaten. 

Mountain  Apples. 

An  important  native  fruit  tree,  or  at  least  one  that  must  be  considered  as 
of  early  native  introduction,  is  the  mountain  apple,  or  ohia  ai.^  The  tree  attains 
a  height  of  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  feet,  and  usually  forms  a  clump  or  grove 

-  Rub'is  Macrtvi.  '  Coprosoma   ernodeoides.  *  Yaccinium    reticuhitiim. 

^  Jarnhosa  =  (Eugenia)   Malncrfrtsis. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS. 


Zr/ 


along  the  streams.  In  the  forest  they  jirc  easily  reeognizcil  ])\-  Wa-'w  (hirk-oTeen 
leaves  and  waxy-red  or  deep-erimson  fruits,  wliich  are  as  large  as  apples  and 
are  borne  twice  a  year  in  great  profusion.  In  the  market  the  fi'iiit  is  of  sm-li 
attractive  appearance  that  the  watery,  insipid  tiavor  comes  at  lii'st  as  a  disap- 
pointment; however,  the  curious  cooling  property  of  tlie  i'l'iiit  eompeiisates  for 
what  it  lacks  in  flavor.  It  bruises  easily  in  liaiulliim'  and  is  but  little  used, 
except  occasionally  in  making  sweet  pickles.  The  tree  occurs  on  all  the  lai-ger 
islands  of  the  Pacific  and  is  highly  esteemed  by  the  natives  for  its  fruit.  The 
fragrant  flowers  were  formally  the  favorite  haunts  of  several  of  the  native  birds, 
which  were  caught  in  the  branches  by  the  use  of  l)ird  lime.  While  the  tree 
grows  here  and  there  in  the  city  of  Honolulu,  it  is  by  uo  nutans  cmiimon,  and 
must  be  seen  in  its  native  habitat  to  be  appreciated  at  its  full  worth  as  a  forest 
tree. 

PoiiA. 

The  poha,  cape  gooseberry,  or  ground  cherry,''  is  a  spreading  shrub  belong- 
ing to  the  great  tomato  family.  It  ])ears  yellow  berries  in  a  bladder-like  calyx, 
and  grows  quite  common  on  mountain  slopes  throughout  the  group,  especially  on 
Hawaii  and  ]\raui.  The  fruit  is  edible,  has  a  pleasant  flavor  ami  when  cooked 
makes  an  excellent  jam.  In  this  form  it  has  established  a  place  for  itself  in 
Hawaii  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  preserves.  It  is  only  occasionally  seen  in  the 
market  in  the  raw  state,  and  as  it  is  mostly  gathered  from  the  wild  plants,  it  is 
usually  high  in  price.  The  plant  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Brazil,  but  has  long 
been  naturalized  in  Hawaii.  As  it  is  only  one  of  some  thirty  or  more  known 
species,  it  is  (piite  possible  that  it  would  be  worth  while  to  introduce  other  species 
for  cultivation. 

Baxanas. 

The  banana  is  a  conspicuous  and  valuable  plant  everywhere  in  the  tropics. 
The  striking  bunches  of  fruit,  and  its  broad,  bright-green  leaves  occupy  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  ornamental  foliage  about  almost  every  home  in  Hawaii.  The 
banana  is  important  among  the  commercial  fruit-bearing  plants  of  the  islands. 
If  we  accept  the  broadest  use  of  the  term,  the  word  banana  includes  all  of  the 
species  and  innumerable  varieties  of  the  genus  Musa.  This  genus,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  been  named  for  Antonius  IMusa,  a  physician  to  Augu.stus  the 
Great,  belongs  to  the  order  Scitaminacea',  to  which  also  belong  several  genera, 
including  many  well-known  plants  found  growing  in  Honolulu  gardens — such 
conspicuous  ornamental  plants  as  the  travel(M-'s  palm  or  ti-avelei-'s  tree/  the 
Canna  and  ginger^  being  among  them.  The  original  Ikuhc  of  the  banana  is 
thought  to  have  l)een  southern  Asia.  I)()ul)tless  it  has  liceii  long  ages  undei* 
cultivation,  and  in  very  early  times  found  its  way  into  l*ol.\  lu^sia.  Fm-  this 
reason  it  is  thought  that  the  wild,  or  native  banana,  or  niaia.  fonnd  growing 
everywhere  in  the  mountain  vallevs,  even   in   the  most    remote  disti-iets  of  tlie 


^  Physalis  Peruviann.  '•  Ravennla    M(u!(i<j(isc<iricnsin.  ^  Zingiber. 


r'v.K 

p^^' 

'*^'n 

■y-i^ 

^' 

■  V    ■!••« 

r 

■  S''JUl 

■■■  ■■:: 

y; 

, 

*--■- 

r 

K5 

SHS^ 

■NBBffiitJ-'' ' 

rJ-.v.':  ^ 

J     '^ 

vse 

W^M 

^ 

•^         s 

*  ^^I'-ii 

'< 

i^MIr 

^ 

«  o 

O    &J0 

O    c3 
'^  kij  '— \ 

o     .  a 
".So 

rS;     3  PL 


0^ 


Q 

Eh 
> 


03 


CO 

m 


■  00 


(M 


6    § 


=c 


e 


IS? 

CO  I — ^    -^ 

s  =^  S 

S   01   s 

*  >r  ^ 


03 


0)  £ 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AM)  ANIMALS.  259 

group,  are  all  of  very  early  Hawaiian  iiitroduction  from  the  islands  to  llic 
south  of  the  Ecjuator.  The  natives  know  as  many  as  twenty-five  and  ptrluips 
fifty  varieties  of  so-called  wild  bananas,  having  a  name  for  each,  Ijut  as  the 
same  fruit  is  known  l\v  different  names  on  different  islands,  many  names  dis- 
appear as  synonyms.  It  has  been  found  that  three  main  groups  or  types  can  be 
recognized.  But  the  native  nomenclature  will  doubtless  withslaiid  the  attacks 
that  may  be  made  upon  it  by  the  systematic  botanist  and  hortit-ulturist,  and  as  a 
consequence,  the  more  important  and  striking  forms  will  long  continue  to  be 
recognized,  in  the  markets  at  least,  by  their  native  names. 

While  the  original  i)lants  were  doubtless  set  out  well  up  in  tlie  mountain 
valleys,  in  sheltered,  moist,  well-drained  places,  by  the  native  planters,  they  are 
now  distributed  along  the  streams.  In  certain  sections  peculiai'  forms  are 
common,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  new  varieties  have  been  originated  in  the 
islands  by  the  natives  through  intelligent  selection,  or  by  isolation,  or  from 
other  causes.  The  koae,  for  example,  is  a  striped  variety,  having  the  fruit  and 
leaves  variegated  with  pale  and  dark  green,  that  is  said  by  some  to  have  origi- 
nated in  Kona,  Hawaii,  and  to  have  been  brought  from  there  to  Honolulu  for 
ornamental  purposes.  The  oa  is  striped,  reddish  and  green,  and  like  the  variety 
just  mentioned  is  also  said  to  have  originated  in  Kona.  Other  interesting  varie- 
ties of  possible  local  origin  are  the  poni,  or  blac.k-trunked  banana,  the  rose,  and 
the  sweet-scented  varieties. 

Among  Europeans  the  nomenclature  of  the  banana  is  in  an  uncertain  state. 
The  same  varieties  have  different  names  in  each  country  where  grown ;  even  the 
class  terms,  plantain  and  banana,  are  used  with  varying  meanings.  In  some 
localities  the  plantain  is  understood  to  mean  almost  all  the  edible  species,  while 
in  other  localities  banana  has  an  equally  wide  an<l  uncertain  application.  It  is 
urged  that  the  better  usage  is  to  reserve  the  term  {)lantain  for  the  varieties  that 
can  only  be  eaten  after  they  have  been  cooked.  Since  it  is  the  custom  to  recognize 
two  kinds  of  bananas,  namely,  cooking  and  eating,  the  two  terms,  used  so  far 
as  possible  as  above,  would  be  generally  useful. 

In  addition  to  the  many  excellent  native  varieties  that  arc  to  bi'  had  in  llic 
local  market,  there  are  a  number  of  introduced  species  and  varieties  which, 
though  they  stand  liigh,  are  of  but  little  commercial  importance,  as  they  will 
not  stand  packing  and  shipping.  This  eh-iss  includes  some  of  oui'  Ix'st  talile 
bananas;  the  Brazilian,  the  apple,  the  largo,  the  kusaie.  and  a  hnig  list  of 
other  less  common  ones  should  be  mentioned  as  among  the  nioi'c  important. 
Of  the  native  varieties  the  iholena  and  lele  ai-e  considered  as  the  choicest  vai'ie- 
ties  for  both  cooking  and  eating. 

The  most  important  commercial  varieties  are  tlie  rhines(>  or  Cavendish,^ 
the  Jamaica,  IMartinique  or  Bluefield.  and  the  red  S|)anish  or  Jamaica  red.  The 
latter  is  sold  in  the  fruit  stalls  as  a  fancy  variety.  The  Bluefield.  whi<'li  takes 
its  name  from  the  principal  jiorf  from  which  the  vai'iety  is  shippt'd  into  the 
United  States,  was  introduced  into   Hawaii   in    l!H»o  and  lias  been  fast  winning 


"  Miisa   Cavendixhii. 


260  NATURAL   PIISTORY    OF   HAWAII. 

favor  amouiz'  the  more  intelligent  growers,  as  it  sells  in  the  market  at  about 
one-third  more  per  luuicli  than  does  the  coinnion  Chinese  variety.  Its  fruit  has  a 
tough,  slow-ripening,  golden-yellow  skin,  and  the  hands,  or  clusters,  grow  in 
large,  very  compactly-arranged  bunches. 

The  Chinese  variety  was  introduced  into  the  islands  from  Tahiti  about 
1855,  and  has  long  been  the  leading  commercial  banana.  It  is  characterized 
by  its  low  growth  and  large  bunches  of  yellow  fruit  of  fine  flavor  and  g:ood 
keeping  qualities.  Only  a  single  bunch  is  produced  by  a  plant.  The  fruit 
ripens  at  all  seasons,  retiuiring,  in  low  levels,  ten  to  twelve  months  for  the 
bunch  to  mature ;  in  higher  elevations,  twelve  to  eighteen  months. 

It  has  been  found  that  an  acre  of  good  ground  under  favorable  conditions, 
well  watered  and  tilled,  will  produce  in  a  year  1,200  bunches  of  bananas  weigh- 
ing sixty  pounds  each.  While  dried  banana  and  "banana  flour"  is  prepared 
from  the  fruit  elsewhere,  the  common  varieties  in  Hawaii  have  never  been  ex- 
tensively used  in  this  way. 

Of  the  various  cooking  plantains  very  little  is  known  outside  of  the  tropics. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  when  the  value  of  the  plantain  becomes  more  generally 
known  as  a  winter  substitute  for  vegetables,  its  export  from  Hawaii  will  ma- 
terially increase. 

As  is  generally  known,  the  varieties  of  bananas  most  useful  to  man  seldom 
if  ever  reproduce  from  seed.  They  increase  from  suckers  that  spring  up  about 
the  base  of  the  plant.  If  allowed  to  grow  undisturbed  a  single  plant  will  soon 
develop  a  considerable  clump,  which  may  be  divided  and  transplanted  as  desired. 

The  leaves  are  interesting,  as  the  parallel  veins  stand  at  right  angles  to  the 
mid-rib  and  are  joined  together  to  form  the  broad  leaf.  Heavy  winds  in  many 
places  tear  the  large  leaves  into  shreds,  hence  a  sheltered  location  is  usually 
selected  for  the  cultivation  of  the  fruit. 

The  flower  of  the  banana  is  somewhat  unusual  in  appearance.  Each  plant 
bears  but  a  single  bunch  of  flowers  which  grows  out  of  the  center  of  the  top 
of  the  stock  on  the  end  of  the  elongated  spike.  It  appears  first  as  a  purple-red 
spike  that  curves  downward  as  it  gro^vs.  This  spike-like  head  is  made  up  of  a 
large  number  of  flowers  grouped  in  clusters,  each  cluster  later  developing  into  a 
"hand"  of  bananas.  As  the  clusters  emerge  they  are  covered  by  the  thick, 
reddish  bracts  which  curl  up  and  expose  the  flowers.  In  time  the  tubular,  cream- 
colored  blossoms  fall  ofif,  leaving  the  long  ovaries.  These  in  turn  develop  into 
fruits.  Each  bunch  of  bananas  contains  from  one  to  a  dozen  or  more  of  these 
clusters  and  each  cluster  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  bananas. 

So  far,  the  lianana  in  Hawaii  is  fairly  free  from  disease  and  pests.  Three 
forms  of  fungus  diseases  are  known  to  prey  on  the  plant,  but  as  yet  they  are 
nowhere  serious.  Two  species  of  nematode  worms  are  somewhat  troublesome, 
and  the  cane  borer,  common  throughout  the  group,  has  been  occasionally  found 
boring  in  the  stem.  The  red  spider,  which  is  well  known  to  most  gardeners,  has 
been  instrumental  in  causing  a  brown  smut  to  gain   a  foothold  on  the   fruit. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS.  261 

Though  this  fungus  has  long  l)een  found  on  the  fruit   gi'owii   here,   its  effects 
are  never  serious. 

The  history  of  the  development  of  the  banana  business  is  an  intei'esting 
one,  Imt  it  must  suffice  here  to  note  that  the  tirst  exportation  of  tlic  ft-nit  was 
made  in  186-1,  when  121  bunches  woe  shi|)p(Ml  1o  the  niainlaml. 

Pineapples. 

The  pin('api>le '"  is  a  native  of  America,  and  is  the  most  important  niciiiIxT 
of  the  family  ^^  in  w^iicli  it  is  placed.  This  family  has  nothing  whatever  to  do 
wdth  either  the  pine  or  the  apple  families.  The  pineapple  is  a  sorosis,  or  col- 
lection of  fruits  formed  by  the  cohesion  into  a  mass  of  the  ovaries  and  i)ei-iantlis 
of  the  compact  fruit.  The  flowers  themselves  are  abortive.  In  the  cultivated 
pineapple,  seeds  are  rarely  found,  but  the  wild  variety,  from  v/hicli  it  oi'i^inalcd. 
has  many  seeds. 

In  Hawaii  it  is  extensively  cultivated,  and  was  of  early  introduction.  It 
seems  well  adapted  to  the  islands  and  several  varieties  are  grown,  which  produce 
fruit  of  the  most  excellent  flavor.  There  are  instances  where  the  fruit  has  es- 
caped or  has  been  abandoned,  where  it  is  to  be  found  growing  in  a  wild  state. 

As  is  w^ell  knowai,  the  plant  usually  produces  but  a  single  fruit  crowded  in  a 
rosette  of  stifif  serrated  leaves,  on  the  top  of  the  stem  of  the  plant,  which  ma- 
tures in  from  twelve  to  tw^enty  months.  The  fruit  is  itself  crowned  with  a 
cluster  of  stiff  leaves.  The  plant  is  propagated  by  means  of  slips,  suckers, 
crowns  and  rattoons.  Over  fifty  well-defined  varieties  are  recognized,  some  of 
them  quite  distinct  forms,  which  vary  widely  in  color,  size  and  flavor.  The 
most  important  species  grow^n  locally  are  limited  to  a  few  carefully  selected 
types  that  are  especially  suited  to  the  requirements  of  the  canneries. 

Fruits  of  the  largest  species  not  infreciuently  attain  a  weight  of  t\velv(>  or 
more  pounds.  The  crop  is  harvested  at  certain  seasons,  but  fresh  fruit  reach 
the  market  the  year  around.  The  plants  are  not  entirely  free  fnmi  pests  and 
diseases.  The  most  serious  disease,  perhaps,  is  known  as  the  ''pincapifle  dis- 
ease" of  sugar-cane.  This  disease,  which  attacks  the  fruit  causing  it  \o  preuui- 
turely  decay  and  ferment,  w-as  first  discovered  on  cane  and  received  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  it  produced  an  odor  in  the  decaying  cane  similar  to  that  of 
the  pineapple. 

The  Avocado  or  Allig.vtou  Pear. 

The  avocado,  or  alligator  pear,'-  thouuh  lechnically  a  fruit,  is  from  tlic 
culinary  standpoint  a  salad  vegetable,  in  that  it  is  used  much  the  sanu^  as  the 
cucumber,  since  it  is  usually  eaten  with  salt,  pepper  and  vinegar.  It  is  almost 
the  only  fruit  which  is  eaten  only  as  a  salad.  Persons  wln)  are  serve(l  with  this 
curious  pear-shaped  fruit  for  the  first  time  nve  usually  disappointed.  Hul  a  just 
valuation  of  the  rich  nutty  or  butter-like  flavor  of  the  fruit  is  soon  acquired, 
and  once  it  is  fully  appreciated  the  taste  becomes  little  short  of  a  craving. 


^"Ananas    .siitini.  ^'^  Brdiiirliiicrip.  ^- Per.scn    ^/rdtisxinia. 


262  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

The  tree,  which  is  a  native  of  the  American  tropics,  was  of  early  introduc- 
tion into  Hawaii  and  is  rapidly  "aining  in  favor  as  an  island  fruit  with  a  pos- 
sil)le  connnercial  future,  which,  however,  has  l;een  somewhat  interfered  witli 
through  fruit  (puirantine  measures  that  prevent  its  shipment  to  California  for 
fear  it  may  carry  witli  it  the  much-dreaded  fruit-fly  that  has  already  established 
itself  in  Hawaii. 

The  earliest  known  account  of  the  avocado  is  found  in  Oriedo's  report  to 
Charles  V.  of  Spain  in  ir)2t).  At  that  time  it  was  found  growing  wild  in  the 
West  Indies,  doubtless  having  been  introduced  there  from  the  continent  of 
Anici'ica.  In  varions  places  and  in  diverse  ways  the  fruit  has  come  to  be  known 
under  no  fewer  than  tifty  names,  no  one  of  which  is  less  suitable  than  the  ct)m- 
inon  English  designation,  since  it  is  neither  an  alligator  nor  a  pear,  and  more- 
over the  coml)ination  of  names  is  in  no  way  pleasing,  appetizing  or  appropriate. 
The  fruit  is  justly  entitled  to  a  characteristic  name,  and  avocado  seems  suited 
to  the  requirements. 

In  1860  it  reached  Tahiti,  and  must  have  been  planted  in  Hawaii  very  soon 
after  that  date.  Trees  about  the  city  grow  rapidly  to  a  height  of  from  twenty 
to  sixty  feet,  and  are  at  once  identified  by  their  large  dark-green  leaves  and 
large  pear-shaped,  green  and  purple  fruits,  which  contain  a  single  large  seed. 
The  avocado  belongs  to  the  Lauracece  and  has  such  distinguishing  relatives  as 
the  cinnamon, ^-^  camphor,^ ^  and  sassafras,^ -^  all  of  which  were  introduced  into 
Hawaii  mam-  years  ago,  but  the  avocado  is  the  only  member  of  the  family  that 
has  been  cultivated  to  any  extent.  As  the  fruit  is  usually  grown  from  the  seed, 
the  quality  varies  with  the  different  trees.  Now  the  ripe  fruits  have  been  suc- 
cessfully shipped  from  Hawaii  to  New  York  and  Washington,  and  as  recent  ex- 
periments have  proved  that  choice  trees  can  be  propagated  by  budding,  there 
is  every  reason  to  think  that  the  avocado  has  a  future  before  it,  as  it  seems  to  be 
reasonably  free  from  the  attacks  of  the  fruit-fiy.  Selected  trees,  sheltered  from 
the  wind  and  with  other  conditions  favorable,  have  yielded  as  many  as  250 
fruits  to  a  tree,  while  the  yield  from  exceptional  trees  has  been  more  than  a 
thousand  pears. 

Papaya. 

Like  the  foregoing,  the  papaya^*'  is  a  native  of  tropical  America,  probably 
Brazil,  and  is  a  fruit  much  esteemed  in  the  islands.  It  is  one  of  the  commonest 
fruits  in  many  private  yards,  and  considered  as  a  fruit,  vegetable,  salad  or 
.simply  as  an  ornamental  plant,  it  is  a  general  favorite.  Its  large,  golden,  melon- 
shaped  fruits  and  handsome,  thrifty,  green,  palmate  leaves  render  it  a  species 
that  attracts  attention  at  once  from  strangers. 

By  some  the  fruit  is  called  papaw,  a  name  which  should  perhaps  be  re- 
served for  the  tree  and  fruit  of  AstDiiua  trilola,  which  is  a  tree  common  through- 
ont  the  southern  Ignited  States.  It  bears  smooth,  ol)long  fruits  that  in  no  way 
resemble  the  papaya  of  the  tropics.-  They  are  three  or  four  inches  long,  banana- 


•'  Cinnamrimvin   Zeylaiiiriiin.  '*  CiiiiitiiiifHiiuin  i-amiihoni.  i"  Saxxnfrnn  nfficiiinle. 

'"  Papaya   ruJrjuris  =  Curira   Papaya. 


INTKOD'JCED  PLANTS  AND  AXI.MALS.  Z6Z 

shaped,  and  are  lilltMl  witli  sweet  i)iil|>  in  wliicli  ;ii-c  cnihcddcil  ilic  Ijcaii-like  seeds. 

The  ])apaya  is  an  interesting  example  of  a  di(rci()us  ])lanl,  as  it  lias  the  male 
and  the  female  llowers  on  separate  plants.  The  edible  fruit  is  produced  by  the 
female  tree,  as  a  rule.  It  is  therefore  desirable,  in  order  to  insure  the  best  crop 
of  fruit,  to  plant  a  number  of  trees  of  both  sexes  in  close  pi-oximi1y. 

There  are  a  nuiii1)er  of  varieties  under  cultivation,  all  of  wliidi  ai-e  known 
locally  as  papaya.  While  it  is  iisuall\  a  small,  shorl-lixcd  tree  with  a  single, 
stout,  unbranched  trunk,  crowned  with  a  eluster  of  leaves,  there  ai-e  many  old 
specimens  thirty  feet  or  more  in  height  that  so  difil'ei'  in  apjx'ai'anee  that  only 
the  characteristic  leaves  prevent  them  from  being  mistaken  for  some  rare  species 
of  curious  tropical  plant. 

It  is  extensively  grown  in  the  ti'')])ies.  and  may  now  be  found  wluTever  climate 
and  conditions  are  favorable.  The  milky  juice  of  the  plant  has  a  property 
similar  to,  though  different  from  that  of  pepsin.  If  tough  meat  is  wra]iped  in 
the  fresh  leaves  for  a  short  time  it  will  become  tender.  The  seeds  also  ])ossess 
valuable  properties  as  a  vermifuge. 

GUAVA. 

Several  species  of  guava  thrive  here.  They  grow  from  seed  so  readily 
and  spread  so  rapidly  that  the  lemon-guava,^ "  at  least,  is  no  longer  cullivaled. 
In  many  sections  this  species  forms  dense  thickets.  As  it  fruits  al)un(lantly  at 
nearly  all  seasons  at  different  elevations  it  furnishes  a  refreshing  fruit  that 
may  be  enjoyed  on  mountain  rambles. 

Of  the  130  species  kno^vn  several  are  well  established  in  Hawaii,  but  aside 
from  the  common  lemon-guava  and  the  .smaller  red  strawl^erry-guava.''^  the 
other  species  are  rarely  met  with.  The  fruit  is  supposed  to  ])e  more  agreeably 
acid  and  hence  more  palatable  if  gathered  in  the  early  moi-ning.  The  lemon- 
guava,  besides  being  a  rich,  aromatic  fruit,  makes  fine  jam,  guava  win]),  and 
jelly,  the  latter  being  one  of  the  finest-flavored  jellies  known.  In  spile  of  this 
fact  comparatively  little  of  it  is  manufactured,  and  thousands  of  tons  of  the 
fruit  waste  every  year.  This  acid  vegetable  material,  however,  w  hen  added  to  tlie 
lava  soils  of  Hawaii  is  a  decided  benefit  to  the  land.  Since  llie  hushes  gi-ow  on 
all  kinds  of  soil  under  widely  varying  conditions  the  wedge-work'  done  by  llieii- 
roots  has  proven  a  decided  help  in  opening  u})  the  moi-e  resistant  soils. 

Lemons,  Oranges  and  Limes. 

The  orange^"  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  cultivnted  fruits;  although  its  nativity 
is  not  known,  it  probably  originated  in  the  Indo-Chinese  region.  It  is  udw 
widely  distributed  and  just  whether  it  was  intrt)duced  into  thesi>  islands  1)_\- 
the  natives  themselves  or  by  the  earliest  explorers  will  ])robably  not  be  detinitely 
known.  Vancouver  is  generally  accredited  with  its  introduction,  as  in  17IV2 
he  came  from  Tahiti,  where  it  had  loTig  grown,  havinu-  i-eceived  a  large  store  of 
supplies  from  the  natives  there.       Arriving  on   Hawaii   he  left    with   the  native 


^'' Psidium  Guayava.       ^'*  Pxiiliinii    <'(ittl<\i/iniiiiii.        ^^  Citniii  A  u rant i inn. 


o 


(/J 

M 

l-H 


<; 


o3 


.  £ 

CO   <!i 


=0 


i^  .-H 


£^, 


i   5^ 


si 

a. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  AXLMALS.  265 

chiefs  of  Kona  a  number  of  valuable  seeds  and  "sonic  vine  and  orange  plants." 
A  few  days  later  he  left  some  "orange  and  lemon  plants"  on  the  island  of 
Niihau.  It  is  supposed  that  these  plants  were  the  parents  of  the  famous  russet 
Kona  oranges  that  are  such  general  favorites  among  islanders.  On  Molokai,  far 
back  in  the  mountains,  a  few  years  ago  I  found  an  old  orange  grove  in  a  fairly 
thrifty  state,  in  which  some  of  the  trees  were  two  feet  in  diameter  at  tlie  lu-iglit 
of  my  shoulder.  Everything  about  them  indicated  their  great  age,  and  it  is 
highly  probable  that  this  grove  antidates  the  introduction  of  the  plants  by 
Vancouver. 

Oranges,  lemons,-*^  limes  -^  and  the  grape  fruit,  pomelo  or  shaddock,--  have 
all  found  an  equally  congenial  home  here,  and  there  are  many  Hawaiian  varie- 
ties, and  seedlings  that  lack  names  but  that,  nevertheless,  are  excellent  and  point 
to  the  fact  that  our  soil  is  well  adopted  to  their  growth  and  culture.  As  is  to 
be  expected,  the  citrus  fruits  are  here,  as  elsewhere,  subject  to  a  number  of 
pests.  I\Iany  of  them  are  in  an  unchecked  state  and  can  do  much  damage. 
Among  them  are  root-rot  or  gum  disease  affecting  the  trunk ;  ripe  rot,  due  to  a 
fungus  attacking  the  fruit,  and  sooty  mould,  causing  the  blackened  or  mouldy 
appearance  of  the  leaves,  fruit  and  twigs.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  this 
last  disease  does  not  feed  on  the  tissues  of  the  plant,  but  thrives  on  the  sweet 
dew-like  substances  deposited  by  aphids  and  scale  insects.  Lichens  in  moist 
localities;  'die  back, '--^  and  lemon  scab -^  are  among  the  more  connnon  diseases. 

Among  the  insect  enemies,  the  purple  scale  is  quite  prevalent.  It  may  be 
readily  identified,  when  adult,  as  a  purplish  object  shaped  somewhat  like  a 
miniature  oyster  shell.  A  species  of  mealy  bug,  appearing  as  a  cottony  mass, 
occurs  in  the  terminal  twigs  causing  them  to  grow  twisted.  The  orange  aphis 
or  black  fly  is  a  minute  insect  living  in  the  fine  twigs.  And  lastly,  the  orange 
rust  mite,  which,  though  very  tiny  indeed,  is  the  cause  of  tlie  russet  oranges. 
It  pierces  the  surface  of  the  fruit  and  feeds  on  the  oils  therein.  The  same 
species  affecting  lemons  causes  them  to  turn  silvery.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
fruits  affected  by  this  mite  are  usually  better  flavored  than  those  that  are  not 
troubled  by  it,  though  they  are  less  attractive  in  appearance.  The  most  serious 
pest  of  all,  however,  is  the  recently-introduced  ^lediterrancan  fruit-My,  elsewhere 
described  at  length. 

The  lime  is  extensively  grown,  there  being  several  local  varieties.  The 
supply  at  present  is  almost  sufficient  for  the  local  demand.  The  cilcon-''  is 
generally  grown  in  yards  and  gardens.  Both  the  oblong  and  rnuiul  lemon-like 
kumquat  26  thrive,  as  does  the  shaddock,  which  is  recognized  t)y  its  size  (six  or 
seven  inches  in  diameter)  and  coarse  texture.  All  (>f  the  foregoing  have  long 
been  cultivated  and  are  found  in  deep  valleys  in  such  a  wild  state  that  they  might 
almost  be  considered  as  part  of  the  native  flora.  The  pomelo  deserves  more 
care  than  has  so  far  been  bestoAved  upon  ils  cnliui'c.      Several  of  the  .lapanese 


-•'  Citrus  Limon.  -^  Citrus  arida.  -'-  Citrus  Decuuiana. 

"^  A   disease   traceable   to   unfavorable   condition    in    the   soil. 
^*  Cone-like  elevation   on   leaves,   fruit  and   twigs. 
2^  Citrus  Medica.  -"  Citrus  japoiiicn. 


18 


266  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

and  Chinese  types  i)f  oranges  bear  astonishingly  well,  and  should  the  trees  be 
more  intelligently  and  extensively  cultivated  they  would  yield  even  more  abund- 
antly. 

The  wi  or  Tahiti  apple  -'  has  a  golden  fruit  that  grows  in  clusters,  on  a  tree 
resembling  the  walnut  in  appearance.  The  t'l-uit.  which  is  the  size  of  a  peach. 
and  has  a  curious  seed,  somewhat  suggests  the  pineapple  in  flavor.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  South  ra-'itic  islands  and  is  now  widely  distributed  in  the  tropics. 

The  Custard  Apple  and  Its  Allies. 

The  custard  apph'  genus. -'^  of  which  more  than  tifty  species  are  known,  is 
represented  in  tlie  islands  l»y  at  least  three  common  species  that  occur  here  and 
there,  usually  as  ornamental  trees  or  curiosities  in  door-yards  about  the  islands. 
Included  in  this  genus  is  the  sour  sop.-''  It  comes  from  the  West  Indies,  where 
it  is  a  favorite  fruit.  This  thrifty  green  tree  bearing  a  large  conical  heart- 
shaped,  green,  spiney  fruit,  six  to  eight  inches  long  and  weighing  as  much  as  Ave 
pounds,  will  be  recognized  at  once  by  the  novice.  The  white,  soft,  juicy,  suli-acid 
pulp  of  the  fruit  is  used  to  some  extent  as  a  flavoring  for  sherbet  and  fruit  punch. 

The  sweet  sop  ^*^  bears  a  fruit  resembling  a  short  pine  cone  in  shape  that  is 
three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  yellowish-green  and  tuberculate.  The  ]iul]i  is 
creamy-yellow,  custard-like  and  very  sw^eet. 

The  custard  apple,-'"  a  smooth  fruit,  is  also  a  favorite  in  the  West  Indies, 
which  is  probably  its  home.  Both  the  custard  apple  and  the  sweet  sop  are  worthy 
of  more  attention  in  Hawaiian  gardens. 

Cherimoya  ^-  is  a  thrifty  tree  coming  originally  from  Peru,  but  now  widely 
naturalized.  It  is  of  comparatively  recent  introduction  into  Hawaii,  the  fruit 
coming  mostly  from  Kona.  The  fruits  are  slightly  flattened  spheres,  two  or 
more  inches  in  diameter,  brownish  yellow  in  color  with  the  flesh  soft,  sweet  and 
rich  in  flavor.  It  is  a  well  known  fruit  in  the  tropics.  All  three  of  the  Anonas 
just  mentioned  are  easily  propagated  from  seed  and  thrive  in  ordinary  heavy  soils. 

The  sapodilla,-^-^  a  tree  of  Central  America,  is  much  esteemed  under  the  more 
common  name  of  Sapota  pear.  The  fruit  is  the  size  and  color  of  a  small  russet 
apple.  It  is  a  firm  fruit  with  ten  or  twelve  compartments  and  as  nuuiy  large 
black  seeds.  The  flesh  is  sweet  and  pear-like  in  flavor.  From  the  sap  of  the 
tree  cheAving-gum  is  made. 

The  loquat '"^^  or  Japanese  plum,  a  native  of  China  and  Japan,  is  a  snrill 
tree  with  thick,  evergreen,  oval-oblong  leaves  that  are  covered  with  i-usty  hair 
beneath.  It  bears  well  in  Hawaii,  usually  producing  two  crops  each  year,  and 
is  an  excellent  decorative  fruit.  Tlie  })efii'-shaped  fruit  is  yellow  with  large  seeds 
and  has  a  i)leasant  flavor.  It  is  extensively  planted  in  southern  California  and 
elsewhere  in  the  southern  states. 

Figs,  Grapes  and  ^NFrLBERRiES. 
Several  varieties  of  figs  •"'•'•  are  grown  here,  and  but  for  the  attacks  of  birvl< 


-''  Spoyidia.'!  diilrix.         -"  J  nono.        -^  Anona   miirirata.  ^^  Annua  Sgnamosn.  ''^  Anot^a   reticulata. 

^^  Ano7in  f'hi-rbnoUa.         ^^  Achras  Sapota.         ^*  Eriobotryu  Japnnica.         ^^  Ficus  Carica. 


INTRODUCED  IM.AXTS  A  XT)  ANIMALS.  267 

arid  insects  would  tioiii'isli.  'I'lic  Hi-',  as  is  well-known,  is  a  iialive  of  Asia  .  It  is 
a  true  Ficus,  bel()n<iint;'  to  the  same  s'l'^us  of  plants  with  the  ordinary  rubber 
tree  or  banian  common  in  the  islands.  Several  varieties  of  the  choice  Smyrna 
fig  have  been  introduced  recently,  together  with  the  interestin<>-  wasj)  which  is 
necessary  to  fertilize  the  Howei's.  The  story  of  the  dexcldinin  nt  of  Ihc  Sniyi-na 
fij^-  industry  in  the  United  States  is  one  dealini;-  with  a  rcniai-kahlc  triinnph  of 
economic  entomology  and  is  a  tale  of  absorbin.u  interest. 

Grape  culture  is  eai'i'ied  on  to  some  extent  in  a  coiniuei'cial  way,  especially 
by  the  Portuguese.  Although  the  grape-'"  has  been  cultivated  hy  man  since  the 
beginning  of  history,  it  was  unknown  in  Hawaii  before  its  introduction  by  the 
whites,  which  took  place  at  an  early  date.  The  Isabella  is  the  type  of  blue 
grape  most  cultivated  and  is  to  be  had  in  the  markets  thi-oughout  tin'  year.  All 
species  grown  are  subject  to  the  attacks  of  insects,  the  most  imi)ortant  pest 
being  the  Japanese  beetle.  This  insect  is  esi)ecially  troul)lesome,  often  com- 
pletely defoliating  the  vines. 

Certain  varieties  of  apples-^'  have  been  grown  in  the  islands  at  high  alti- 
tudes, though  they  seem  to  require  a  different  climate.  Peaches '-^  thrive  fairly 
well  in  the  islands.  While  not  |)roducing  fruit  of  nuirketable  appearance  oi- 
flavor,  it  seems  to  l)e  l)ound  to  no  set  season,  blossoms  and  fruit  being  found  at 
different  elevations,  and  under  varying  circumstances,  the  year  around. 

The  black  mulberry  •^■'  was  early  introduced  into  the  islands  foi-  the  i)urpose 
of  supplying  food  for  silk  worms.  It  was  hoped  by  the  missi(»naries  that  the 
silk  industry  might  be  established  among  the  natives.  Interest  was  allowed  to 
lapse,  however,  though  the  mulberry  does  well  here,  having  escaped  into  a  wild 
state  in  many  sections.  The  white  nudberry  ^"  has  also  been  introduced.  Should 
fruit-eating  birds  be  extensively  introduced  it.  would  doubtless  be  spi-ead  by 
them  into  the  mountains  generally. 

Eugenia. 

Of  th(^  large  germs  of  Eti(j(  iiia  ^^  mau>'  s])eci(N  have  been  iut  i-od'iced  into 
the  Hawaiian  islands.  Of  the  fruiting  shrub-like  hushes  seen  in  yai-ds.  the 
Cayenne  or  Surinam  Cherry  "^-  is  most  conunon.  It  is  a  nati\-e  of  lii-azil.  is 
bush-like  in  growth,  seldom  if  ever  growing  moi'e  than  twenty  teet  hiL:li.  It  is 
easily  identified  by  its  dark  red  edible  cherry-like  fruits  which  are  an  inch  in 
diameter  and  ribbed  from  the  stem  to  blossom  end.  The  delightful,  spicy,  acid 
flavor  of  the  fruit  is  characteristic.  Els(nvhere  it  is  unu'h  used  for  jellies  and 
jams,  and  is  sometimes  impro[)erl,\-  called  the  Ureiicli  cheri-y. 

The  rose  apple, "•■'■  another  Eugenia,  is  also  fi-e(|ueii1  ly  seen  in  Liardens  in  the 
grouj).  It  is  a  tree  usually  attaininiz  the  heii^lit  n\'  tweiit\  or  tliirty  ieet  with 
long,  lliick-.  shiney  green  leaves  much  I'esembling  the  oleandei-.  The  fi'uit.  whicli 
has  little  to  recommend  it  as  a  fruit,  is  white  or  vello',vi-;h  in  color,  liiuzcd  with  a 


^^  Vitis  spp.  57  Pj/riix  Malii.i.  '"*  I'runux  Perxica.  •'"'  Mdnix  nif/ra.  *"  l/on/.v   niha. 

*i  Named   in   honor  of   Prince   Eugene   of   Savo.v.  *- Eiu/fnin  M iriii-lii  =  IC.   uiii)lora. 

*^  Ell  ye  nut   Janihus. 


268  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

hliiish  blush  and  is  an  ini-h  and  a  half  or  mure  in  diameter.  It  is  peculiar 
in  being  rose-seented  and  apricot  flavored.  Another  species  of  Eugenia  that 
is  an  especially  prolific  bearer  is  known  locally  as  Java  plum.^-^  The  tree  grows 
thirty  or  more  feet  in  heiiiht  and  bears  a  wealth  of  black  fruit  the  size  of  a  small 
pliun;  they  are  quite  conniion  in  gardens  in  the  islands.  The  mynah  birds  are 
fond  of  the  fniit  and  may  be  seen  carrying  it  alwut  when  it  is  in  season. 
Flying  to  the  nearest  house-top  or  fence  post,  they  eat  the  flesh  off  allowing  the 
hard  seed  to  fall  and  take  root  as  it  will. 

The  Passion  Flowers. 

Of  the  great  order  Fassi/ioracea'  or  passion  flowers,  a  number  of  species  are 
in  cultivation,  some  of  them  producing  fruit  of  a  remarkable  ciuality.  The  pas- 
sion flower  ^^  proper,  is  a  slender  vine  coming  originally  from  Brazil.  It  is 
perhaps  the  most  common  garden  species.  The  leaves  are  deeply  divided  into 
five  segments,  the  lower  two  being  sometimes  again  divided.  The  flowers  are 
three  to  four  inches  across  and  slightly  fragrant.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that 
the  Spanish,  when  they  found  this  flower  growing  in  the  South  American  forests, 
took  it  as  a  token  that  the  Indians  should  be  converted  to  Christianity.  They 
saw  in  its  several  parts  the  emblems  of  the  passion  of  our  Lord,  hence  the  flos 
passion  is  was  described  as  early  as  1610  as  a  marvel  of  prophetic  beauty,  and 
l)roperly  enough  the  description  then  made  has  been  the  foundation  for  the 
name  of  the  whole  group  of  plants. 

The  devout,  or  those  gifted  with  a  fertile  imagination,  find  in  the  varioiis 
parts  of  the  blossom,  the  crown  of  thorns ;  a  blood  colored  fringe  suggesting  the 
scourge  wath  which  the  blaster  w^as  tormented ;  the  nails ;  five  blood  stains,  stand- 
ing for  the  wounds  received  on  the  cross ;  the  fine  filaments,  seventy-two  in  num- 
ber, agreeing  with  the  traditional  number  of  thorns  with  which  the  crown  was 
set,  and  lastlj^  the  lance-like  leaves  of  the  plant  referring  to  the  instrument  which 
pierced  the  Savour's  side.  The  leaves  are  also  marked  beneath  with  certain  spots 
suggesting  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver. 

But  to  return  to  the  fruits  belonging  to  this  order,  the  species  most  com- 
monly seen  in  the  market  is  the  egg-shaped  water-lemon.**'  This  is  an  edible 
fruit  yellow  in  color,  spotted  with  wdiite,  the  seeds  having  a  sweetish,  cool  pulp 
about  them  with  a  delicate  and,  to  many,  pleasant  flavor.  The  flowers  are  about 
two  or  three  inches  in  diameter;  the  leaves  entire  with  a  short,  sharp  point. 

The  purple-fruited  w^ater-lemon  or  lili  koi,*"  is  also  common,  having  es- 
caped to  many  places  about  the  islands.  The  ganadilla,*'^  the  largest  of  the 
passion  fruits,  is  a  most  remarkably  strong-growing  climber  introduced  from 
tropical  America.  The  large  leaves  three  to  five  inches  across,  and  the  long 
yellow-green  melon-shaped  fruit,  often  nine  or  ten  inches  in  length,  make  it  a 
striking  plant.  The  fruit  is  edible,  being  used  to  advanatge  as  a  flavoring  for 
sherbets. 


**  Eiifjfnia  Jamlxtlima  =  Siizygiiiin  Jambolana.  *°  Pas.nflora  r(Trulea.  *"  Passiflora  lainifolia. 

*'  Passiflora  edulis.  *'*  Passiflora  quadrangularis. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS.  269 

Pomegranates. 

Pomegranates""*  are  grown  thronghoiil  the  islands  in  i:;ii-(lciis.  re  ;is  oi-na- 

ments  than  for  the  frnit.  Their  bnshy  growth  and  awl-like  spine.s  and  narrow, 
glossy-green  leaves,  with  red  petioles,  make  it  conspicuous.  The  fruit  is  globular 
with  a  bright,  smooth,  yellow,  red-blushed  rind  and  n  ]ir<pminent  crown-like  calyx. 
The  interior  consists  of  a  number  of  seeds  enveloped  in  a  bright  erinistjn-eolored 
pulp;  the  seeds  being  crowded  into  several  segments.  The  cooling,  astringent 
juice  of  the  pulp  is  enjoyed  by  many.  The  pomegranate,  a  native  of  Asia,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  introduced  into  southern  Europe  by  the  Carthagenians  at 
a  very  early  date,  and  has  from  there  been  widely  distributed.  There  are  sev- 
eral varieties  grown  in  Hawaii,  among  them  a  double  flowering  vai'iet\'  that  is 
quite  popular  as  an  ornamental  plant. 

We  could  extend  the  list  of  fruits  and  fruit-like  ])roducts  indefinitely. 
The  lichi  ^^  of  China  ;  the  mangosteens  ^^  of  China  ;  the  water-melon  ^-  of  AfricM  ; 
the  musk-melon  ^^  of  southern  Asia ;  the  fruit  of  the  prickly-pear  ^'^  from  Mexico, 
are  all  to  hv  seen  among  the  fruits  in  the  Honohdu  markets.  Tn  fact,  a  list 
enumerating  considerably  over  one  hundred  well-defined  species  of  fruits  oc- 
curring in  Hawaii  has  been  prepared,  and  it  is  safe  to  assume  it  could  easily'  be 
extended;  a  numlier  of  the  rarer  fruits  receive  bi'ief  notice  in  the  inde,\. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

AGRICULTURE  IN  HAWAII:     ITS  EFFECT  ON  PLANT  AND  ANI.MAL 

LIFE. 

The  remarkable  agricultural  transformation  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  troia 
the  time  when  taro-growing  was  the  chief  occupation  of  the  primitive  inhabi- 
tants, to  the  present,  when  the  growing  of  sugar-cane  is  the  dominant  in- 
dustry of  the  land,  furnishes  a  story  filled  with  facts  of  the  greatest  interest. 
The  account  of  this  transition,  however,  would  come  more  properly  within  the 
scope  of  a  political  and  industrial  history  of  Hawaii.  Nevertheless,  agriculture, 
in  the  broad  sense,  is  a  natural  employment,  having  to  do  with  plants  and  ani- 
mals. It  has  lieen,  and  doubtless  will  always  continue  to  be,  the  chief  vocation 
of  the  people  of  the  islands,  and  as  agriculture  and  the  occupations  growing  out 
of  its  practice  will  long  continue  to  be  the  main  source  of  prosi)erity  and  wealtli, 
a  brief  account  of  the  natural,  as  distinguished  from  the  connnei-cial  histoid'  of 
some  of  the  industries,  at  least  will  not  l)e  ont  of  ])lace  here. 

Agriculture  in  Recent  Ti.mes. 

Our  present  interest  in  the  sul)ject,  liowever,  comes  mainly  from  the  fact; 
that  the  phenomenal  development  of  agriculture  in    Hawaii  in  recent   times  has 


*"  Punica  Qraiuiftnn.  ••"  Nrphciiiim   Litrlii. 

^^  (iarciiiid    iiiinii/ostdtia    from    Sumatra;    also    llic    more    coiinnon    (iarcinia    .i(nith(ir)i  i/iiiiik  from    India. 

^"Citrullus  riil(/(iris.  ^^  Cuciimus  Mflo.  "■*  Opuntia    'I'liiui. 


O    O" 

.2  ^  S 

£«              C 

rf  S  rt 

§■^.2         i 

-*J                           ' 

rH 

i;   cs   >> 

oj  r;:   c< 

;"    -^^ 

-^   o 

u  -ti 

.  ..-.    m 

CO    --I     '-' 

r-   * 

'/l 

'S  ^  -^ 

'■^ 

r^ 

M 

':2       1=3 

w 

H 

-^     -*—       Qj 

'11 

t;  s  jh 

p 

^    Q^    3 
S    ti    a: 

C:\ 

P    O 

Z 

^    "% 

— i 

2  S  g       i 

^     > 

one 
ew  0 

'tt.  >  'i- 

1—1 

r  ?■  ® 

^ 

?-l        ^       fH 

T-^ 

^  cH 

WH 

OJ 

M 

0"  O 

iS  .i 

O        « 

w 

fij  ^ 

o 

oi  S  -^ 

2 

q;    yj    C 

% 

^    5  s;  ?3 


s  -^ 

r-     1=1 

=*-! 

.a  o 

o 

&C3 

■^ 

aj  -u 

:« 

-^^  0 

Q 

^ 

J 

+i  ft 

o 

w 

-tJ 

^  ^ 

—  H 

-M 

<^   C 

-C    o 

+^   ;< 

=H 

— 

0^ 

Q 

cu   ® 

o 

?■  ^ 

rt  0 

Gj    P 

o 

the 
the  8 
ofEee. 

^^'^ 

i-i 

.S  fl  w) 

^   cd  13 

QJ    r-<  -H 

^    '^   J^ 

t:  oJ  2 

INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS.  271 

not  only  brought  in  a  host  of  l)()th  beneficial  and  iiijiii-ious  phiiits  aiitl  atiiinals 
from  abroad,  but  through  tillage,  has  brought  about  changed  conditions  in  the 
natui-al  environment.  These  sweeping  changes  have  affected  Ihc  [)i-iniitive  na- 
tural history  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  more  than  all  other  agencies  ])u1  together. 
Enormous  areas  of  land  have  been  cleared  of  the  natural  growth  of  forest 
and  field  and  usually  put  under  artificial  irrigation,  with  the  result  that  more 
radical  changes  have  ])een  made  in  the  character  and  use  of  the  land  of  the 
islands,  in  one  generation,  than  was  brought  about  by  the  operations  of  the 
primitive  inhabitants  during  the  whole  period  of  their  occupation  of  the  group. 
Such  wide-spread  changes  in  the  character  of  the  country  have  been  reflected  in 
numerous  remarkable  changes  in  the  native  fauna  and  flora.  In  numerous  in- 
stances, the  extension  of  agriculture  must  l)e  credited  with  the  extermination  of 
many  forms  of  life  formerly  common  in  such  sections  as  are  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  the  planter  and  the  ranchman. 

The  Sugar  Industry. 

Foremost  among  the  industries  of  this  class  is  the  production  of  sugar. 
All  other  field  crops  dwindle  to  insignificance  in  comparison  with  it.  Few 
places  in  the  islands  where  cane  can  be  grown  at  all.  will  yield  less  than  thirty  or 
forty  tons,  and  from  that  up  to  sixty  and  seventy  tons  to  tlie  acre.  Such  a  yield 
of  green  stuff'  can  hardly  l^e  obtained  from  any  other  farm  crop,  and  the  develop- 
inent  of  th(^  industry  has  been  as  remarkable  as  the  yield. 

Cane  is  now  cultivated  extensively  on  the  four  main  islands,  being  planted 
from  near  the  sea-shore  up  to  elevations  of  about  two  thousand  feet.  As  a  rule, 
however,  it  is  the  rich  lands  skirting  the  islands  up  to  ')()()  feet  that  con- 
stitute the  chief  sugar-growing  sections.  The  maximum  area  that  can  be  put 
under  cultivation  for  this  crop  has  been  about  reached,  there  being  approximately 
80,000  acres  now  i)Ianted  to  cane  which  yield  on  the  average  about  500,000  tons 
of  raw  sugar  annually.  The  yield  i)er  acre  varies  greatly  according  to  tlie  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  and  the  position  of  the  plantations,  whether  in  rainy  or  rainless 
regions,  the  amount  of  fertilizer  employed,  and  so  on. 

Under  favorable  conditions  ten  and  a  quarter  tons  of  sugar  liave  been  the 
average  yield  for  an  entire  plantation;  while  single  acres  have  given  iinich  higher 
yields.  Some  lands  less  favorably  located  fall  far  below  this  yield  Next  to 
soil  and  climate,  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  tlie  production  (tf  a  good 
crop  is  the  amount  and  character  of  the  water  used.  Salt  in  the  water,  if  in  any 
considerable  amount  is  detrimental,  and  often  conditions  are  such  that  one  hun- 
dred grams  to  the  gallon  would  absolutely  prevent  the  plant's  growth. 

As  to  the  original  introduction  of  sugar-cane  into  Hawaii,  little  is  known. 
There  are  writers  who  think  the  islands  in  the  south  Pacific  were  flu-  oi-iginal 
home  of  the  sugar-cane,  since  there  are  peculiar  species  there  that  are  found  no- 
where else.  It  is  argued  that  the  plants  were  introduced  from  there  into  Hawaii 
by  the  natives.  Rut  the  cultivation  of  cane  has  been  carried  on  so  long  in 
widely  distributed  regions  that  the  real  home  of  tlie  i)lant   is  lost  in  antiipiitv. 


272  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

The  probabilities  are  that  it  Avas  used  by  man  ages  before  there  was  any  record 
of  thv  fact,  and  that  its  cultui'e  and  use  as  food  in  a  raw  state  were  among  the 
first  agricultural  efforts  of  any  tropical  people. 

Tlio  invention  of  the  processes  for  extracting  the  jnice  and  converting  it  into 
sugar  or  molasses  has  long  been  practiced.  l)ut  only  during  the  last  century  has 
it  been  brought  to  a  liigh  state  of  scientific  perfection.  The  plant  is  now  grown 
under  such  exacting'  conditions  and  handled  by  such  a  great  variety  of  special 
mechanical  devices,  and  the  sugar  extracted  by  such  intricate  methods,  that  it  is 
doubtful  if  there  is  another  plant  grown  that  has  been  more  exhaustively  studied 
and  exploited. 

The  plant, ^  as  is  well  known,  is  a  gigantic  perennial  grass  with  heavy  maize- 
like stalks  that  grow  from  eight  to  twenty  feet  tall.  Unlike  most  members  of  the 
grass  family  the  stems  are  solid  and  contain  an  abundance  of  sweet  juice. 

The  many  varieties  of  cane  have  different  sugar-producing  qualities  that 
cause  one  kind  to  be  substituted  for  another  owing  to  their  adaptability  to  pecu- 
liar soils.  The  varieties  vary  usually  in  the  color  of  the  stem;  being  yellow, 
purple,  green  and  variously  striped.  Five  well  recognized  types  of  cane  are 
extensively  grown  in  Hawaii,  though  there  are  numerous  varieties  of  doubtful 
scientific  value.  The  chief  types  are  the  Yellow  Otaheite;  the  Uheribon  or 
Wray's  Batavian ;  the  Tanna,  the  Salangore  and  Cavengerie  canes. 

The  cane  leaves  ai-e  about  two  inches  in  width  by  three  to  five  feet  in 
length.  The  flower  stem  is  pampas-like,  silvery-gray,  or  mauve,  in  color,  and 
when  in  l)lossom  the  field  is  strikingly  beautiful. 

AVhile  cane  had  long  been  used  in  the  islands,  it  was  not  until  about  1828 
that  it  was  first  made  into  sugar.  Its  culture  was  not  really  begun,  however, 
until  about  1850.  when  with  crude  wooden  and  stone  mills  and  inferior  boiling 
kettles  a  yield  of  one  ton  of  low-grade  sugar  per  acre  was  secured. 

Since  then  all  of  the  resources  of  science  have  been  brought  to  bear  on 
the  production  of  sugar,  wnth  the  result  that  today  Haw^aii  leads  the  world  in 
the  scientific  production  of  this  valuable  commodity.  By  experimentation, 
many  kinds  of  soil  have  proved  suitable  to  the  growth  of  cane.  Those  pre- 
ferred are  the  deep  sedimentary  deposits  common  in  the  lower  zone  or  cane- 
belt  of  the  islands.  These  deposits,  varying  in  thickness  from  one  to  fifty 
feet,  have  been  derived  from  the  normal  lavas  that  have  undergone  decomposi- 
tion and  disintegration  in  the  warm  and  often  dry  climate  of  the  lower  coastal 
zone.  The  process  of  erosion  has  been  actively  at  Avork  on  them  for  ages. 
Such  soils  are  mainly  red  in  color,  owing  to  the  great  amount  of  iron  they 
contain.  The  most  fertile  of  these  soils  are  usually  those  that  have  been 
darkened  as  the  result  of  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter. 

The  first  step  in  preparing  the  land  for  cane,  or,  indeed,  almost  any  crop, 
is  to  clear  it  of  all  trees,  shrubs  and  stone,  and  render  the  surface  as  level  as 
possible.     Plowing  is  then  undertaken.     This  may  be  done  by  mules  or  oxen. 


*  fiaccharum  officinurum. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANT;\rALS.  273 

or  by  huge  steam  plows.  Whore  the  character  of  the  country  will  ;i(htiit,  the 
latter  method  is  the  one  generally  preferred. 

The  machinery  consists  of  large,  double  gang-plows  that  arc  dfnwii  back 
and  forth  across  the  fields  by  wire  cables  that  wind  and  unwind  from  large 
drums  operated  by  traction  engines  located  at  opposite  ends  of  the  field.  In 
this  w^ay  five  or  more  furrows  sixteen  inches  wide  by  twelve  inches  deep 
are  turned  over  at  once.  The  field  is  then  plowed  crosswise  of  the  furrows, 
Occasionally  a  giant  plow  that  opens  a  furrow  thirty  inches  deep  is  employed 
to  reach  the  subsoil.  The  plowing  done,  the  ground  is  allowed  to  fallow  for 
several  weeks.  After  it  has  thoroughly  weathered,  it  is  harrowed  to  break  up 
the  clods  and  level  the  surface;  a  heavy  drag  is  sometimes  used  for  the 
purpose. 

If  the  crop  is  to  be  grown  by  irrigation,  the  main  ditch  lines  are  next  laid 
out  by  the  plantation  engineers.  The  trunk  ditches  or  main  flumes  usually 
remain  in  the  same  place  from  year  to  year,  and  are  frequently  walled  with 
stone  or  wood,  and  often  are  cut  through  the  solid  rock.  Where  they  cross 
gulches  or  are  raised  above  the  ground  for  any  purpose,  the  flumes  are  made 
of  wood  or  metal,  and  much  skill  and  money  has  been  expended  in  these  pre- 
liminary operations  in  many  sections.  Water,  which  is  the  life  of  the  land,  is 
transported  in  large  cpiantities  for  long  distances  in  this  way. 

The  secondary  ditches  are  next  laid  out  in  such  a  way  that  water  may 
be  made  to  flow  along  every  row  of  cane  on  the  plantation.  The  furrows  in 
which  the  cane  is  planted  are  made  by  a  curious  double  plow  which  is  so 
constructed  that  it  will  throw  the  earth  both  ways,  forming  ridges  between 
the  furrows.  These  furrows  are  made  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  in  depth, 
and  from  four  to  five  feet  apart. 

Sugar-cane  is  propagated  by  cuttings  called  seed-cane.  Each  seed  joint 
must  have  one  or  more  living  buds.  To  insure  sufScient  buds  thev  are  usually 
cut  in  sections  having  two  joints  to  the  piece.  These  pieces  are  dropped  into  the 
furrows,  a  fe^v  inches  apart,  by  the  planter  from  a  bag  carried  on  the  shoulder. 
The  seed  cane  is  then  covered  an  inch  or  two  deep  with  soil  and  water  turned 
on.  In  about  a  week  the  cane  sprouts.  From  that  time  on  the  growing  crop 
is  hoed  and  watered  as  required.  Often  loose  soil  is  drawn  over  the  moist 
earth  from  the  ridges  between  the  rows  to  prevent  the  rapid  evaporation  of  the 
water;  but  the  processes  of  cultivation  vary  widely  o)i  dift'ereut  plantations. 

Several  times  during  the  growth  of  the  croj)  the  cane  is  stripped  of  the 
dead  leaves  to  prevent  the  water  from  being  held  along  the  stalks  and  souring 
the  juice.  The  bundles  of  leaves  are  piled  on  the  ground  under  the  tangle 
of  growing  cane  to  support  the  stalks. 

The  age  at  which  the  cane  matures  varies  greatly,  but  ranges  from  one  to 
two  years.  The  tassel  is  the  index  that  tells  when  it  is  ripe.  Tlie  crop  should 
be  cut  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  thronu'h  blooming,  as  the  juice  is  at  its 
best  at  that  time. 

In  harvesting  the  crop  the  stalks  are  cut  and  trimmed  in  the  field,  the 


a 
o 

/— 

r) 

^ 

c 

n 

p^ 

^ 

ctf 

O 

-M 

CS 

Clh 

c 

CS 

, 

fM 

-o 

o 


-5 


iq 


H 
-< 


•2  5 

?^  -c 
-^  a; 
ce  ^ 

'^  o 

r-H  rfi 
I — I    -t^ 

•rj      0/ 

s  s 

o 

<c        p 

g    0)    « 

•^  t*  ^ 
«  a  be 

oi  .3  's 


W  a  o 


5  S 


tc    .,    ^ 

<^  ^"    • 


ffi 


=  H 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  AXI.MALS.  275 

refuse  and  trash  l)eiii,u'  left  on  tlic  tii-ouud  to  he  ])unic(l  Inter  on.  The  li-iiimicd 
stalks,  which  average  eight  or  ten  feet  in  length  and  more  than  an  inch  ;ind  a 
half  in  diameter,  are  loadi^l  npon  carts  or  cars  dra^vn  ()V(m-  |)orta])lc  li-acks  ])y 
horses  or  by  small  locomotives.  Whei-e  there  is  a  sui-pliis  of  watei'  the  cane 
is  often  floated  to  the  mill  in  the  flumes.  In  this  way  tiie  water  flumes  are 
utilized  in  the  i)roduction  and  harvesting  of  the  croj)  in  both  wet  and  dry 
districts. 

The  loaded  car  on  arriving  at  the  unloading  shed  is  brought  alongside 
;i  moving  floor  that,  in  reality,  is  a  wide  endless  chain-belt  that  cai-ries  the 
cane  to  the  elevator.  The  cane  in  most  cases  is  unloaded  ])y  machinery  that 
pulls  the  load  from  the  car  to  the  moving  floor.  From  the  flooi-  the  cane  is 
elevated  on  a  conveyor  which  delivers  it  to  a  pair  of  large  corrugated  rollers 
that  crush  the  stalks,  extracting  much  of  the  juice.  The  crushed  mass  is  then 
passed  through  several  sets  of  rollers,  each  set  made  up  of  three  close-fitting 
cylinders.  In  the  final  crushing  process,  hot  water  is  added  to  aid  in  extract- 
ing the  last  particle  of  juice  that  may  remain.  Tlie  dry  inass,  now  called 
"bagasse,"  is  carried  on  elevators  to  the  furnace  room,  where  it  is  used  at  once 
for  fuel. 

The  juice  from  the  I'ollers  is  collected  and  conducted  to  the  liming  tank, 
where  a  chemical  change  is  effected  by  adding  slaked  lime.  From  a  receiver 
near  the  liming  tank  the  juice  is  passed  to  the  settling  tanks. 

After  it  has  stood  a  few  hours,  the  juice  of  the  top  {xu-tion  is  drawn  off 
and  the  muddy  lower  portion  agitated  by  steam.  This  hot  mixture  is  then 
passed  to  the  mud  presses,  where  the  clean  juice  is  separated  from  the  mud. 
The  liquid  mixed  with  the  clear  juice  from  the  settling  tank  is  next  conveyed 
to  the  evaporating  pans.  Avhere  it  is  changed  by  heat  from  juice  into  syrup. 

The  evaporators  are  a  series  of  foui'  or  iiiore  Uu'ge  iron  boilei's  coniu'cted 
one  Avith  the  other.  The  air  is  removed  from  them  in  order  to  create  a  pai'tial 
vacuum.  The  juice  will  then  boil  with  less  heat  and  the  syrup  is  prevented  from 
scorching.  The  syrup,  v.hen  sufficiently  reduced,  is  cimveyed  to  the  vacuum 
pans,  where  the  grain  in  the  thick  molasses  is  produced  by  anofiiei-  boiling-. 

At  this  stage  inventors  have  made  many  improviMueiits  in  the  [)rocess  by 
which  the  thick  mass  is  passed  into  the  crystallizers,  where  the  syrup  or  sucrose  is 
made  into  Arm,  dry  grains.  Small  amounts  of  syrup  are  transferred  to  the  tub- 
like  machines  called  centrifugals.  These  tub-shaped  cylinders  have  cenfral  cavi- 
ties made  of  wire  netting.  This  wii'e  cage  revolves  rapidl\"  and  by  centrifugal 
force  thi'ows  the  molasses  out,  i-etaining  the  ci-ystals  of  sugar  within  the  cage. 
The  uncrystallized  licpiid  is  cai-ried  to  the  boilers  again  and  is  made  into 
second-grade  sugai'.  The  higher  grade  sugai'  di-ops  from  the  eeiit  rifuiials  into 
a  large  retort  known  as  the  di-yini:  machine.  Tlii'ouLih  this  the  sugar  works 
its  way  among  hot  coils  that  dry  the  crystals  before  they  art'  cai-ried  to  tii(» 
sugar  bin.  From  this  bin  the  raw  sugai-  is  drawn  out.  sacketl  and  weiglu>d. 
Each  burlap  sack  contains  about  ^'2^^  pounds  of  light-brown  sugar. 

]\Iost  of  the  sugar  is  sent  as  liiilit   brown,  or  I'aw,  sugar  to  the  mainland  of 


276  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

the  United  States  to  be  refined  of  purified.  One  mill  on  Oalui.  however,  prodnces 
refined  white  sugar.  In  the  refining  process  it  is  melted  and  boiled  again,  and  at 
the  same  time  is  chemically  treated,  the  crystals  becoming  pure  white  and 
transparent.  It  is  in  this  condition  that  it  is  sold  everywhere  as  granulated 
sugar. 

Rice. 

Next  to  sugar  and  pineapples,  rice  -  is  the  most  important  field  crop  in 
Hawaii.  Although  the  most  primitve  methods  are  practiced  in  its  cultivation 
and  milling,  the  annual  product,  from  the  ten  thousand  or  more  acres  under 
cultivation,  reaches  as  high  as  ten  million  pounds  a  year.  Five  crops  can  be 
grown  on  the  same  land  in  three  years,  the  annual  yield  per  acre  being  about 
eight  thousand  pounds.  The  crop  is  grown  almost  exclusively  by  the  Chinese 
on  leased  lands,  for  the  use  of  which  they  pay  an  annual  rental  ranging  from 
ten  to  fifty  dollars  per  acre.  Their  methods  of  propagation,  culture,  harvest- 
ing and  milling  are  extremely  crude ;  they  are,  nevertheless,  interesting  and 
picturesque. 

The  rice  plant  is  the  only  important  economic  species  belonging  to  the 
genus  of  grasses  Oryza.  It  is  said  to  furnish  food  for  one-half  of  the  human 
race.  The  plant  seems  to  have  been  originally  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
probably  being  first  cultivated  in  India.  From  that  region  it  has  spread  to  all 
quarters  of  the  globe  where  conditions  are  favorable.  Our  Hawaiian  rice,  so 
called,  is  thought  to  have  been  originally  derived  from  a  South  Carolina  stock, 
as  the  first  rice  cultivated  here  was  obtained  from  that  state.  It  has  since 
been  mixed  Avith  a  number  of  other  varieties,  however.  Somewhat  extensive 
experiments  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Krauss  have  been  made  in  recent 
years  wnth  a  view  to  introducing  improved  varieties.  It  is  said  that  there  are 
more  varieties  of  rice  known  than  of  any  other  crop,  there  being  more  than  a 
thousand  varieties  in  India  alone. 

The  plant  is  an  annual,  growing  from  three  to  five  feet  high  in  Haw^aii, 
accoi'ding  to  variety  and  conditions.  The  seeds  or  grains  grow  on  little  stalks 
springing  from  the  main  stalk,  and  when  ripe,  the  appearance  of  the  plant 
is  between  that  of  l)arley  and  oats.  Rice  in  India  is  knowni  as  paddy.  The 
tei'in  is  also  used  to  designate  the  rice  in  the  husk,  and  in  Hawaii  the  small 
shallow  ponds  in  which  it  grows  are  called  paddies. 

Rice  is  growai  in  Haw^aii  by  what  is  known  as  the  Oriental  method  of 
culture.  The  seeds  are  planted  in  carefully  prepared  seed-beds  that  are  kept 
moist  l)ut  not  flooded.  Aft^er  the  seed  has  germinated  and  is  three  inches 
tall,  the  ground  is  kept  flooded  until  the  plants  have  reached  a  height  of  six  to  ten 
inches.  They  are  then  pulled  from  the  muck  and  water  and  the  roots  sonndly 
beaten  on  a  board;  the  object  being  to  prune  back  the  root  sprouts.  The  seed 
plants  are  topped  and  tied  in  convenient  size  bundles  and  taken  in  large  bas- 
kets on  shoulder  poles  to  the  field  to  be  planted.       The   advantage  of  this 


Oryza   sativa. 


INTKODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANDIALS.  177 

method  of  planting  is  that  a  more  uniform  stand  may  be  secured,  resulting  in 
a  larger  yield  in  a  shorter  time. 

The  small  fields,  which  are  arranged  so  they  can  be  Hooded  with  water, 
have  been  previously  prepared  by  plowing  six  or  seven  inches  deep.  The 
water  cow, -^  known  also  as  water  buffalo  or  carabou,  is  used  in  the  plowing 
operations  as  a  general  rule,  but  occasionally  horses  are  employed.  After 
plowing,  the  earth  is  covered  with  water  and  a  curious  harrow  used  until  the 
soil  is  reduced  to  a  fine,  thick  mud.  It  is  next  covered  with  water  to  the  depth 
of  an  inch  or  two,  when  it  is  ready  for  planting. 

The  planting  is  done  by  hand.  The  bunches  of  seed  rice  are  distril)iit('d 
over  the  paddies  at  convenient  intervals  along  straight  guide-lines  set  out 
across  the  patch.  The  entire  force  of  field  hands  rapidly  plants  out  the 
shoots  by  sticking  the  sprouts  in  a  straight  row  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart,  with 
six  or  eight  inches  between  the  plants  in  the  rows.  The  plants  tiller  or  spread 
from  the  roots,  so  that  each  root  planted  sends  up  many  stalks. 

After  the  plants  are  set,  the  field  is  kept  flooded  with  water,  the  depth  of 
the  water  being  increased  somewhat  as  the  plants  grow\  "When  the  crop  is 
about  fifteen  inches  high  the  field  is  gone  over  to  weed,  thin  and  transplant 
where  necessary.  At  this  stage  the  wild  rice,  ^  which  is  found  wlierever  rice 
is  cultivated,  is  pulled  up  and  destroyed.  It  differs  from  the  cultivated  rice  in 
being  a  coarser  type  with  deeper  green  leaves  and  in  having  fruit  which  has 
large  a^Tis.  The  wild  species  falls  to  the  ground  as  soon  as  it  is  ripe,  tlius 
seeding  itself  before  the  regular  crop  is  harvested.  As  it  thrives  on  the  same 
treatment  as  the  commercial  species  and  spreads  its  seed  broadcast,  it  is  by 
far  the  worst  weed  in  the  rice  fields.  When  compared  with  other  crops,  how- 
ever, rice  is  singularly  free  from  pests  and  diseases,  and  produces  a  remarkably 
full  and  uniform  yield,  year  after  year. 

The  water  is  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground  until  about  ten  days  before 
the  grain  is  fully  ripe.  The  ripening  period  is  generally  indicated  by  the  heads 
bending  over  from  the  weight  of  the  heavy  grain.  From  the  time  the  head 
begins  to  form,  a  period  marked  by  the  peculiar  odor  given  off  by  the  oju'iiing 
glumes,  to  the  final  gathering  of  the  grain,  the  fields  ai-e  guarcb'd  from  dawn 
until  dark,  by  the  planters,  to  prevent  the  three  introduced  i>ests — llie  linnets 
or  rice  birds;  the  weaver  birds,  and,  to  some  extent,  the  English  s|);iitows — 
from  destroying  the  crops.  In  spite  of  their  vigilance,  considerable  quantities 
of  the  maturing  grain  are  consumed  (u-  si)oiled  by  t]i(>  birds,  esjiecially  wlieu 
the  rice  gi'ains  are  in  the  milk  stage. 

The  harvesting  of  the  golden-yellow  crop  is  indeed  picturesque.  There 
are  usually  a  dozen  or  more  Chinese  engaged  in  the  operation.  The  grain  is 
cut  once  near  the  ground,  with  reaping  hooks,  then  mid-way  (if  the  straw. 
The  grain  portion  is  laid  in  neat  straight  ])iles  on  the  coarse  sii-;iw  oi-  bound 
into  good-sized  bundles  and  left  to  cure.      When  sufficientlv  cui-ed  the  l)uuiUes 


•^  Bos  bafalas.  *  Zizaiiia  aqiiatica. 


o 


5  -o 


^    ID 

dj  JS, 

C  +^ 

-J      ,^_3 

-^ 

— '       j^ 

z 

'  "^     O 

^ 

5.2 

•-  > 

-^ 

<; 

O 

X 

n  rt  bJD 

O 

c  c  c 

>— 1 

>^-& 

!h    C    C8 

pa 
< 

o  o 

111 

©    -U 

X    '    "'^ 


z 


bjC 

S 

^^ 

^^ 

Q 

OJ    ^ 

> 

c  .c 

+-* 

c3 

a  0 

T 

+= 

~ 

-^ 

— 

C    P^ 

0)  'T 

^ 

-   =« 

<5l        C 


^         O 


-        &-** 


ci  T«    ? 


E     ^5 


:e 

Ss 

^ 

S  "^     1 

~; 

"  o    , 

" 

^  c 

r: 

•Si  . 

«+-     ■ 

>* 

y)°  ; 

Cr-      1 

■F  =3^ 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANI^MALS.  279 

are  carried,  a  few  at  a  time,  on  each  end  of  a  can-ying-  stiek  over  the  shoulder, 
and  stacked  near  the  thrashinji'  floor  and  mill. 

The  iirain  are  tramped  out  in  tln'  most  pi'imitive  fasliinn  by  horses  on  a 
smooth,  hard  floor.      It  is  further  dried  on  the  floor  and  is  Ihcn  stored  in  sacks. 

The  removiuii'  of  the  hull  or  huslc  is  a  laborious  task,  occup\iu<i'  iiours  of 
time  and  all  tlie  machinery  thai  the  iimcnuity  of  the  Chiiu^se  race  has  been 
able  to  bring  to  bear  on  the  problem.  The  })rocess.  to  he  appreeiatecl.  is  one 
that  must  be  seen  in  its  primitive  crudeness  at  the  mills  themselves,  where  tlu' 
Chinese  miller,  cheerfully  explaining  the  operation  in  answer  to  evei-y  (|ues- 
tion,  blandly  replies,  "Oh,  Chinaman,  him  long  time  do  alle  same,  me  no 
sabbie."'  However,  it  should  be  remarked  that  a  few  of  the  more  j)r()gressive 
rice  growers  are  making  use  of  some  of  the  modern  American  machinery,  and 
it  is  (piite  pi'obable  that  before  many  years  the  change  in  methods  of  growing 
and  milling  will  be  complete. 

Coffee. 

Coffee  growing  is  essentially  a  ti"0])ical  industry,  and  the  coffee  ''  plant 
has  found  a  favorable  home  in  the  higher  districts  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
The  industry,  for  various  industrial  reasons,  has  not  prospered  of  late  as  it 
should.  The  plants  were  first  introduced  into  the  islands  in  182:]  by  Mr. 
Matain,  M^ho  established  a  small  plantation  near  Honolulu.  Coff'ee  was  again 
introduced  from  Rio  de  Janeiro,  in  1825,  by  jNIr.  John  Wilkinson,  a  [jractieal 
gardenei',  who  came  to  the  islands  fi'om  England  in  the  ship  Blonde  at  the 
request  of  Governor  Boki.  He  settled  in  ]\Ianoa  Valley,  wdiere  he  nuide  a 
beginning  in  ])otli  the  sugar  and  coff'ee  industries.  Plants  from  there  were 
set  out  in  Kalihi,  Pauoa  and  Niu  valleys.  A  year  or  two  after  (1827-28) 
plants  were  introduced  from  Manila  and  wei-e  also  set  out  in  iManoa  Valley. 
From  this  start  coff'ee  plants  soon  spread  to  other  localities  throughout  the 
group,  and  there  are  trees  in  existence  over  sixty  yeai's  old  that  ai'e  still  in  a 
thrifty  condition. 

The  plant  without  question  is  a  horticultural  success  in  the  ishuuls.  attain- 
ing an  early  maturity  and  bearing  heavy  crops.  The  berries  are  frequently  so 
crow-ded  on  the  stem  that  there  is  scarcely  room  foi'  one  moi-e.  The  coff'ee  of 
the  islands  has  a  marked  flavor,  and  pure  "Kona""  is  said  to  be  superior  in 
every  way  to  the  best  Mocha  or  Old  (loverinuent  Java. 

The  coff'ee  plant  -was  first  cultivated  by  the  Arabs,  wlio  transferi-ed  it 
from  its  native  soil  in  eastern  Africa  to  Ai-al)ia.  about  the  liitli  eeiitui\-.  l-'i-om 
Arabia  it  was  cai-ried  to  P)atavia.  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  i-]ast  Indies,  a  hun- 
dred years  later.  From  this  beginning  man>-  cultui'al  vai-ielu's  have  been  de- 
veloped that  are  now  grown  in  the  colTtH'  y.ouv  liu'oughout  the  world. 

In  a  wild  state  coff'ee  is  a  slender  t  I'ee  and  urows  fifteen  to  twentv  feet  in 
height,  but  in  cultivation,  for  conveuieiu'e  in  picking  \hc  fruit,  it  is  not  allowed 
to  grow  over  ten  or  twelve  feet  tall,  and  the  ti'ce  is  made  to  assunu'  a  pxramidal 


^  Coffea   Arabira    and   ('.    l.iherirn. 


280  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAAVAII. 

form.  The  leaves  are  evergreen  and  leathery;  the  flowers  are  small,  snow 
white  and  fragrant,  and  the  whole  appearance  of  the  tree  is  so  very  pleasing 
tliat  they  are  frequently  grown  in  gardens  and  elsewhere  as  ornamental  shrubs. 
The  fruit  when  ripe  is  of  a  dark  scarlet  color,  and  the  seeds  are  horn-like  and 
hard.  The  seeds  are  usually  called  coffee-beans.  Not  that  they  are  beans  at 
all.  hut  because  of  the  Arabic  word  "bunn,"  which  means  coffee. 

The  berries  are  very  unequal  in  ripening.  In  Hawaii  three  or  more  pick- 
ings are  made  annually.  There  are  dift'erent  methods  of  curing  the  berries. 
P>y  the  old  method  the  fruit  is  placed  on  floors  especially  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose and  allowed  to  dry  in  the  sun.  It  is  then  passed  between  rollers  to 
remove  the  dried  pulp  of  the  bean,  and  the  membrane  which  encloses  the 
seeds  themselves.  The  coff'ee  is  afterwards  freed  from  impurities  by  winnow- 
ing machiner\-.  By  a  new  method  the  berries  are  freed  from  the  pulp 
and  their  coverings  by  maceration  in  water,  with  the  aid  of  a  pulping  machine. 
The  beans  are  sometimes  subjected  to  polishing. 

Three  types  of  coft'ee  are  in  cultivation  in  Hawaii,  namely,  the  Hawaiian, 
of  the  original  introduction — a  very  hardy  type;  the  Java,  brought  directly 
from  Java;  and  Horner's  Guatemala,  a  variety  supposed  to  have  been  intro- 
duced from  a  Javan  source,  but  nevertheless  of  uncertain  origin.  However, 
the  latter  variety  is  the  most  extensively  cultivated,  being  a  hardy,  heavy 
bearer  and  not  subject  to  disease.  It  bears  a  large,  flat  berry  resembling  the 
best  types  of  imported  Java  coffee. 

Sisal. 

The  growing  of  sisal  ^  has  attracted  considerable  attention  on  the  island 
of  Oahu,  Avhere  several  hundred  acres  are  now  planted  to  this  crop.  The 
])lant  not  only  grows  luxuriantly  on  the  better  lands,  but  does  well  on  land 
not  suited  to  other  field  crops.  Sisal  was  first  introduced  and  widely  dis- 
tributed for  trial  in  1892.  It  has  been  found  to  thrive  from  sea  level  to 
three  thousand  feet  elevation,  and  to  be  especially  suited  to  the  lee  or  dry  side 
of  the  islands.  The  species  is  a  native  of  Central  America  and  closely  related 
to  the  century  ])lant."  As  a  source  of  cordage  it  yields  a  fiber  second  only  to 
]\Ianila  hemp  in  strength.  Its  smooth,  straight  strands  of  fiber  are  obtained 
by  decorticating  the  leaf.  The  life  of  a  slioot,  if  undisturbed,  is  six  or  seven 
years,  after  which  period  it  sends  u\)  a  blossom  stalk  as  high  as  twenty-five 
feet,  and  then  dies.  Cutting  the  leaves  for  fiber,  however,  extends  the  life  of 
the  plant  several  years. 

Other  Fiber  Plants. 

Manila  hemp,  secured  from  a  species  of  banana,^  has  been  grown  experi- 
mentally in  the  islands  for  a  number  of  years,  and  is  reported  from  various 
localities.      It    was    introduced    from    Manila    manv    vears    ago,    and    was    well 


'^  Agave  Mexieana   var.  sixalnna.  'Agave   Aiiierivniia.  "Miixii     te.ititin. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  A  X I  .M  A  LS.  281 

known  to  tile  oldci'  I  I;i\v;iii;iiis.  hciiiu'  used  by  tlicin   in    nink'niL;'  I'opc       Also  New 
Zeahnul  liemp  "  lias  been  iii'own  in  a  limited  way. 

As  a  fil)er  plant  Upland  cotton,'"  oi"  Sea  Island  colton''  now  l)ids  fair 
to  ontstfip  any  of  those  mentioned.  Unfor'tnnateJN',  it  has  been  lield  in 
check  owing-  to  attacks  of  the  boll  woi-m.  Cotton  of  cultivated  varieties  was 
introduced  into  the  islands  long  ago.  A  sample  of  the  fiber  grown  here  -was 
sent  to  China  by  Kamehameha  the  (Ireat.  The  plant  in  this  latitndc  is  a 
perennial.  Several  varieties  have  been  experimentally  gi'own  from  time  to 
time,  among  them  being  Sea  Island,  Georgia,  Peruvia  and  Caravonica.  and 
a  num1)er  of  other  strains  that  have  received  experimental  attention  at  the  hands 
of  Professor  F.  G.  Krauss  and  his  associates.  Although  the  revived  indnstr>-  is 
hardly  beyond  the  experimental  stage,  it  is  reassuring  to  know  that  tlif  (ibrr 
was  an  article  of  export  from  Hawaii  during  the  Civil  War. 

The  cotton  fiber  is  distinguished  from  all  others  by  the  peculiar  twist  that 
it  i)ossesses.  This  twdst  makes  it  very  valuable  in  spinning,  and  it  has  long 
been  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth.  Its  use  is  spoken  of  by  the 
earliest  writers,  and  the  plant  was  long  described  as  a  natural  wonder  under 
the  name  of  the  ' '  lamb  tree. ' '  The  cotton  of  commerce  is  the  product  of  several 
species  of  the  genus  Gossypiuni,  belonging  to  the  order  Malvacea.  to  which 
also  belong  the  hollyhock  and  Hibiscus,  the  flowers  being  very  nuicli  alike. 
There  are  fifty  or  more  species  of  cotton.  In  fact,  one,^^  a  shrub  with  suljjhur- 
colored  flowers  and  having  very  short,  brown  fibers  about  the  seed,  is  found 
grownng  in  a  wild  state  in  the  Hawaiian  group  in  dry  situations  near  the  sea- 
shore. It  is  known  to  the  natives  as  mao,  and  can  be  separated  easil_\-  from 
the  small  tree-like  species  called  kokio,^-^  Avhich  has  brick-red  flowers.  The 
cotton  plant  produces  varieties  that  readily  and  rapidly  adapt  themselves  to 
new  conditions.  Single  trees  are  common  in  Hawaii  that  are  twent\  feet  or 
more  in  height. 

Rubber. 

The  cultivation  of  rubber  is  among  the  newer  industries  that  promise  well 
in  the  islands.  Several  species  of  rubber-producing  ])lants  are  well  estab- 
lished in  vai'ions  ]ilaces  on  the  principal  islands,  and  other  species  are  in 
process  of  introduction. 

One  of  the  oldest,  if  not  the  oldest  grove  of  rul)l)ei'  ti-ees.  is  a  small  plant- 
ing of  the  Ceara  species.  ^^  located  at  Koloa,  on  Kauai.  It  was  planted  in 
1893,  and  from  it  a  grove  was  j)lante(l  at  Liliue  in  IS!)!).  I^xpei-iiiimla!  taj)- 
ping,  under  the  direction  of  the  Federal  Experiment  Station,  has  given  a  yield 
of  fifteen  pounds  of  rubber  per  annnni  fi-om  the  1  liii-teeii-year-old  trees,  and  it 
is  expected  that  this  can  be  materially  inci-eased  by  i)ro|)ei-  cai-e.  cnlti\alioii 
and  improved  methods  of  tapping.  The  seeds  ai'e  cni-ions  in  that  lliey  have 
a    thick,    hard    coating    and    often    reipiire    some    months     for    lliem    to    uvrmi- 


^  PhormiiDii   ffii(i.i\  ^"  Oos.iiiiiiiim   s]).  ^  '  (i (i.t.si/iihiin   Baibadfn.ii'.  ^-  (iiissi/iiiiiin    lniiif-Dtonum. 

''^^  Gossypiinn    dnjiinriaidi'.i.  ^^Mfiiiilict   (Ihiziorii. 


19 


s  .  s 

'-'So 

O    "2    1. 

^^     CO     — 1 

^     Q.   ■" 

(i;    ^    O 

a:    ,,  a> 

5  t:  CO 

«  S: 


CO   5c'    S 


:Wt. 


<i         O     tn     O 

M    t)H  H  S 


<;  .  5*  0 

H-  o  tH  5 

<^  _^  d 

^  "H  bo 

-+■  =-  ci  .S 

W  goO 

<  c^    . 


a3  -r;  0) 

®     *-     ^ 

— ■  *-■  -*^ 

-    cS    P 

C  .S    G 

E 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS.  283 

nate.  To  hasten  geniiiiialiun  the  seeds  are  sometimes  carefully  rasped  on 
either  side  with  a  file.  The  tree  is  of  rapid  growth,  thriving  best  in  a  moist 
climate.  The  natural  home  of  the  species  however,  is  in  the  drier  regions  of 
Brazil.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  Cassava,  mentioned  elsewhere,  and  belongs 
to  the  spurge  family,  which  also  includes  the  Para  ^^  and  many  othei-  rubber- 
producing  plants.  The  latex  or  milky  sap  occurs  in  the  leaves,  stems  and 
trunk.  There  is  a  continuous  network  of  milk-tubes  all  through  the  living 
green  portion  of  the  liark  of  the  tree.  The  latex  is  collected  by  various 
methods  of  tapping,  and  from  this  gum-like  mass  the  rubber  of  commerce  is 
refined. 

While  the  earlier  plantings  were  largely  of  the  foregoing  species,  there  is 
considerable  area  being  planted  to  Hevea.  Both  species  belong  to  the 
Eupliorhiacece.  They  and  their  near  relatives  may  be  distinguished  from 
other  rubber-producing  plants  by  the  hard,  flinty  seeds  and  the  palmate  leaves, 
resembling  those  of  the  horse-chestnut.  Such  latex-producing  trees,  belong- 
ing to  the  banian  family,  as  the  Assam  rubber,!*^  the  pipul  tree,  or  banian 
fig,i'  are  well  established. 

To  the  list  of  introduced  species  must  now  be  added  the  Hawaiian  rubber 
tree^'^  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  Hawaiian  Experiment  Station  in  1912  for 
investigation.  Its  latex-producing  characteristics  were  noted  by  a  chance  dis- 
covery in  the  Kona  district  on  Hawaii,  where  there  are  several  thousand 
acres  of  this  promising  tree.  The  natives  were  long  familiar  with  its  gum- 
like latex  and  gave  to  the  tree  the  name  koko  or  akoko,  in  allusion  to  the 
milk-sap  which  exudes  freely  from  the  injured  bark.  The  fact  that  it  is  a 
conspicuous  tree,  often  twenty-five  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  ten  inches  in 
diameter,  and  that  it  occurs  in  more  or  less  extensive  areas  on  several  islands 
of  the  group ;  and,  furthermore,  that  it  has  long  been  known  to  botanists,  hav- 
ing been  described  as  a  sub-species  by  Dr.  Gray  many  years  ago,  indicates 
how  little  attention  has  been  given  as  yet  to  the  investigation  of  the  native 
flora  from  the  economic  standpoint.  The  tree  belongs  to  the  typical  tribe  ^'-^ 
of  euphorbias  in  which  the  flowerhead  resembles  a  single  flower.  The  species 
has  the  flowerhead  almost  sessile  and  is  marked  by  having  small  linear  leaves 
with  the  veins  oblique  to  the  rib.  So  far  as  its  latex-producing  qualities  have 
been  investigated,  the  koko  seem  to  give  much  promise  as  a  rubber-yielding 
plant.  Its  discovery  points  to  the  wisdom  of  extensive  investigation  of  this 
and  other  economic  plants  native  to  the  islands,  as  well  as  those  of  promise 
from  other  lands  that  may  be  suited  to  Hawaii's  soil  and  climate,  with  a  view 
to  the  establishment  of  economic  species  in  much  of  the  island  Territory  now 
given  over  to  cattle  ranges,  or  classed  as  waste  land. 

Tobacco. 

Climate  and  soil  are  thought  to  have  a  mai'ked  influence  on  the  (|uality  of 
tobacco,-*^  and  experiments  that  have  been  conducted  in  the  islands  in  recent 


^^  Bevea  Braziliensis.         '*  Ficvs  elastira.  ^'^  Ficiis  religiosa.  ^^  Eupliarhid  lorifoHa. 

^^  Eiiphorbieoe.  -"  yicotiana   Tahncum. 


284  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

years,  under  tlie  dirt-ctiun  of  Mr.  Jared  G.  Siuith.  demonstrate  that  there  are 
extensive  areas  about  the  group  especially  suited  to  the  production  of  high- 
grade  tobacco.  The  growing  of  tobacco,  however,  is  by  no  means  a  new 
thing  in  the  islands:  it  was  early  introduced  by  the  whites  and  grown  by  the 
Ilawaiians.  It  received  only  haphazard  cultivation,  was  improperly  cured, 
and  was  invai-iahly  too  sti'ong  for  commercial  use.  It  was,  how^ever,  smoked 
by  old  Hawaiians  to  some  extent;  it  being  a  custom  among  the  natives  to  take 
a  whiff  oi-  two  and  pass  the  pipe  (made  of  a  root,  or  a  stem  or  branch)  about 
fi-nni    one   to   the   other. 

The  tobacco  phint  is  of  American  origin,  ])elonging  botanically  to  the 
tomato  and  egg-plant  family.  The  earliest  voyagers  to  America  found  the 
Indians  using  the  leaves  for  smoking,  chewing,  and  as  snuff;  pipes  and  other 
means  for  smoking  tobacco  have  been  found  buried  in  prehistoric  mounds  in 
the  United  States,  Mexico,  and  Peru. 

Sweet  and  Irish  Potatoes. 

Formerly  potato  -^  growing  was  an  important  island  industry.  In  1849 
potatoes  stood  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  exports.  The  lands  best  adapted  to 
their  growth  are  in  the  Kula  district  of  Maui,  where  they  were  introduced  and 
planted  as  early  as  1820.  Of  late  years  the  industry  has  diminished,  owing  to 
unskilled  methods  of  culture  and  the  appearance  of  various  enemies.  There 
are  several  species  and  almost  innumerable  cultural  varieties  adapted  to 
various  soils  and  conditions  that,  if  introduced,  would  doubtless  extend  and 
revive  the  industry. 

Sweet  potatoes  -^  were  at  one  time  an  important  field  crop.  Like  the 
"Irish"  potatoes,  they  were  extensively  exported  during  the  period  of  the 
gold-rush  to  California.  The  natives  recognized  as  many  as  twenty  varieties 
of  uala  (sweet  potato),  and  several  important  varieties  have  been  introduced 
from  time  to  time  by  Europeans  and  others.  It  belongs  to  the  morning-glory 
family  and  is  easily  grown,  thriving  in  loose  soils  where  the  rainfall  is  not  too 
abundant.  The  sweet  potato  is  usually  propagated  by  cutting  off  the  tops  ;ind 
l)lanting  them  in  a  hill  of  dirt  which  often  is  only  a  pile  of  loose  ash-like  soil 
scraped  together. 

Cassava  and  the  Castor  Bean  Plant. 

Cassava.--''  though  not  extensively  cultivated,  is  gi-own  with  success  in 
Hawaii.  It  is  an  introduced  European  plant  that  thrives  on  all  the  islands, 
is  free  from  pests  and  recpiires  but  little  cultivation.  Its  roots  produce  a 
useful  starch;  they  are  used  both  as  food  for  man  and  domestic  animals,  and 
in  the  manufacture  of  laundry  starch.  There  is  a  luitive  plant  well  known  to 
the  older  Hawaiians  as  pia.  or  arrow-root,  and  in  Hawaii.  Cassava  seems  to 
have  fallen  heir  to  this  name.     Hawaiian  ari-ow-root  -■*   formerlv  grew   wild. 


-•  Solaiiini'   ttihero.sinii.  --  I/Kiinciea  Batatas.  -^  Matiilmt   iitiliKxiiiiii.  "^  Ti'ccn   innniilitidn. 


INTRODUCED  PLANTS  AND  ANI.MAi.S.  285 

being  most  abundniit   on   Kaiuii.      Ft    is  (|iiil('   cotiitiiou   tlironj»ho\it    I'olynesia, 
growing  witliont  care  in  the  native  gardens. 

The  castor  bean  phmt.-''  cnltivated  in  S(n-ei-al  i)hi(M's.  lias  escaped  and 
grows  evei-ywliere  as  a  roadside  shrub,  often  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  in  height, 
with  a  trunk  twenty  or  inore  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  a  native  of  western 
Asia  and  eastern  Africa.  The  large  palmately-lobcd,  reddish-green  leaves 
and  large  terminal  flower  clusters  followed  l)y  the  prickly  three-parted  l)urrs, 
which  bear  the  vari-colored  seeds,  mark  this  familiar  plant,  grown  in  many 
gardens  on  account  of  its  distinct  ornamental  valne.  Attempts  to  izrow  the 
castor  bean  as  a  field  crop  have  failed  only  for  Avant  of  the  right  kind  of  hd)or 
to  gather  the  crop. 

Lotus. 

Another  plant  of  considerable  importance,  both  ornamentally  and  as  a 
crop,  is  the  Chinese  lotns.-"  It  is  a  native  of  China  and  the  East  generally, 
and  is  grown  in  Hawaii  by  the  I'hinese  farmers  in  taro  an^l  rice  ponds:  often 
several  acres  will  be  seen  in  a  patch.  The  root  tubers,  for  which  it  is  gi-own, 
creep  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom.  They  are  dug  at  irregular  intervals  and 
suggest  strings  of  white  sausage,  as  they  are  seen  in  the  vegetable  stalls. 
While  the  tuber  is  a  favorite  food  of  the  Orientals,  especially  the  Chinese, 
Europeans  and  others  seldom  tkste  them,  preferring  to  admire  the  orna- 
mental effect  of  the  large  orbicular  leaves  and  splendid  cream-colon-d.  showy 
flowers  that  stand  high  al)ove  the  water.  The  seeds  are  found  in  an  odd- 
shaped,  flat-toi)ped  receptacle,  and  are  also  esteemed  as  food  by  the  Oi-ientals. 

Nuts. 

The  curious  Chinese  hoi-ned-init  -'  is  also  cultivated  in  shallow  jxnids  by 
the  Chinese,  who  boil  the  nuts,  much  as  chestnuts  are  pi-epared  by  the  .lapanese. 

Peanuts,-'^  ground-nuts  or  goober-nuts,  as  they  are  variously  called,  were 
once  grown  to  some  extent,  principally  for  the  oil.  The  croj)  is  well  adajileil 
to  conditions  in  Hawaii,  as  has  been  jiroved  by  recent  experinuMits.  and  it  is  to 
be  regretted  that  they  are  only  grown  foi-  the  local  demand,  since,  being  a 
member  of  the  great  bean  family,  they  store  much  valuable  nitrogen  and  ari' 
therefore  beneficial  to  the  soil,  besides  producing  a  valuable  forage  for  aninuds. 
In  competition  with  the  large  California  nuts,  the  island-urown  ]n"odnct  is 
much  finer  flavored  and  are  generally  preferred  in  the  local   maiUei. 

The  peanut  is  really  not  a  nut,  however.  It  is  a  riix'iied  pod  with  edible 
seeds,  produced  by  a  plant  reseml)ling  a  pea  or  bean.  When  the  tiower  falls. 
the  flower  stem  grows  rapidly,  curving  down  into  the  ground.  The  pea- 
nut is  a  native  of  Brazil,  where  several  closel\-allied  species  are  found.  In 
cultivation  a  number  of  important  varieties  have  been  produced,  sevei-al  of 
which  have  been  experimentally  gi-owii  iu  Hawaii. 

Among  the  plants  grown  especially  as  green  i'(Htd  for  animals  is  soi-iihinn.-" 


-^  Ririnus  co)ininntiK.         -'^  .Xclii'iiliiiim   .iiirriosinii.  -'  Tin/ia   iintatis.  -'' A  rarhix  hiiiiot/irn. 

-"  Aitdropoyon   Sory)tum. 


286  .       NATURAL    IIISTOKY   OF    HAWAII. 

It  is  a  jiTciss-likc  plant,  very  wrll  suited  to  the  soil,  and  is  re.srarded  as  the 
most  protitable  crop  for  forage  in  the  islands.  It  is  grown  usually  by  irri- 
gation and  has  its  greatest  use  as  feed  for  milch  cows. 

Forage  Grass. 

Of  the  grasses,  Bei-muda  grass,  known  locally  as  manienie ''^*'  or  creeping 
grass,  has  found  a  permanent  place  in  the  islands.  The  lawns  are  sodded  with 
it.  and  it  spreads  over  waste  places  and  affords  valuable  pasture  for  stock 
l)elow  the  elevation  of  800  fe(4.  It  was  introduced  in  18:35  by  Dr.  A.  F.  Judd. 
Alfalfa  or  lucerne -^^  is  also  cultivated  to  some  extent  under  irrigation,  especially 
by  dairymen.  It  is  a  native  of  southw^estern  Asia,  but  has  long  been  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  Europe  and  America.  Its  purplish-white  clover-like 
flowers  and  hairy,  coiled  seed  pods  will  separate  it  from  the  true  clovers,-^- 
which  are  seldom  seen  in  Hawaii.  (Juinea  grass  ^^  is  also  cultivated  by  many 
dairymen,  yielding  a  number  of  crops  from  one  seeding,  if  grown  under  irri- 
gation, l)ut  Para  grass  ^'*  is  gaining  favor  more  rapidly  than  any  of  the  strictly 
forage  grasses. 

All  of  tlie  foregoing  grasses  and  a  long  list  of  other  species  were,  of  course, 
introduced,  coming  M'ith  commerce  or  being  purposely  planted.  They  supple- 
ment a  iiuiii1)er  of  native  grasses,  some  of  which  are  of  value  as  food  for  stock. 
Among  the  more  important  indigenous  grasses  should  be  mentioned  the  native 
manienie,^^  the  kukaepuaa  ■^'''  and  the  pili,-^"  which  grow  generally  over  the 
group  to  4500  feet  elevation.  The  latter,  while  vei-y  good  pasturage  for  horses 
and  cattle,  is  not  as  good  for  sheep,  for,  like  the  piipii,-**^  a  common  grass  on 
open  dry  plains  and  slopes,  it  bears  sharp,  stiff  awns  about  the  seeds  that  get 
entangled  in  the  animals'  m'ooI. 

Most  of  the  foregoing  grazing  grasses  are  being  rai)idly  crowded  out  by 
the  rank-growing,  worthless  Hilo  grass,^''  which  is  not  eaten  by  animals.  It 
appeared  about  1840  in  the  district  of  Hilo,  having  been  brought  to  the  islands 
in  some  unknown  way,  presumably  from  tropical  America.  The  edges  of  its 
coarse  leaves  are  rough  to  the  touch,  and  the  stem  ends  in  two  slender  spikes, 
three  to  five  inches  in  length.  A  closely  related  species  ^*^  has  from  three  to 
six  alternate  spikes  and  is  common  in  swampy  ground  in  heavy  soil.  It  was 
used  by  the  Hawaiians  to  some  extent  as  a  thatch.  The  mischief  done  l)y  Hilo 
grass  is  an  example  of  the  damage  that  may  be  brought  about  through  the 
inti-oduction.  pur])osely  oi-  otherwise,  of  undesirable  plants  or  animals. 

Weeds. 

Space  is  too  limited  for  an  extended  list  of  imported  plant  pests  affecting 
the  farmer  and  ranchman,  but  a  number  of  undesirable  species  have  been 
introduced  and  have  prospered  in  Hawaii.     Among  them  are  the  common  pur- 


3"  Cynodim   dnrfi/hni.  »!  Mfdicuijo  satirtt.  ^-  TrifoHum.  »»  I'rniiriDii   ttidjiina. 

^*_Panicum  MoUe.  ^^  StenoJaphnnii.  ^«  Panicuw   priiriens. 

''  Setropoffon  =  (Andropogon)    contortiis.  ^s  Chry.sopogon   acirulatus.  ^^  }'(i.spnlini(    ccnijugatum. 

*"  I'aspalum  orbicularie. 


lXTR(^l)rrEn  IM.AXTS  AXD  AXT>rALS.  287 

slane  or  pussly  ^^  ot  our  uardeiis;  two  species  of  ])epper  urass  ;■♦-  a  sensilive 
plant  *'■'  with  tine  leaves  and  snnill,  found.  ])iid\ish  tiower  heads  :  the  tlca-hnnc.** 
the  ilit)he  ot"  the  natives;  the  eoeivlebur/"'  ^rowinL;'  almost  pei'cuMi;dl\'  and 
occasionally  attaining  a  diameter  of  three  inches  at  the  o'round :  the  sand 
hurr:^''  the  Jamestown  weed;'"  the  phiidaiu:^''  the  wihl  un-jiniuiii  ;'■'  and, 
lastly,  and  perhaps  worst  of  all  from  an  a'^^i-icnltural  poiid  of  view,  the  nut 
grass,  coco  grass  or  Japanese  grass — a  pest  repi-oducinLi  by  nn1dil<e  l)idl»s  and 
by  seed,  and  necessitating  the  utmost  care  to  eradicate  fi-om  mltixatcd  fiehls, 
lawns  and  gardens.  Among  the  more  common  of  the  related  species,''^  often 
called  luit  grass,  is  one  that  first  appeared  in  Hawaii  about  the  year  1850  ;ind 
has  since  spread  to  all  cultivated  lands.  In  this  species  the  tul)ers  of  the  root- 
stoek  liave  a  curious  pungent  taste. 

Livestock. 

This  account  of  agriculture  would  be  incomplete  witiiout  at  least  a  pass- 
ing reference  to  the  live  stock  of  the  islands.  All  of  the  domestic  aidmals 
have  been  introduced  since  the  first  visit  of  Captain  Cook.  In  many  instances 
live  stock  has  had  more  to  do  with  ])i'inging  about  the  altered  condilions  wilh 
which  the  native  fauna  and  floi'a  have  had  to  contend  than  ;dl  the  other 
agricultural  pursuits  put  together,  epoch-making  as  they  hav(^  been. 

The  first  cattle  and  sheep  were  introduced  in  17!)4  by  Vancouver  and 
landed  at  Kealakekua  Bay,  and  in  time  became  wild  in  the  mountains  on  all 
the  islands.  A  large  proi)ortion  of  all  the  meat  consumed  in  the  isbinds  is 
home-grown.  Formerly  cattle  were  so  abundant  that  they  were  slaughtered 
for  their  hides  and  tallow,  but  that  time  has  long  since  passed.  Horses  were 
first  brought  to  Haw^aii  in  1808.  They  were  landed  at  Kawaihae  and  La- 
haina  and  were  the  progenitoi's  of  the  islaiul  strain  of  horses.  Pigs  and  goats 
of  English  breeds  were  first  introduced  in  1778  by  Captain  Cook.  Turkeys 
were  introduced  as  early  as  1815. 

Wild  cattle,  sheep,  hogs  and  goats  were  allowed  to  i-un  at  will  in  I  lie 
forests,  with  the  result  that  the  animals  trampled  down  the  undei-growth  and 
destroyed  the  bushes,  even  digging  up  the  roots  of  many  of  the  moi-e  nuti-itious 
of  the  forest  growths.  Owing  to  the  exposure  of  theii-  I'oots  ;ind  stems,  many 
of  the  larger  trees  died  and  soon  after  became  infested  with  insects,  whitdi  in 
turn  multiplied  in  proportion  to  the  increased  supply  of  their  favorite  food. 


"  Portulaca   oleracea.  *'^  Lcpidium   Virftinicum   and  SeneMera  didi/ma.  ^^  Mimoxa  i>udira. 

**  Kriiieron    Canadensis.         *=  Xanthium   struiiiariiiiii.        *'*  Cenchnis  cchiiuitus.        *'  Datura   Strunioiiiiim. 

^'^  I'laiifai/o    major.        *'  Geranitnii  Carotiiiianidii. 

^''  Kylliiifja  monocpphala,  a  species  often  confused  with  several  si)ecies  of  tlie  n  luted  genera  of  Cyperacem. 

^^  f'!/l"'rus  rotinidus. 


End  of  Book  One 


BOOI\  TWO 
The  Animal  Life  of  the  Group 


PLATE  75.     FOUR    STAGES    IN    THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    HAWAIIAN 

ARCHIPELAGO   (After  Pilsbry). 

1.     Showing  the  outline  of  the  pan-Hawaiian  island.     During  this  stage  the  group  from 
beyond   Kauai   to   and   including   the    Kohala    mountains   were   united    by    land.      2.    The    first 

(Description    of   Plate    Continued    on    tlic    Oiijiosite   Pntjc.) 


Natural  History  of  Hawaii. 


SEicTiON  five: 

THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GEOll'. 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

VARIOUS  AXLMALS  FRO.M  LAND  AND  SEA. 

Hawaiian  Rats. 

The  HaAvaiian  rat  ^  was  the  largest  land  ariinia]  iiihahitiiiu'  the  islands  at 
the  time  of  their  discovery  by  Captain  Cook.  Unfortunately,  the  species 
appears  not  only  to  have  completely  disappeared,  but  so  far  as  is  known  not 
a  single  specimen  has  been  preserved  in  any  natural  history  collection  or 
museum. 2  This  seems  most  singular,  as  we  know  from  Hawaiian  tradition 
that  at  one  time  they  wei-e  very  a])undant,  and  for  many  years  wei-e  trouble- 
some in  cane  fields. 

From  all  accounts,  they  were  small  in  size,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  sug- 
gested that  their  place  was  taken  shortly  after  the  discovery  of  the  islands 
by  the  common,  wide-ranging  grey  and  black  rats,  as  these  two  species  have 
traveled  all  over  the  world  in  ships  and  were  no  do\ibt  passengers  on  the  first 
ships  to  touch  at  the  group.  It  is  thought  that  the  early  and  comi)iete  disap- 
pearance of  the  native  species  may  have  been  due  to  the  aggressive  disposition 
of  the  new  comers,  particularly  of  the  brown  or  Norway  species,  as  wherever 
this  rat  has  gone — and  it  is  a  great  traveler — it  has  gained  a  footing  and.  in 
many  places,  completely  replaced  the  less  pugnacious  native  forms. 

The  brown  rat  ^  is  the  larger  of  the  two  common  species  in  Hawaii  at  the 
present  time.  It  is  generally  believed  that  this  species  is  a  native  of  Western 
China,  but  it  was  known  in  England  as  eai-ly  as  1780,  Avhoi-o  it  ranic  to  be 
generally,  though  erroneously,  called  the  Norway  rat.  it  can  he  at  once  recog- 
nized by  its  heavy  build,  massive  blunt  muzzle,  comparatively  small  ears  and 


•  lole. 

-  Mr.    J.    P.    G.    Stokes,    of    the    Bishop    Museum,    secured    bones    of    what    is    supposed    to    have    been 
the  Hawaiian   rat   on   Kahoohiwe,   April.    1913.  ^  Miis  di'imntKniii.i  =  Mux  norrei/iriix. 


(Description    of   Plate    Continued   from    Opposite   Page.) 

period  of  siiljsidoiK'o  formod  the  cliaiinpl  between  Kauai  (2a)  and  the  Oalni,  ^lolokai,  Maui. 
Lanai,  Kohala  land  (21i).  .3.  Tlie  second  marl<ed  period  of  sidisidence  separated  Waianae  (.SI)) 
and  probably  Koolau  (3c)  as  islands  at  one  end  and  Koliala  (oe)  at  the  other  end  of  the 
Molokai,  Lanai,  Maui  area  (3d).  4.  Shows  the  last  stajre  of  subsidence;  the  island  of  Niihau 
(4a)  separated  from  Kauai  (4b)  ;  the  two  islands  (3b  and  3c)  united  to  form  Oahu  (4c)  and 
the  islands  of  Molokai  (4d),  Lanai  (4e),  Maui  (4f)  and  Kahoolawe  (4g)  separated  In-  ehan 
nels  less  than  100  fathoms  deep. 

291 


292  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

relatively  slioi-t  tail,  the  tail  always  being  less  than  tliat  of  the  h</ad  and  ])0(ly 
and  usually  uot  louucr  than  the  body  aloin'.  The  color  of  the  ui>})er  part  is 
usuall\'  a   grayish  lu'own. 

The  l)Iack  rat.'  or  one  of  its  nnmerons  varieties,  is  onr  common  tree  rat. 
It  is  siuallfi'  and  moi'e  elegantl\-  built  tluin  the  brown  rat,  and  has  a  longer 
and  tliiuiici-  tail.  'I'lic  body  of  a  full-grown  specimen  is  about  seven  inches 
in  length,  while  the  tail  may  be  eight  or  nine  inches  long.  Its  long,  slender 
snout,  large  ears  and  bluish  color  are  characteristics  that  serve  to  make  it  easy 
of  identification.  Like  the  bi-own  i-ats.  they  were  introduced  into  Europe  from 
the  Hast,  but  at  a  much  earlier  date,  reaching  the  continent  early  in  the  thir- 
teenth century.  In  Hawaii  they  live  both  on  the  ground  and  in  trees,  but 
owiuL;'  to  tile  presence  of  their  pugnacious  cousins,  they  prefer  the  treetops. 
There  they  make  their  nests,  usually  in  the  crowns  of  cocoanut  palms,  and 
feed  upon  the  fruit  of  these  useful  trees,  often  doing  much  damage  by  gnaw- 
ing the  young  fruits.  They  also  gnaw  through  the  roofs  of  houses.  They  are 
seldom  seen  during  the  day.  but  at  night  they  become  very  active,  and  in  the 
twilight  may  be  seen  leaping  from  In-anch  to  l)ranch  and  from  tree  to  tree. 
On  several  occasions  the  writer  has  seen  them  travel  along  the  electric  light 
wires  from  one  pole  to  another.  It  is  in  this  manner  that  they  often  make 
their  way  into  houses  and  outbuildings  that  are  thought  to  be  rat-proof. 

Four  species  of  rats '^  have  been  taken  in  Hawaii  l)y  the  otfieial  rat- 
catchers for  the  city,  and  are  recognized  as  residents  of  Honolulu. 

Rats  as  Plague  Carriers. 

Since  it  has  been  definitely  determined  that  the  fleas  so  common  on  rats 
are  the  carriers  of  the  germs  which  cause  the  bubonic  plague,  every  precau- 
tion has  been  taken  to  prevent  rats  landing  in  the  various  ports  of  Hawaii 
from  vessels  coming  from  seaports  where  plague  is  known  to  exist.  Moi'e- 
over,  a  sustained  effort  has  also  been  made  to  reduce  the  number  of  rats  in 
the  islands. 

It  has  been  ])roved  beyond  ([uestion  that  the  i)lague  geriu  may  be  carried 
from  the  infected  I'at  by  the  fleas  that  feed  on  the  blood  of  the  living  animal. 
If  the  rat  dies,  the  fleas  leave  their  host  and  seek  some  other  rat.  or.  failing 
that,  will  take  up  a  temporary  residence  on  a  cat  or  a  dog.  This  minute  but 
troublesome  insect  may  then  l)e  transferred  directly  or  indirectly  to  a  human 
host.  Its  bite  too  often  results  in  transferring  to  the  blood  of  the  individual 
the  germ  which  it  di'ew  into  its  system  from  the  infected  rat.  In  many  cases 
the  person  so  bitten  contracts  the  dreaded  disease,  which  often  has  proved 
fatal. 

Royal  Sport. 

A  s[)ecies  of  mouse  was  also  common  in  ancient  Hawaii.  They  furnished 
the  upper  class  of  natives  with  a  form  of  royal  sport  out  of  the  usual  style 


*  ^fl(K   rattits.  ■•Mils   rdttiix.   .1/.   uli'.rdiKlriiiKx.   M .    iinrrci/iciis  ;iiul   .1/.    tiiK.truliis. 


THE  ANI.MAL  LIFE  OF  TlIF   GKOFP.  293 

of  amusement  resorted  to  by  kiiii^s  niul  princes;  i1  cDiisislcd  in  slKiolinu  mice 
as  a  pastime.  This  royal  sporl  did  not  ])ai-1akt'  of  the  naliirc  ol'  a  ci'oss- 
eouiitry  limit.  The  tiny  animals  were  ('(tnlincd  in  a  cocdxpitdikc  ciKdosiirc  mikI 
were  shot  at  with  small  bows  and  arrows.  ISingularly  cnonuli.  the  l)ow  and 
arrow  in  the  hands  of  the  Ilawaiians  was  only  a  loy,  lieiny  used  solely  for 
killing  mice  and  the  flightless  Ilawrnian  rail  in  the  inimncr  sim'uestcd  in  an 
early  chapter. 

Mice. 

The  lioiise  mouse''  is  the  same  species  that  is  common  ;dl  ovci'  the  world. 
They  doubtless  originated  in  Asia.  l)ut  their  partiality  for  human  habitations, 
and  their  omnivorous  food  habits,  has  resulted  in  their  l)eing  carried  far  and 
wide  by  man  as  an  unwelcome  passenger  in  his  goods  wherever  cargo  has 
gone  by  sea  or  land.  In  dcmiestication,  white  and  siiotted  varieties  of  boih 
the  house  mouse  and  the  black  rat  are  common  <uid  have  long  ])een  kei)t  as 
children's  pets. 

There  is  a  species  of  long-tailed  field-mouse  that  is  quite  common  in  the 
fields  about  Honolulu.  It  is  probably  of  more  recent  introduction,  doubtless 
reaching  the  islands  from  California  in  bailed  hay  or  in  grain. 

Rabbits  and  Guinea  Pigs. 

Rabbits  '  have  been  introduced  and  liberated  on  two  or  three  small  islands 
in  the  group.  Rabbit  Island,  a  tuff-cone  on  the  windward  side  of  Oahu,  near 
Makapuu  Point,  is  thickly  populated  with  a  mongrel  breed,  the  original  stock 
of  which  was  introduced  a  number  of  years  ago. 

In  1903  and  1904  rabbits  of  several  varieties,  including  the  Belgian  hare 
and  large  white  rabbits,  were  liberated  on  Laysan  Island.  They  increased  at 
such  an  astonishingly  rapid  rate  that  within  six  years  the  island  was  overrini 
with  them.  A  special  expedition  was  sent  out  by  the  Governtiieiit  for  the 
purpose  of  exterminating  them,  as  they  threatencHl  to  wi])e  out  the  sraiity 
native  plant  life  found  there. 

The  familiar  variegated  European  guinea-{)ig,  althongli  a  common  [)el  in 
captivity  in  Honolulu  for  many  years,  was  liberated  on  Laysan  Island  at  the 
same  time  as  the  rabbits,  and  has  found  a  congenial  habitat.  tliouL:ti  its  I'ale  of 
increase  has  by  no  means  l)een  so  rapid  as  that  of  the  rabbits.  As  to  the 
origin  of  the  domestic  guinea-pig,  zoologists  are  somewhat  in  doubt.  It  is 
thought,  however,  that  Cutler's  cavy  "^  was  kept  in  a  state  of  doiiu'slicaliiui 
by  the  Incas  of  Peru,  and  that  the  guinea-pig  was  iidrodueed  into  I-'urope  by 
the  Dutch  in  the  sixteenth  century,  shortly  aflei-  the  discovery  of  .Vmei'ica. 
Various  breeds  have  lieen  developed  under  domestication  as  pets  for  children, 
but  in  more  recent  times  they  have  lieen  iiiueh  usi^d  in  laboratories  foi-  expei'i- 
mental  purposes. 

Cats"  Avere  early  brought  to  the  islands,  pi-obably  c(uning  on  the  lii'st 
ships.     They  were   called  popoki  '"   by   the   natives,     in   course  of  time   they 


'''Mti.s-    ii:  Kxriilii.t.  '  Lf/iiiK  sp.  '^Cnriii   ciitlfri.  "  Fi'li.i  iloiiii'stifii .  "'I'linr    (lussy, 


CS 

CO 

at 


Ik 


<1 


<1 


H  ^ 


C  o 


Eh     1W 


S  GQ 


5-2 

^^  So 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  295 

began  to  escape  to  a  wild  life,  living  on  birds  and  mice  in  the  mountains.  AVild 
cats  are  particularly  troublesome  in  Hawaii.  They  are  occasionally  hunted, 
especially  by  sportsmen  in  pursuit  of  wild  cattle,  goats,  pigs,  chickens  and 
turkeys,  all  of  which,  like  the  cats,  have  lived  many  generations  in  a  perfectly 
wild  state  in  the  mountain  forests  on  different  islands  of  the  group. 

Native  Bats. 

There  seems  to  have  been  at  least  one  and  perhaps  two  species  of  native 
bats  in  the  islands.  They  have  always  been  rare,  but  apparently  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  the  uplands  of  Hawaii ;  Dr.  R.  C.  L.  Perkins  reports  having  seen  the 
small  Hawaiian  bat,ii  or  opeapea,  on  both  Oahu  and  Kauai.  This  bat  appears 
to  be  the  only  undisputed  natural  mammalian  immigrant  to  the  group,  as  the  so- 
called  native  rat  and  mouse  could  have  been  easily  carried  to  Hawaii  in  the 
wreckage  of  foreign  i-  vessels  that  may  have  reached  the  islands  by  chance 
long  before  their  discoverv  bv  Cook. 


'& 


Hogs  and  Dogs. 

c 

While  it  is  perfectly  proper  to  say  that  the  rat,  bat,  and  mouse  were  the 
only  native  species  of  mammalia  found  by  Captain  Cook,  w^e  can  well  afford 
to  consider  in  this  connection  mammals  that  were  of  native  introduction — 
namely,  the  hog  ^^  and  the  clog.^^  Just  as  the  Polynesian  people  carried  useful 
plants  with  them  on  their  w^anderings,  they  also  brought  with  them  in  their 
canoes  these  two  highly-prized  and  useful  domestic  animals  known  to  them 
in  their  more  ancient  home.  The  hogs^''  varied  greatly  in  color,  as  they  were 
black,  white, ^^  brindle,  striped,  reddish  and  spotted,  indicating  that  the  species 
had  long  been  in  domestication.  The  Hawaiian  dog  was  fed  largely  on  poi, 
and  was  much  relished  as  food  in  old-time  Hawaii.  Like  the  hogs,  they  were 
classed  according  to  their  color,  there  being  sevei'al  well-recognized  color- 
types.  The  Hawaiians  also  introduced  a  fowl.^'  which  was  everywhere  a 
common  article  of  food  at  the  time  of  Captain  Cook's  visit. 

Introduced  Animals. 

Since  the  discovery  of  the  islands  a  luunber  of  maminals  and  hifds  have 
been  introduced  by  accident  or  design  whicli  have  been  pcruiitlcd  1o  I'ctiirn 
to  a  wnld  state  and  in  many  instances  are  (|uilc  coniuion.  The  liist  introduc- 
tion of  this  class  was  that  of  goats  and  English  pigs,  and  was  made  by  Captain 
Cook  himself.  One  ram  and  two  ewes  and  a  paii-  of  ])i^s  wci-c  Icil  hy  hini  on 
Niihau  in  1788.  Cattle  and  sheep  were  inti'oduccd  hy  Vancouver  fi-oiii  Cali- 
fornia in  1794.  They  were  landed  on  Hawaii  and  I'apidly  increased  in  num- 
ber. The  first  horses  in  Hawaii  arrived  in  iSo;',  and  wci-e  presentetl  to  Ivanie- 
hmeha   I. 


1'  Laniuni.'i  sen70t}/s.  ^-  Spanish.  '^  Puna.  ^*  Ilio.  "•  .Sirt  sp. 

1"  The    white    hogs    were    often    used    in  niakins  ofTerings   and  sacritices  to  the  gods  of    ancient    Hawaii. 

'^"  Moa  =  chicken  :   moa   kane,   rooster:   niiia   wahine,   lien. 


296  XATIHAL    HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

Tlic  Hfst  deer  were  broii.iilit  tu  Hawaii  from  Okhotsk,  Siberia,  in  1856,  l)ut  the 
.Moh)kai  herd  of  .spotted  deer^^  originated  from  a  small  tloek  of  eight  that 
^vere  sent  to  Kamehanieha  V.,  from  Japan  in  1867.  They  increased  in  nnmbers 
at  a  i-emarkahic  rate;  so  i-apidly,  indeed,  that  they  were  thought  to  threaten 
the  destiMictioii  of  the  foi-i'sts.  Some  years  hiter  the  government  found  it  neces- 
sai'\-  to  i'iiii)loy  i)rofessional  hunters  to  reduce  their  number;  but  deer  are  still 
phMitiful  on  Ah»hikai.  and  they  furnish  the  sportsmen  of  the  islands  with  big 
game  shootini;'  each  season. 

The  ground  coloi-  of  the  fur  of  the  spotted  deer  is  rufous-fawn;  the  whole 
of  the  body  being  marked  by  a  number  of  spots  which  are  present  at  all  ages 
of  the  aninuils  and  throughout  the  year.  These  spots  tend  to  arrange  them- 
selves in  longitudinal  lines.  There  is  a  blackish  line  running  down  the  back 
from  th(^  nape  of  the  neck  to  the  base  of  the  tail.  White  prevails  on  the 
inside  of  the  ears,  the  chin,  the  upper  part  of  the  throat,  the  inside  of  the  legs, 
as  well  as  the  inider  surface  of  the  tail.  A  few  very  large  bucks  have  been  shot 
on  Molokai.  l>ut  the  average  of  the  largest  would  seem  to  lie  about  150  pounds, 
while  the  does  seldom  weigh  more  than  half  as  much. 

The  spotted  or  axis  deer  is  a  native  of  India  and  Ceylon.  It  is  a  common 
species  in  deer  parks  everywhere,  and  has  been  lilierated  in  several  coun- 
tries in  the  Orient.  They  i)refer  to  live  in  the  foi-ests  at  from  three  to  four 
tliousand  feet  elevation,  where  they  frequently  congregate  in  small  droves,  usually 
in  the  neighborhood  of  their  drinking  places.  During  the  middle  of  the  day 
they  manage  to  keep  out  of  sight,  Init  as  darkness  comes  on  they  become  active 
and  continue  to  feed  diu'ing  the  night  and  for  some  tinu^  after  sun-up.  If 
disturbed  during  the  day  they  try  to  steal  quietly  away  by  creeping  stealthily 
off  though  the  undergrowth. 

The  ]\Iongoose. 

The  mongoose  was  first  l)i'ought  from  Jamaica,  West  Indies,  in  1883. 
Thirty-six  pairs  were  imported  and  liberated  on  Hawaii  in  the  hope  that  they 
would  be  of  value  in  freeing  the  cane  fields  of  rats.  Unfortunately,  they  were 
carried  from  on(»  ishuui  to  another  before  their  habits  were  fully  understood, 
with  the  result  that  all  of  the  islands,  -with  the  exception  of  Kauai,  are  now 
infested  with  this  animal  tliat  has  proved  to  be  a  pest,  about  which  but 
little  can  be  said  in  its  favor.  The  mongoose  i'*  is  a  native  of  India,  where  the 
common  species  is  easily  tamed.  It  is  yellowish-gray  in  color,  flecked  Avith 
black,  and  is  mink-like  in  size  and  general  appearance.  Its  fondness  for 
poultry  and  eggs  renders  it  a  serious  meiuice  to  the  ranchman.  In  the  back 
country  and  the  wild  mountains  it  does  much  damage  to  grouiul-nesting  birds, 
and  is  listed  as  one  among  the  nuiny  causes  of  the  rapid  decrease  in  the 
nnml)er  of  several  of  the  llawaiaian  species. 

Skinks  and  Geckos. 
Of  the  land  i-eptiles  oidy   seven   species  of  small   geckos   and  skinks  have 


18  CemiK   a.ii-i.  '"  II erjif nil's  (jrineus. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  TlIK   (iliOUP.  297 

so  far  been  described  from  the  islands.  They  are  eoniiii(iiil\  called  lizards  hy 
Europeans,  but  were  all  known  by  llic  name  moo  l)\-  Ihc  iiatiNc  iiihaliitants, 
and  were  worshipped  as  gods  by  the  female  chiefs.  All  ni'  Ihc  species  are 
quite  generally  distributed  over  the  group,  and.  according  to  my  fi-icnd  l)i-.  L. 
Stejneger,  avIio  has  given  the  subject  much  study,  the  species  found  in  llic 
islands  have  a  wide  distribution  throughout   Polynesia. 

They  are  interesting,  harmless  little  creatures  that  do  much  towards 
keeping  mites,  ants  and  mosrpiitoes  in  elieck.  For  tln^  most  ])ar1  they  are 
nocturnal  in  habit  and  are  very  often  seen  about  houses,  on  laiiais  and 
wuidoAV  screens.  During  the  daytime  the  common  species  find  sheltei-  in  the 
dark,  under  boards,  in  crevices  in  the  bark  of  trees  or  any  place  where  they 
can  secrete  themselves.  Their  white  eggs  are  a])(>nt  the  size  of  a  small  l)ean, 
and  are  usually  attached  to  some  object  near  llic  place  where  the  nidi  her 
hides  during  the  day.  In  due  coui'se  of  time  the  young  animal  liatches  fi'om 
the  egg  and  is  a  miniature  of  the  adult.  It  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
length,  and  at  once  takes  up  the  task  of  supplying  itself  with  its  natui-al  food. 
They  become  quite  tame  and  in  many  homes  are  protected  and  live  a  shell eicd 
life  in  a  state  of  semi-domestication. 

Of  the  seven  species,  four  belong  to  the  gecko  family.-"  The  peculiarities 
which  separate  them  at  once  from  the  skink  family  are  the  presence  of  a  large 
symmetrical  shield  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  the  absence  of  miinite  scales 
over  the  body.  All  four  species  of  gecko  have  been  taken  in  the  same  house, 
and  the  characteristics  which  separate  them  from  one  another  are  somewhat 
obscure,  to  the  ordinary  observer.  Those  interested  in  identifying  the  sjx'cies 
should  consult  Dr.  Stejneger's  account  of  the  land  reptiles  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands. 

The  three  species  of  skinks -^  are  snuill,  smooth  and  shiny,  and  all  have 
more  or  less  conspicuous  longitudinal  stripes.  They  have  much  Itie  same 
habits  as  have  already  been  described  for  the  geckos  and,  like  them,  are  vei'y 
liable  to  lose  a  portion  of  their  tails  at  the  slightest  provocation.  The  missing 
portion  may  be  replaced  in  due  time  with  a  new  tail  which  is  usually  smaller 
than  the  portion  lost.  On  rai'e  occasions  two  oi-  three  tails  will  gi-ow  (Uit  of 
the  injured  stunq),  giviim  the  animal  an  odd  appcai-ance.  The  ability  of, 
the  gecku  to  change  color  in  order  to  resemble  the  object  upon  which  it  is  i-esting 
furnishes  an  example  of  voluntary  color  ])rotection  that  is  most  interesting. 

Frogs  and  Toads. 

The  first  frogs  were  bi'ought  to  the  islands  hy  the  I\oyal  Agi'iciiltural 
Society  at  a  date  prior  to  1867.  The  earliest  delinitely  recorded  shi|mient, 
however,  was  made  in  the  year  just  mentioiuxl.  ^\•hell  "frogs  were  libciatcd 
at  Paw^aa,"  in  TTonolulu.  Several  species  of  frogs  ami  loads  ha\-e  heen 
introduced  into  the  group  in  more  recent  years,  fi-om  .Tai)an  and  .VnnM-ica.  with 
the  residt  that  they  are  now  connuon  in  .-dl  the  fresh  wati-r  stn^ims  ami  ponds 


-"  Geckuiiidir.  -'  Sriiicida'. 

20 


■.^ 


r2 


■9-  ^ 

a! 


-    o 

fcyo  0) 


O  0; 
^  00 
S     IB 


z 


I- 

I— 


rt  ft 
o 

-gffl 
0-f= 


^02 


"   c 


►^  o 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  299 

in  the  Territofx'.  They  are  of  iiiucli  iiiiportjiiicc  in  ihc  cvcm'-iii-csi'iiI  ii<iht 
against  mosquitoes,  since  they  are  known  to  feed  on  llirir  l;irv;i'.  'I'lu'v  ;ire 
also  supposed  to  feed  on  the  liver-fluke  which  is  (piilc  coiiiiiion  in  cciijiin 
localities.  Bullfrogs--  of  very  large  size  and  wi1li  nci-v  (Icc|)  hull-like  voices 
are  well  established,  and  frogs'  legs  are  often  seen   in   the  markets. 

Tadpoles  of  the  various  species  of  frogs  and  toads  are  ])lentifiil  in  the 
pools  along  the  streams  far  up  into  the  mountains  and  arc  sure  to  attract  th(^ 
attention  of  the  student  of  iiature.  A  few  captured  and  placed  in  a  jar  at 
home  or  at  school  will  prove  of  great  interest,  as  the  transformation  proceeds  from 
an  aquatic  tish-like  animal  with  gills,  to  an  air-breathing  quadruped  with  lungs. 

No  Snakes  in  Hawaii. 

Fortunately,  there  are  no  land  snakes  in  Hawaii.  On  several  occasions, 
hovrever,  snakes  from  California  have  reached  the  islands  in  bailed  liay.  but 
as  yet  they  have  never  made  their  escape  so  as  to  become  established  hei-e. 
The  same  is  true  of  certain  California  lizards.  A  specimen  fifteen  inclies  in 
length  w^as  killed  on  the  wharf  in  Honolulu  harbor  a  few  years --^  ago.  P>ut  as 
commerce  from  outside  ports  is  safeguarded  at  present,  thei-e  is  little  dang(M' 
of  the  larger  reptiles  gaining  a  foothold  here. 

Turning  from  the  land  and  fresh-water  vertebrates  to  those  inhabiting  the 
sea,  three  specimens  of  sea-snakes  are  reported  to  have  been  collected 
in  Hawaiian  w^aters.  Two  specimens,  secured  on  opposite  sides  of  Oalui,  ai'e 
preserved  in  the  Bishop  Museum.  The  first  specimen  reported,  however,  was 
identified  by  Prof.  II.  W.  Henshaw.  It  was  taken  alive  at  Laupahoehoe,  on  Ha- 
waii, in  1902,  by  ]Mr.  E.  AV.  Barnard.  When  found,  the  creature  was  sunning  it- 
self on  shore  and  had  evidently  come  from  the  water  to  shed  its  outei'  skin,  which 
was  still  attached  to  the  body.  The  family  of  sea-snakes -"^  to  which  this 
species  belongs  is  characterized  by  having  the  tail  flattened  to  serve  as  a  fin. 
The  specimen,--''  being  the  first  sea-snake  to  be  taken  in  Hawaii,  made  (piite  a 
stir  at  the  time,  but  as  it  was  but  two  feet  in  length,  and  as  only  three  speci- 
mens have  been  reported  in  the  history  of  the  islands,  theii-  occui-rence  hei-e 
may  be  considered  purely  accidental. 

Sea-Turtles. 

Among  the  more  important  animals  inhabiting  the  sea.  uu-ntion  should  be 
made  of  the  two  species  of  sea-turtles  that  occur  in  the  watei-s  aliout  the  islands. 
They  are  known  as  the  honu  and  the  e-a  by  the  natives,  who  ai-e  \-ei-y  foiul  of 
the  honu  as  a  food.  In  former  times  the  llawaiians  made  use  of  the  shell  plates 
in  the  manufacture  of  fish  hooks,  scrapers  for  removing  the  ti-ash  fi-om  olona 
fiber,  and,  to  some  extent,  in  more  recent  times,  in  the  manufactui-e  of  oi'ua- 
ments.  Turtles  two  feet  or  more  across  the  shell  are  not  rare,  though  the 
specimens  which  reach  the  market  are  usually  much  smallei-.  In  both  species 
the   limbs  have   become   conijiletely   modified    into    llippei-s   oi-    paddles    which 


-- Rana    catesbiana.         =''1911.  -^  II tidiniihidce.  "^' Ui/dnis  jilntiini.i. 


300  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

enal)le  them  td  swim  swiflly  in  the  se;i.  but  render  them  almost  helpk'ss  on  the 
laud,  where  if  turued  on  tlieir  baek,  they  caunot  regain  their  normal  position. 
They  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  sand  in  nests  which  they  scoop  out  to  a  depth  of  two 
feet  or  more.  The  most  abundant  species  about  Hawaii  is  the  green  turtle.-'^ 
It  has  a  strong  hill  and  the  center  of  the  baek  is  made  up  of  thirteen  plates 
arranged  in  three  rows,  which  lie  perfectly  smooth  and  never  overlap,  as  they 
do  on  tlu'  rarer  hawkshill  turtle-'  or  e-a,  which  furnishes  the  tortoise-shell  of 
commerce.  As  its  name  suggests,  this  latter  species  always  has  a  hooked  bill.  It 
also  has  thirtc^Mi  plates  over  the  back  which  overlap  like  shingles  on  a  roof, 
until  it  is  nearly  grown,  when  they  assume  the  arrangement  occurring  on  the 
related  species. 

Galapagos  Land-Tortoise. 

A  specimen  of  one  of  the  many  si)ecies  of  Galapagos  land-tortoise  -'*  is 
also  to  be  seen  in  Hawaii.  It  belongs  to  the  former  Queen  Liliuokalani,  and 
was  brought  to  the  islands  by  Capt.  eJohn  ]\Ieek  between  1812  and  1825.  It  is 
reported  that  at  his  place  on  King  street  he  kept  "many  land-turtles"  which 
were  brought  home  by  him  on  ninnerous  trips  to  Mexico.  When  they  were 
finally  disposed  of  the  specimen  now  in  possession  of  her  ]\Iajesty  was  given  to 
King  Kamehameha  III.  It  eventually  passed  into  the  hands  of  Kapiolani,  and 
after  her  death  was  still  held  in  the  royal  family.  It  was  a  large  animal  when 
brought  to  these  islands  almost  one  hundred  years  ago,  and  without  doubt  was 
very  old  at  that  time. 

A  second  specimen  -'■'  was  kept  for  a  number  of  years  on  Xuiuinu  street 
in  Mrs.  ]\Iary  E.  Foster's  wonderful  garden  of  tropical  plants.  In  their  native 
home  in  the  Galapagos  Islands,  the  tortoise  feed  on  cacti  and  coarse  grass,  but  in 
captivity  they  feed  on  kitchen  refuse.  While  they  are  dull  creatures  they  are 
nevertheless  objects  of  great  interest  and  curiosity. 

Porpoise  and  Dolphin. 

At  least  tAvo  and  probably  more  species  of  porpoise^''  occur  in  the  waters 
about  Hawaii.  The  commoner  species -^^  is  dark  gray  in  color  over  the  back, 
and  is  white  beneath,  varied  with  small  gray  spots,  and  is  about  six  feet  in 
length.  The  teeth  on  both  jaws  are  numerous,  being  about  forty  in  number. 
The  porpoises  belong  to  the  great  order  of  aquatic  mammals  with  fish-like 
bodies^-,  which  include  the  true  whales  and  the  dolphins,  and  are  known  as 
naia  by  the  Hawaiians.  In  this  order  there  are  no  posterior  appendages.  The 
anterior  appendages  act  as  paddles  and  are  without  joints.  The  tail  is  hori- 
zontally expanded  to  foi-m  a  i)owerful  ])ropeller. 

The  ])orpoises  associate  in  herds  or  schools,  and  tlieir  sportive  gambols  are 
familiar  to  almost  everyone  who  has  made  a  sea  voyage  in  the  Pacific.  As 
they  dive  and  sport  under  the  liow  of  a  slow-moving  vessel  they  present  a 
sia'ht  long  to  be  i-ememhered.     At  one  moment   will   be  seen  the   roll   of  the 


-<^  CheUme  nnjdas.  -'  Cli,-loiii>   inibrirata.  -"  Test  udo   sp.  -"Died   1908.  so  Pro(h'JpliiiiiiK. 

^'  Proddpliinux  iilti'iiiidtii.s.  ^'-  Cetncea. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  301 

arched  back  surmounted  by  the  curved  iiu  :  a1  jitiollici-  the  wliitf  liflly  will 
tlash  in  the  sunlight  as  the  creature  swims  aloti^'  in  a  series  of  graceful  (Mirvcs 
in  the  surface  water.  Not  infrequently  scores  of  them  will  be  seen  swiiiiiniug 
and  leaping  about  a  vessel  for  honrs  together.  It  is  then  that  Ihc  voyager 
is  often  given  his  first  opportunity  to  see  a  hai-poon  thrown  froiii  tin-  bow  of 
the  vessel.  Perhaps  if  a  successful  thrust  is  made  one  of  these  odd  mammals 
will  be  brought  on  deck,  where  it  can  be  examined  at  close  range. 

The  term  dolphin  is  rather  loosely  used  and  is  sometimes  a])plie(l  to  a 
fish,  sometimes  to  a  narwhale,  but  more  often  to  the  gram])us  or  Iviller.  The 
name  properly  belongs  to  a  genus  of  animals  world-wide  in  their  distribution, 
of  which  the  common  dolphin, ■■^•''  a  species  Ihat  abounds  in  all  leiuix-i'ate  and 
tropical  seas,  may  be  considered  as  typical.  But  as  there  are  several  closely- 
related  species,  it  is  difficult  to  identify-  them  in  the  water  oi'  to  separate  them 
from  the  ])orpoises  "without  specimens  and  recourse  to  extended  technical 
descriptions. 

Whales. 

It  should  be  stated  in  this  connection  that  the  watei's  of  the  Pacific  are 
inhabited  by  several  species  of  whales,  of  which  the  right  whale  or  whalebone 
whales,-'^  with  three  or  more  wide-ranging  species,  are  the  most  important. 
However,  the  sperm-whale  or  cachlot  ^•''  and  the  humpback  ^''  are  ]')erhaps  the 
most  common.  In  times  past  the  pursuit  of  whales  and  the  whaling  industry 
was  a  matter  of  great  commercial  importance  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

Although  by  their  mode  of  life  they  are  far  removed  from  obsiM-vation, 
whales  are  in  many  respects  the  most  interesting  of  all  creatures,  and  there  is 
much  in  their  habits  worthy  of  study.  The  whalebone,  or  Arctic  right  whale-"'', 
attains,  when  full  grown,  a  length  of  from  forty-five  to  fifty  feet.  The  head  is 
enormous  in  size,  exceeding  one-third  the  length  of  the  creature.  The  upper 
jaw  resembles  nothing  so  much  as  a  large  spoon.  The  whalebone  blades  acquire 
a  length  of  ten  or  twelve  feet ;  there  being  about  '^SO  on  each  side  of  tlie 
upper  jaw.  These  blades  are  black  in  color,  fine  and  elastic  in  texture,  and 
fray  out  on  their  inner  edges  and  ends  into  soft,  delicate  bail's,  'i'lie  remark- 
able development  of  the  mouth  and  of  the  various  sti-nctui-es  coiniecled  with 
it  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  food  habits  of  this  whale.  H\  nu'ans  of  the  seine 
or  seive-like  apparatus  just  described,  it  is  possible  for  these  animals  to  cap- 
ture the  minute  forms  of  life  which  swarm  in  immense  numbei-s  in  the  seas  it 
frequents.  The  elastic  whalebone  of  commerce  has  Ioiil;  been  a  valuable  com- 
modity, and  many  a  fortune  has  been  made  I'rom  the  Mhalini;'  business.  In 
recent  years,  owing  to  the  decrease  in  the  inuiiber  of  whah^s,  the  i)rice  of 
Avhalebone  has  been  as  high  as  twelve  thousand  dollars  i)ei-  ton. 

The  sperm-whale,  or  ])alaoa  of  the  natives,  is  the  lar^vst  I'epresentative  of 
the  toothed  whales,  and  in  length  and  bulk   it   somewhat   exceeds  that  of  the 


^'^  Delphiniis  delphi.s.  ^*  Bahi'tta    s])p.  ^''  Phi/netcr   niacrocephnliis.  «"  J/('(;n/)f»')-n    sp. 

''"  Bahvna   )iii/sticeliis. 


302  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

ri^iilit  whak'  just  iiiciitioiuMl.  The  head  differs  from  that  of  the  right  wliale 
in  being  over  one-tliii-d  the  h-ngtli  of  the  liody,  very  massive  and  high,  and 
is  abruptly  ti'uncated  in  front.  This  curious  development  of  the  head  is 
mainly  caused  hy  the  bulk  of  fatty  tissue  massed  in  the  large  hollow  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  skull.  The  weight  of  the  skull  is  very  great.  The 
skeleton  of  the  six'cimcn  assembled  l)y  the  writer,  now  on  exhibition  in  the 
Bishoji  Museum,  weighs  almost  three  thousand  pounds. 

The  blow-hole  is  placed  on  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  head  a  little  to 
one  side  of  the  center.  Ownng  to  the  curious  sliape  of  the  head  in  the  sperm- 
whale,  the  ''hump,"  when  \ho  animal  comes  to  the  surface  to  blow,  is  in  front 
of  the  spray;  in  the  I'ight  wiuile  and  the  humpback,  the  hump  is  behind  the 
spray.  Owing  to  this  ditference  the  experienced  whaler  is  able  to  identify  the 
species  miles  away  from  his  ship. 

The  lowei-  jaw  of  the  sperm-whale  differs  from  that  of  the  right  whale  in 
being  narrow  and  in  having  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  stout  conical  teeth  six 
or  eight  inches  in  length,  that  are  composed  of  ivory  of  good  quality.  Whale 
ivory  was  much  prized  by  the  native  Hawaiians,  and  used  l)y  them  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  jewelry  and  ornaments  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made. 

The  sperm-M-hale  is  doubtless  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  of  living 
animals,  being  met  with  usually  in  herds  or  schools  in  almost  all  tropical  and 
sub-tropical  seas.  Its  food  consists  mainly  of  sipiid  and  cuttlefish,  but  the 
larger  fish  are  also  devoured,  though  how  they  ai-e  captured  yet  remains  a 
mystery.  The  substance  known  as  "ambergris,"  formerly  used  in  cookery  and 
medicine  and  now  in  the  manufacture  of  perfumery,  is  a  concretion  formed  in 
the  intestines  of  this  and  perhaps  in  other  species  of  whales,  and  is  occasionally 
found  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  or  cast  up  on  the  open  l)eacli. 

The  right  whale  is  pursued  primarily  for  its  whalebone,  though  its  blubber 
is  a  valuable  by-product.  The  sperm-whale  is  sought  for  chiefly  for  the  large 
quantity  of  whale  oil  which  it  yields.  This  oil  varies  in  color  from  a  bright 
honey-yell OAv  to  a  dark  brown,  according  to  the  part  of  the  animal  from  which 
it  is  taken.  The  best  oil  is  that  taken  from  the  head,  where  it  occurs  as  pure 
oil  and  may  be  dipped  out  with  a  bucket.  Sixty  to  eighty  barrels  of  oil  from 
the  head  alone  were  not  uncommon  records  when  wdialing*  was  at  its  height. 

The  humpback  whale,-'*'^  or  kohola  of  the  Hawaiian  seamen,  is  a  large 
species  and  belongs  to  the  group  characterized  by  the  presence  of  a  number  of 
longitudinal  Hutings  or  folds  in  the  skin  of  the  throat,  and  by  the  fin  on  the 
back.  They  were  formerly  quite  common  off  the  Island  of  ^laui  during  the 
winter  season,  and  were  occasionally  captured  and  bi-ought  to  land.  In  more 
recent  times,  while  both  hvniipback  and  sperm-whales  are  seen  cpiite  frequently 
each  year  al)out  the  islands,  but  little  attention  is  paid  to  them  unless  they 
chance  to  become  stranded,  as  occasionally  happens.  In  ancient  times  all 
whales  and  porpoises  •"■'•'  cast  ashore  were  the  property  of  the  alii,  or  chiefs,  and 
the  wearing  of  whale-ivorv  ornaments  was  liniitcd  to  that   class. 


**  Megaptera   Jioops.  ^"  Naia. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFH  OF  TIIF:   (I ROUP.  303 

TiiK  AViiAiJNG  Industry. 

In  tlie  old  whalinij'  days  vcsstds  ono'ai»ed  in  the  Ifadc  i-aiii:cd  ii|»  to  I'oiir 
hundred  tons  burden,  and  were  often  outfitted  for  a  two  or  llircc  years" 
voyage.  Their  usual  destination  being  the  "south  seas,"  llicy  frc(|iictitly 
utilized  Hawaii  as  a  depot  station.  A  whaling  vessel  )isiiall\-  carried  six 
whaleboats.  These  were  about  twenty-seven  feet  in  length,  with  four-foot 
beam,  and  were  pointed  at  both  ends. 

When  a  whale  was  sighted,  four  boats  put  oft'  at  once,  each  ])eing  provided 
with  a  pair  of  two-hundred-fathoni  harpoon  lines  and  carrying  a  crew  of  six 
men.  "It  was  the  business  of  the  l)oat-steerer  to  harpoon  the  whale  when  it 
came  to  the  surface  to  spout.  AVhen  this  was  done  he  changed  places  with  a 
member  of  the  crew,  whose  duty  was  to  kill  the  animal  with  a  lance.  When  a 
whale  was  harpooned,  immediately  al't(n"  the  first  struggle  and  when  it  was 
lying  exhausted  from  its  endeavors  to  escape,  the  boat  was  pulled  close  along- 
side, and  the  headsman  began  the  work  of  destruction  by  thrtisting  his  lance  into 
the  vital  parts  behind  the  flipper.  As  soon  as  the  whale  was  lanced  the  boats 
were  backed  with  all  possible  speed.  When  first  struck  the  whale  frequently 
'sounded'  or  descended  to  immense  depths,  sometimes  taking  out  nearly  all 
of  the  eight  hundred  fathoms  of  line  carried  by  the  four  boats.  Subsequently, 
however,  when  weakened  by  the  loss  of  blood,  it  kept  on  or  near  the  surface, 
towing  after  it  one  or  more  of  the  boats.  By  hauling  in  the  line  the  boat  or 
boats  were  pulled  up  alongside  and  the  monster  Anally  destroyed,  eithei-  by 
darting  or  thrusting  with  the  lance." 

Whaling  as  thus  carried  on  was  full  of  dangers,  and  an  occupation  calcu- 
lated to  be  followed  only  by  the  most  hardy  and  ventui'esome ;  hundreds  of 
accounts  of  hairbreadth  escapes  from  death  have  been  chronicled  in  the 
pursuit  of  this  business  in  which,  at  its  height  in  1852.  no  feAver  than  two 
hundred  and  seventy-five  American  vessel  were  engaged,  in  the  noitli  Pacific 
alone.  The  amount  of  oil  taken  that  year  by  the  fleet  exceeded  3.'^7.0()()  bar- 
rels, and  more  than  5,000,000  pounds  of  whalebone  was  secured. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  were  in  the  center  of  this  trade,  and  thousands  (»f 
the  native  Ilawaiians  were  employed  as  whalers.  The  business  developed  in 
the  ports  of  the  islands  furnished  the  impetus  and  the  foundation  for  more 
substantial  and  diversified  trade  that  has  rapidly  increased  in  volume  to  tiie 
present,  though  whaling,  on  anything  like  an  extensive  scale,  was  pi-actically 
at  an  end  by  1875. 

As  long  ago  as  1824  the  brig  Ainoa  set  out  from  the  islands  for  a  sealing 
voyage.  At  different  times,  but  ])ai-ticulail\  in  1859,  sealing  expeditions  have 
been  made  among  the  islands  to  the  west  of  Kauai.  In  thai  year  the  (Janibia 
returned  to  llonloulu  with  fifteen  hundred  skins  and  two  liuiidi'cd  and  forty 
barrels  of  seal  oil.  This  furnishes  us  with  a  record  of  the  foi-nier  abundance  of 
the  seaH"  in  the  Hawaiian  group.     Of  i-ecenf  years  they  have  been  far  from 


^^  Monar/i  us   scIki  u  i iishi  mli. 


304  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

abundant,  though  seals  are  regularly  reported  from  Laysan,  Lisiansky,  Pearl 
and  Hermes  Reef,  and  are  occasionally  seen  at  ^Midway.  In  January,  1912, 
the  U.  S.  Revenue  cutter  Tlietis  returned  from  a  cruise  to  ^Midway  and  Laysan 
and  brought  a  seal-skin  back  which  was  presented  to  the  Bishop  ^Museum.  Baby 
seals  were  seen  at  that  time,  and  it  is  (piite  probnble  that,  if  not  intcrf(n*cd 
Avith.   the  h(>rd    will    increasi^   in    iiunilicrs. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
INTRODUCED  BIRDS. 


The  nature-lover  visiting  Hawaii  for  the  tirst  time  is  sure  to  be  disap- 
pointed by  the  limited  number  of  species  of  birds  to  be  seen  in  Honolulu  and 
along  the  main  traveled  roads  about  the  islands.  AVere  it  not  for  the  presence 
of  the  dozen  or  more  species  of  birds  that  have  been  introduced  into  Hawaii  by 
accident  or  design,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  average  tourist  would  see  or  hear  a 
single  bird  during  his  stay  in  the  group.  It  is  unfortunate  that  of  the  otie 
hundred  and  twenty-five  or  more  species  enumerated  in  the  list  of  birds  in  the 
islands,  not  more  than  ludf  a  dozen  will  be  seen  within  the  city  of  Honolulu,  and 
nil  of  these  are  introduced  from  other  lands. 

The  English  Sparrow. 

The  English  sparrow  '  is  perhaps  the  most  abundant  bird  about  the  city. 
This  pert,  saucy  and  industrious  Britisher  is  six  inches  or  so  in  length,  and  has 
a  brownish  back,  streaked  with  black.  In  the  adult  male  the  conspicuous  black 
throat  patch  makes  it  a  species  easily  recognized  as  an  old  acquaintance  of  a 
distant  land,  and  serves  to  distinguish  it  from  the  house  finch  or  the  "rice 
l)ird,"-  the  only  other  species  with  wdiich  it  can  be  confused.  The  latter 
species  is  about  tlie  size  of  its  English  cousin,  but  is  light  ashy-broAvn,  streaked 
wi1h  (lark  l)r()Avii  above.  During  the  mating  season  the  male  has  the  throat 
and  breast  a  crimson  color.  The  English  sparrow's  eggs  are  always  spotted, 
while  the  house  finch's  eggs  are  smaller  and  are  a  very  pale  bluish  tint. 

Rice  Birds. 

There  is  also  another  rice  bird,  much  smaller  than  the  California  house 
finch.  It  is  usually  seen  flying  in  small,  compact  tiocks.  In  reality  it  is  a 
weaver  bird  and  belongs  to  a  dift'erent  family  from  that  of  the  two  species  just 
described.  Doubtless  it  arrived  in  Hawaii  many  years  ago  as  a  cage  bird  that 
came  originally  from  the  Malay  Peninsula.  As  so  often  happens  Avith  pets,  it 
probably  escaped  from  captivity  and  has  since  become  common  throughout 
the  group.  While  it  is  called  a  rice  l)ird.  it  is  better  known  locally  as  the 
Chinese  sparrow.-''     It  is  about  two-thirds  the  size  of  the  larger  rice  l)ird,  and 


^Passer  dowenticus.  -  CnrpodaciiK   inexirarins   ohscurriis.         ^  Miinia  ni.ioria. 


THE  xVXLMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   OROUP.  305 

in  o-eneral  color  is  ;i  -warm  cliocolatc  ])i'o-\vii.  Wlicti  a  .speeimon  is  in  liaiid  it 
will  be  found  that  cacii  t'catlicf  over  tiie  hack  is  iiiai'kcd  hy  a  iiaiTnw  wliiti- 
shaft  line.  All  three  of  these  s|)ai'i'ow-like  l)irds  feed  af  ccrlaiti  seasons  dii  the 
<:'ultivated  rice — a  fact  that  has  pi'odueed  nnudi  confusion  in  the  ])opiiiar  juind 
as  to  just  which  species  is  in  reality  entitled  to  Ix-  caUcd  the  i  ice  bird. 

The  combined  danniLic  tiiat  these  birds  do  to  the  <_;ro\\inj4'  jji-ain  I'luni  tlie 
fime  the  kernels  of  rice  bet>'in  to  form  in  tiie  licads  until  the  crop  is  finally 
harvested,  amounts  to  many  thousands  of  dollars  annually.  The  rice  fai'iners 
patrol  their  fields  during  this  season,  from  early  morning'  until  sundown,  dis- 
charging  "rice  guns,"  shouting  and  conducting  a  genei-al  ciMisade  a'.^ainst  the 
l3irds.  Many  Chinese  farmers  set  up  scarecrows,  to  which  windmills  and  noise- 
making  devices  are  attached,  to  guard  the  i-ipening  ci*o}).  <)thei-s  will  inge- 
niously run  stout  wire  supported  above  the  grain  on  l)aml)oo  poles,  over  an 
entire  field  of  grain.  From  these  dangle  a  motley  arra\'  of  old  tin  cans, 
clappers  and  other  noise-producing  junk.  The  free  ends  of  all  of  the  main 
wires  center  at  a  conveniently-placed  elevated  platform  from  which  the  fannei' 
keeps  a  sharp  lookout  for  the  feathered  despoilers  of  his  harvest.  Just  as  the 
tiock  alights  on  the  drooping  heads  of  grain,  the  farmer  pulls  the  main  wire 
that  runs  to  the  place  under  attack.  The  neighborhood  resounds  with  the 
din,  with  the  result  that  the  intruders  fly  to  some  other  spot.  Avhere  the  same 
form  of  repulse  is  resorted  to.  In  a  short  time  the  birds  And  that  they  are 
more  scared  than  hurt  by  the  noise,  and  become  more  and  more  l)old.  often 
standing  their  ground  without  wavering  through  the  veritable  pantleinonium. 
The  writer  has  watched  with  nuich  interest  the  development  of  courage  among 
these  uninvited  and  unwelcome  bird  guests,  and  doubts  whether  much  is  gained 
in  the  long  run  by  this  form  of  warfare,  save  the  satisfaction  to  the  fai'iner  of 
doing  something  to  protect  his  crop. 

Chinese  Turtle-Dove.    - 

The  Chinese  turtle-dove,^  as  its  name  suggests,  came  originally  fi-om 
China.  It  is  another  introduced  bird  that  is  abundant  in  the  i-ice  fields,  more 
especially  after  the  crop  has  been  gathered.  'J'hey  then  visit  the  fields  in  pairs 
or  in  small  flocks  to  glean  the  scattered  grain  that  may  he  left  after  the  frugal 
Chinese  farmers'  wives  have  gathered  in  the  last  straws  left  lying  on  the 
ground  by  the  harvest-men. 

Dove  shooting  is  said  to  be  real  sport  in  Hawaii,  and  thosi'  who  indulL:i'  in 
it  as  such  are  always  anxious  for  the  open  season  to  begin.  .\n  e\i)ert 
marksman,  in  the  height  of  the  season,  will  secure  a  hag  of  lifty  oi-  sixty  birds 
in  a  single  day.  Though  the  dove  is  modest  and  rt'tiring,  its  inourni'nl  call 
is  not  an  unconnnon  sound  in  the  city:  the  flat,  loosely-constructed  nest  in 
which  two  white  eggs  are  laid,  is  occasionally  Found  ni  the  trees  and  shruhs 
forming  the  tropical  tangle  that  often  surrctunds  the   Hawaiian   home. 


^  Turtiir  ( Spild/ictia )  clihii'nKis. 


306  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

The  Mynah  Bird. 

Xo  l)ii'd  in  Hawaii  is  more  conspicuous  or  more  thorougiily  at  home  in 
his  adopted  land  than  is  the  false  mynah''  or  mina.  The  mvnah  was  brought 
to  Hawaii  l)y  Dr.  Wm.  Hille])rand  years  ago  to  feed  on  the  cutworm  of  a  certain 
moth.*'  The  birds  flourished  and  multiplied  and  have  had  an  important  part  in 
the  reduction  of  the  pest.  Although  not  withoiit  bad  habits,  they  must  be 
regarded  as  generally  beneficial  in  their  food  habits. 

Had  they  not  become  fond  of  the  seeds  of  the  introduced  lantana — and 
tluis  become  directly  responsible  for  its  being  spread  broadcast  over  the 
islands — there  is  little  doul)t  but  that  the  mynah  would  have  been  gener- 
ally held  in  higher  esteem  than  it  is  today.  Their  size,  industry  and  sociability 
make  them  interesting  objects  wherever  they  are,  and  the  study  of  thtMr  nests, 
food,  and  life  haliits  will  well  repay  the  observing  bird-lover. 

The  false  mynah  is  so  called  to  distingaiish  it  from  the  true  mynah  of 
India,  a  bird  which  they  resemble  in  size,  habit  and  general  characteristics. 
It  is  an  exceedingly  sagacious  bird,  and  readily  learns  new  tricks  that  enable 
it  to  adapt  itself  to  peculiar  and  unusual  conditions  of  life.  There  are  cases  on 
record  where  the  young  have  been  taught  to  say  single  words;  but  in  linguistic 
attainments  they  are  not  the  equal  of  their  Indian  cousins. 

Their  nests,  which  arc  built  in  odd  places  about  buildings,  under  rafters,  in 
eaves-troughs,  or  occasionally  saddled  into  forks  of  trees,  are  invariably  bulky 
affairs.  Their  eggs  are  of  fair  size  and  blue  in  color,  resembling  those  of  the 
American  robin.  All  day  long  they  scold,  call  or  try  to  sing  as  fancy  strikes 
them,  but  at  night,  as  they  congregate  in  certain  large  banian  trees  about  the 
city  in  tiocks  of  hundreds,  the  noise  they  make  in  taking  leave  of  each  other 
and  of  the  day,  before  going  to  roost,  is  little  short  of  deafening.  The  first 
faint  glow  in  the  east  is  the  signal  for  them  to  take  up  the  argument  and  the 
work  where  they  left  off  the  day  before.  So  day  after  day  the  unmusical 
voice  of  the  mynah,  as  it  dins  its  call  into  the  ears  of  the  traveler,  morning, 
noon  and  night,  comes  to  be  the  sound  from  Hawaii  that  lives  longest  in  the 
memory.  Likely  as  not,  years  afterward,  when  the  sight  of  old  Diamond  Head 
and  her  waving  cocoanut  palms  and  the  languid  caress  of  the  soft  air  of  the 
tropics  ai-e  but  shadowy  memories,  it  will  be  some  harsh  bird-note,  caught  by 
the  listless  senses  in  an  idle  moment,  that  will  again  vividly  bring  to  the  mind 
of  the  traveler  the  mynah.  and  its  noisy  evening  song,  and  the  twilight  scene 
it  revives  in  fancy. 

There  is  a  popular  though  erroneous  belief  in  Hawaii  that  the  mynah  is 
responsible  for  the  disappearance  of  the  native  birds.  The  fact  that  this 
noisy  stranger  is  frequently  found  in  the  forests  at  an  elevation  of  five  or  six 
thousand  feet,  is  offered  as  an  explanation  foi-  th(^  singular  passing  from 
the   forest  regions   of   many   species   of   native   birds.      There    is   little   reason, 


^  Acridotheres    tristi.i,  '^  SiKuhiplirn    imi  iiritiii. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE   OP  THE   GROUP.  307 

however,  for  supposing  this  to  be  the  true  cause.  Tlicrc  may  be  eases,  about 
settlements  especially,  where  the  mynali  lias  been  known  to  interfere  willi  the 
nests  and  eggs  of  certain  birds,  particul;ii-ly  those  (»f  tlie  English  sparrow,  a 
species  with  which  its  habits  bring  it  iii  shai'|)  and  direct  contact:  hut  so  far 
as  the  opinions  of  the  l)est  observers  and  my  own  experienee  go,  ihc  ni>  iiah. 
when  he  tinds  himself  in  tlie  forest,  lives  at  peace  willi  the  native  hii-ds.  The 
general  habits  of  the  forest  birds  differ  widely  from  those  of  the  myiiah.  and 
their  nesting  and  food  habits  are  so  different  tluit  the  two  seldom  come  into  con- 
flict. 

The  Skylarks. 

The  English  skylark"  was  introduced  into  Hawaii  purely  for  sentimental 
reasons,  because  of  its  beautiful  song.  ^Many  persons  who  have  settled  in 
Hawaii  came  directly  from  England,  and  Avere  familiar  with  the  profuse  strains 
of  this  songster  in  their  native  land  :  naturally,  the  lark  is  a  favorite  with 
them.  These  birds,  now  fairly  common  in  the  pastures  and  on  the  open  fore- 
hills  of  the  principal  islands  of  the  group,  are  descended  from  birds  l)rought 
by  the  Hon.  A.  S.  Cleghorn  from  New  Zealand,  where  the  bird  had  been  suc- 
cessfully introduced  from  England  by  early  colonists. 

The  lark  is  a  dull-l)rownisli  l)ii'd,  well  known  to  every  one  who  strolls  along 
the  paths  that  lead  into  the  mountains.  Often  they  Avill  be  startled  into  song 
from  the  roadside  by  the  rumble  of  a  carriage  or  the  tread  of  a  pedestrian, 
and,  singing,  they  will  mount  higher  and  higher  into  the  sky,  carrying  their 
song  with  them,  up,  up,  until  both  singer  and  song  are  lost  to  sight  and  ear. 
They  are  not  content  with  merely  lilting  their  song  to  the  heavens,  but  will 
SAveetly  and  skilfully  coax  it  back  with  them  to  earth  again.  It  often  hapi)ens 
that  a  half  dozen  of  these  blithe  singers  will  mount  skyward  at  the  same  time, 
dropping  after  them  a  veritable  shoAvei-  of  song  that  could  but  delight  the  most 
careless  cross-country  rambler,  and  bruig  him  home  again  glad  that  there  is  in 
Hawaii  such  a  bird  as  the  skylark. 

Pheasants. 

The  several  species  of  game-birds  that  have  been  introduced  into  Hawaii 
are  of  special  interest  to  the  sportsman.  To  the  credit  of  many  of  oui-  fore- 
most citizens  of  a  generation  or  more  ago,  pheasants  jind  (piails  wei-e  brought 
to  Hawaii  at  ju-ivate  expense  and  liberated.  New  l)reeding  stock  has  been 
brought  in,  from  time  to  time,  and  the  welfare  of  tlu'  game-birds  so  guarded 
by  law  that  they  have  increased,  particularly  on  the  islands  of  Kauai  aiul 
Molokai,  until  they  are  sufficiently  al)iuidant  to  make  uanie  shooting  an  I'u.joy- 
able  sport. 

Two  species  of  pheasant  are  now  well  naturalized  in  Hawaii.  The  ring- 
neck  or  Chinese  pheasant-  came  originally  from  China,  but  as  it  has  been 
extensivelv  reared  in  England  and  Auiecira,  usually  as  a  cage-bird,  it   is  dif- 


'  AUntda  (irrcnsin.  •*  PlidKiiniiiti  tdniiuiliis. 


308  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

ficnlt  to  tell  from  wlieuce  the  Hawaiian  stock  was  derived.  The  baek  of  the 
male  is  a  fine  eoppei-y-chestnut  color,  the  neck  a  beantifnl  metallic-green,  with  a 
narrow  white  collar  about  the  middle,  and  the  breast  a  gorgeous  metallic-copper 
color  with  purple  reflections. 

The  Japanese  pheasant  '^  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  Chinese  species. 
The  pure-blooded  male  can  be  easily  identified,  as  its  underparts  are  dark 
green  ;ind  tliei'e  is  no  white  ring  about  the  neck.  The  females  of  the  two 
species  are  more  tlifheult  to  identify,  esj)ecially  in  Hawaii,  where  hybrids 
between  the  two  species  frequently  occur  that  rival  the  pure  stock  in  size  and 
beauty  of  ijlumage. 

The  California  1'artridge. 

The  California  partridge  i"  is  well  establihed  in  the  islands,  especially 
on  Hawaii,  IMani  and  IMolokai.  'J'he  pretty  black  crest  and  throat  and  black 
scale-like  markings  on  the  belly,  Mitli  a  central  patch  of  chestnut  on  the  breast 
of  the  males,  and  the  prevailing  smoky  or  brownish  color  of  the  females,  taken 
together  with  the  habit,  size  and  rapid  flight  of  the  partridge,  makes  it  an 
easy  bird  to  recognize,  as  they  scurry  across  the  road  or  take  flight  from 
under  foot  and  whir  through  the  air  like  so  many  winged  bullets. 

The  pheasants  and  partridges  prefer  the  open  country,  the  forehills,  and 
straggling  scrul)  a])()ut  the  lower  edges  of  the  mountain  forests,  and  in  spite  of 
the  damage  to  them  and  their  nests  that  is  directly  traceable  to  the  mongoose, 
they  are  generally  believed  to  l)e  increasing  in  numbers. 

The  wild  fowl,  or  moa,  was  introduced  by  the  natives  long  before  the 
coming  of  the  white  man,  but  since  his  coming  other  breeds  have  escaped  into 
the  mountains  and  a  mongrel  HaM-aiian  wild  chicken  has  resulted.  The  intro- 
duction and  liberation  of  certain  domestic  birds,  as  turkeys,  pea-fowls,  guinea- 
fowls  and  the  like,  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  until  they  are  cpiite 
common  in  a  wild  state  on  the  different  islands. 

Other  birds  have  escaped  and  become  established,  among  them  a  ])arrot 
on  Maui  and  a  Chinese  thrush  ^  on  Oahu ;  tliough  the  latter  is  not  a  thrush,  but 
a  reed-warhler.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  ere  long  the  scientific  introduction  of 
desir;d)le  economic  species  will  be  undertaken,  since  there  are  many  species 
of  birds  in  America  and  elsewhere  that,  if  brought  to  HaAvaii.  would  fill  a 
useful  place  in  the  economy  of  nature,  and  at  the  same  time  add  by  their 
presence  to  the  pleasure  of  life  in  both  cily  and  country. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
BIRDS  OF  THE  SEA  AND  OCEANIC  ISLANDS. 

Regular  Visitors  and  Ocean  Waifs. 

Of  the  little  list  of  less  than  thirty  species  of  sea-birds  of  which  Hawaii 
can  boast,  almost  half  the  number  are  verv  rare  winter  visitors.     As  a   rule 


'  Phasianiis  versicolor.         ^o  Lopliurtyx  californicn.  ^'^  Iroclialopterutii   cunorur 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  309 

these  are  ocean  waifs — youiiu'  and  uiH'xpeiMciiccd  bii-ds  -lluit  Imvc  losl  thcii' 
way  in  an  attempt  to  migrate  for  Ww  first  time  along-  the  American  coast  on 
their  way  to  their  winter  homes  in  the  Soutli.  Sncli  l)ii-ils  are  rare  in  the 
islands  and  are  seldom  seen  ontside  of  museums.  They  are  usually,  though 
not  always,  common  west  coast  species  of  g'ulls  and  terns^  and  ducks.-  Birds 
of  these  families  are  well  adapted  hy  nature  to  enjoy  life  on  tlie  ishuid  shores 
and  reefs,  and  one  is  led  to  wonder  why  some  of  them,  in  times  pMst.  have  not 
taken  up  a  residence  and  settled  down  to  a  fishing  life,  and  become  abundant 
along  Hawaii's  coasts,  now  sadly  destitute  of  sea-bird  inhabitants. 

Unfortunately  for  the  bird  student,  only  a  few  of  the  species  that  I'egu- 
larly  frequent  the  waters  about  the  islands  ever  come  close  enough  to  the 
shore  to  be  identified  more  exactly  than  to  say  that  they  are  large  or  small  sea 
birds.  Of  the  limited  list  tliat  may  be  said  to  be  common  about  the  group, 
there  are  as  many  as  four  species  that  nest  in  holes  which  they  find  or  makf 
in  the  faces  of  the  high  cliffs  in  the  mountains  in  the  large  inhabited  islands. 
They  may  be  seen  occasionally  in  the  daytime  flying  over  tlu'  land.  I)u1  gener- 
ally only  their  curious  calls  can  be  heard,  as  they  ai'e  nocturnal  in  habit  and 
are  seldom  abroad  during  the  day. 

Tropic  Birds. 

The  white-tailed  tropic  bird  •*  is  the  species  most  commonly  seen  during  the 
daytime.  It  is  a  beautiful  white  bird,  and  in  fine  weather,  in  favored  locali- 
ties, as  many  as  half  a  dozen  may  be  seen  at  once,  gracefully  floatinu'  about  the 
cliff's  at  the  head  of  the  principal  valleys  of  the  islands.  They  la\-  but  a  single 
large,  cream-colored  egg — thickly  blotted,  splotched  and  mottled  with  rich  brown 
— which  they  deposit  in  a  nest  of  loose  straws,  tucked  in  a  crevice  in  the  face 
of  the  cliff'.  The  young  nestling  diff'ers  from  the  adult  in  thai  the  liody  and 
head  are  mottled  black  and  white.  In  this  stage  they  resemble  the  younu  of 
the  red-tailed  apecies  ^  which  occiu's  on  the  low  sand  islands  of  the  northwest 
chain.  The  adults  ditt'er  from  the  red-tailed  species,  as  their  name  suggests,  in 
having  their  long  tail  white,  or  salmon  color,  instead  of  deep  red.  Th(»  jilumage 
of  both  species  was  much  used  in  Hawaii  in  times  past  in  the  inannl'aetui-e  of 
the  native  kahilis  that  are  elsewhere  describetl.  The  birds  wei'e  also  used  as  food 
by  the  natives. 

Petrels  and  Shearwaters. 

The  Hawaiian  petrel,""  Xewell's  sheai-watei-.''  anel  the  Hawaiian  stormy 
petrel'  are  all  small  or  medium-sized,  dark-colored  sea-birds  with  hnoked  bills; 
they  nest  in  holes  in  tlu^  nujuntains.  .\lt  hough  the\'  and  their  hal)its  were 
well  known  to  the  Hawaiians,  A\iio  were  ex])ei-t  naturalists,  tiny  JiaNc  con- 
tinued to  be  very  rare  specimens  in  collections,  owing  to  their  night-flying" 
habits  and  the  almost  inaccessible  places  in   which   they   nest.     The\-   were  a 


^  Laridtr.  -  Anafidrr.  ^  Phaethon    li'ptKriix.  *  Phncthon    rubriraiida. 

^  dEstrelata   sa ndwicliciinis.  '^  I'lifli loix   tii-irclli.  "Oceanodroma  cryptoleuciira. 


o 


H 


z 

<< 

-x> 

— 

^ 

1. 

X 

^ 

p 

>--. 

^ 
a 

w 

-^ 

;/; 

I— ( 

pq 

^^ 

:^ 

r- 

Z 

"Z. 

~ 

<^ 

z 

— 

_^ 

~ 

< 

-3; 

^ 

n 

ce 

2; 

c 

-^, 

c- 

c* 

+^ 

;:: 

^ 

0 

^ 

-^ 

GJ 

-X 

o 

'0 

m 

s 

^ 

-H 

p— ' 

^ 

O 

W 

C5 

X 

i^ 

.£. 

^ 

<< 

THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  oil 

favorite  food  in  the  old  days,  iiiiich  resembliiii^'  s(|iial)  in  Havoi'.  jiikI  were  in-c- 
ferred  on  the  Hawaiian  table  over  the  Ironic  bird,  whose  Hcsh  liad  ;i  stroii"- 
fishy  flavor.  These  sj^ecies  all  la.\-  but  a  siimlc  didl-whilc  i'ix<x.  AVithonI  doubt 
all  fonr  of  the  cliff-nesting  si)ecies  mentioned  above  arc  doomed  to  extinct  ion 
in  the  islands,  owing  to  the  inroads  made  ii])on  lliem  by  the  mongoose,  which  is 
a  serious  menace  to  all  ground-nesting  birds. 

Perhaps  the  average  person  sees  more  birds  from  the  deck  of  an  island 
steamer  than  in  any  other  way.  In  fact,  most  of  the  more  common  day-flying, 
sea-going  species  may  be  identified  by  a  practised  observer  while  crossing'  the 
channels  between  the  islands. 

Terns. 

The  small,  graceful  black  bird  with  a  silvery-gray  crown,  flying  usually 
in  small  flocks,  is  almost  sure  to  l:!e  the  Hawaiian  tern,^  although  it  is  easily 
confused  with  its  cousin,  the  noddy  tern,'^  from  which  it  diffei's  chietly  in 
being  a  trifle  smaller  and  of  a  more  slender  build. 

Both  species  are  active  flshers,  capturing  their  prey  by  flying  close  to 
the  surface  of  the  ocean  and  swooping  down  upon  any  of  the  small,  uinvai-y 
species  of  fish  that  abound  in  the  surface  water  five  or  ten  miles  off  the  coast. 
Both  of  these  graceful  birds  have  much  the  same  habits  and  disposition.  The 
writer  has  taken  the  nests  and  eggs  of  both  species  from  crevices  in  steep  sea- 
cliffs  as  well  as  from  the  tops  of  low  bushes  growing  on  the  flat  sand  islands  of 
the  group.  Both  birds  were  formerly  used  to  some  extent  as  food.  They  wvrv 
usually  captured  by  the  natives  at  night  by  the  aid  of  torches.  The  light 
served  to  bewilder  the  birds,  causing  them  to  fly,  aimlessly  al)out,  wlien  it  was 
an  easy  matter  to  knock  them  down  with  sticks  and  poles. 

Like  many  sea-birds,  both  species  lay  but  a  single  egg,  which  tliey  |)laee 
on  a  small  heap  of  sticks  and  seaweed  that  serves  as  a  nest.     The  eggs  are 


^  Micranous  hawaiiensis.  ^  Anous  stnlidiis. 


Desckiptiox   of   Plate. 

1.  View  of  birdlife  on  Laysan  (opposite  side  of  t\w  yioup  shown  in  fi^.  7).  in  tlu' 
burrow,  Bonin  Petrel  (zEstrelata  hypoleiica)  ;  under  the  huslics  a  Kcd-tailed  Tropic  Bird 
(Fliaetlion  rabricauda)  ;  on  the  bushes  two  Noddy  Terns  {Aiiotis  .stulidii.s)  and  an  old  ami 
young  Hawaiian  Tern  [Noio]  (Micranous  Juiwaiiensis)  ;  on  the  rock  and  bushes  a  Red-footed 
Booby  {Sida  piscator)  ;  on  the  rocks  two  old  and  young  Wliite  Terns  (Gi/f/is  idha  litl1i(:i)  ; 
on  the  sand  one  Christmas  Island  Shearwater  {Pitfflinis  iiatiritali.s).  2.  Pair  of  Mau-o- 'war 
Birds  [Iwa]  (Fregata  aquila)  on  the  nest  showing  the  large  red  gular  poiici:  cm  the  nuile. 
3.  Group  showing  old,  young,  immature  and  egg  of  the  Black-crowned  Night  Heron  |  Aukuu 
kohili]  (Nycticornx  ni/cticoraj-  turrius).  4.  Black-footed  Albatross  (Dionicdca  iil(iripcs).  ."i. 
Group  of  Hawaiian  shore-birds;  five  Turnstones  |Akcl<(>ke|  (ArctKiria  inlirpns)  are  shown 
in  the  act  of  lighting;  on  the  rock  a  Bristle-thighed  I'urlew  |  KioeaJ  { \ u m c ni uti  tahiticnsix)  ; 
to  the  left  Hawaiian  Stilt  [Kukuluaeo]  {Rimantopus  knudseni)  ;  by  the  water's  edge  Pacific 
Golden  Plover  [Kolea]  (Clun-adrius  dominiriis  fulvus);  one  just  rising  and  one  jireeniug 
Wandering  Tatler  [UliJi]  (Ilftcracfifis  inraiius).  (i.  The  Hawaiian  Goose  [  Xenel  {S'rsochcn 
sandricensi.s) .  7.  ()])p()site  side  of  fig.  1,  Birds  in  lliy;ht  Sooty  Tern  (Stcnui  fiilininosii)  ; 
on  the  bushes  Ked-footed  Booby  (Sida  piscator)  ;  on  the  ground  left  Blue-faced  Booby  {Suhi 
cyanops) ;  on  the  ground  in  center  Grey-backed  Tern  {Sterna  liuiata)  ;  in  tiie  deeper  hole 
Bulwers  Petrel  (Bidiccria  bidwrria  hidtceri)  ;  in  the  slinllciw  burrow  Wcdgr-t.iilcil  Slicarwater 
(Priofinuji  cuneatus)   old  and  young. 


312  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

even  more  alike  if  i)o.ssil)le  than  the  birds,  and  a  description  of  one  will  suffice 
for  both.  They  are  usually  a  little  smaller  than  a  bantam  chicken  egg,  and 
clear  grayish-white,  vai'iously  splotched  and  mottled  with  clove-brown,  varied 
often  with  lilac  markings. 

The  sooty  tei-n  i"  is  a  beautiful,  graceful  species  common  in  the  waters 
about  the  islands.  It  nuiy  be  identified  by  its  typical  tern-like  flight  and  the 
fact  that  the  upper  parts  are  sooty-black  while  the  under  parts,  forehead  and 
a  narrow  stripe  over  the  eye,  are  wdiite. 

Two  or  three  species  of  small,  tube-nosed  swimmers  that  skim  singly,  or 
in  pairs,  over  the  water,  that  all  pass  in  the  distance  as  "mutton  birds,"  are 
as  liable  to  be  one  as  the  other  of  the  wedge-tailed  shearwater,ii  the  Christ- 
mas Island  shearwater.!-  the  Bonin  petrel,!-"*  or  the  Hawaiian  petrel.^"* 

AVhere  careful  identification  is  possible  they  may  prove  to  be  something 
very  ditferent,  however,  and  it  is  unsafe  to  hazard  more  than  a  guess  as  to 
the  name  of  a  species  seen  on  the  wing  at  sea.  Fortunately,  there  is  no  ground 
for  uncertainty  in  the  identification  of  the  large,  tube-nose  swimmers. 

Albatross. 

The  black-footed  albatross  i-'^  is  sooty-brown  all  over,  while  the  Laysan  Island 
albatross  ^'^  has  the  abdomen  white.  Both  species  are  about  the  size  of  a  large 
goose  and  are  called  gooneys  by  the  sailors.  They  l)oth  follow  vessels  cross- 
ing the  Pacific,  for  hundreds  of  miles  on  their  journeys  to  and  from  the  islands. 
Not  infrequently  a  fiock  of  three  or  four  birds  will  follow  a  steamer  for  days, 
eagerly  seizing  the  bits  of  waste  that  may  be  thrown  overboard  from  tlie 
cooks'  gal  lev. 


to' 


Man-0  '-War  Bird. 

The  majestic  black  man-o'-war  i"  bird,  often  little  more  than  a  mere  speck  in 
the  clear  blue  sky,  is  easily  recognized  as  it  sails  high  overhead,  circling  round 
and  round  for  houi's  at  a  time  without  the  slightest  apparent  effort;  they  are 
objects  of  never-failing  interest,  serving  often  as  a  welcome  diversion  to 
relieve  the  monotonous  round  of  daily  life  on  l)o;ird  an  ocean  liner  in  the 
tropics. 

Interesting  as  the  Hawaiian  species  of  sea-birds  may  be  when  on  th(^  wing, 
their  home  life  is  a  great  deal  more  so,  and  fortunate  indeed  is  the  person  who 
is  able  to  spend  a  few  days  in  one  of  the  large  colonies  to  be  found  on  all  of 
the  smaller  uninhabited  islands  that  lie  to  the  northwest  of  Kauai. 

Birds  of  Laysan  Island. 

Laysan  is  perhaps  the  largest  sea-bird  colony  in  the  tropics,  and  its  teem- 
ing hordes  of  ])ii"d  inhabitants  may  justly  claim  for  it  a  place  as  one  of  the 
great  natural  wonders  of  the  world.     The  island  itself  is  scarcelv  two  and  a 


1"  .S'ffj-jio  fiiHf/inosn.  ^'^  Priofintis  cu7\eatus.  ^^  Puffinns  notiritati.i.         '^'^  .V.strclata  hy/iolfiica. 

^*  JEstrelata   s(nidwi<-Iifi)ii.sis.         ^^  Diomedea  nigripes.         ^'^  Diomedea  hnmutahilis.        ^' Freyata  nquila. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  313 

half  miles  lon.u'  ])y  one  and  a  liall'  ln-oad,  and  is  abdut  fi»i-t\'  l'ci'1  ahovc  the  sea 
at  the  highest  i)()iiit.  In  form,  it  i'eseml)les  a  great  oval  platter,  and  dislidike, 
it  holds  a  slialiow  salt-Avatei-  lake  tliat  varies  in  size  to  correspond  witli  llie 
amount  of  rain  that  falls  on  the  island.  There  seems  to  be  abundant  geologic 
evidence  to  ]ii'ove  that  the  island  was  at  one  time  a  closed  coral  reef  or  an 
atoll  that  in  the  remote  past  was  elevated  above  the  surface  of  the  sea.  Thu.s, 
the  coral  stone  foundation  was  formed  around  the  salt  lake  thai  the  sea  and 
the  wind  have  since  made  over  into  a  sand   island. 

The  low  sand  rim  that  surrounds  the  lake  and  forms  the  island  i)ropcr, 
slopes  gently  toward  the  sea  without,  and  the  lake  within.  On  this  double 
beach  that  is  half  or  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  width,  a  few  vai'ietics  of  hardy 
beach  plants  have  established  thems<'lves.  Besides  helping  to  hold  Ihc  sand  in 
place  with  their  roots,  these  jilants  have  added  the  last  touch  necessary  to 
form  an  ideal  home  for  this  monster  l)ird  colony. 

This  sand  ring  in  tln'  midst  of  the  ocean  is  the  regular  home  of  more  than 
twenty  species  of  birds,  five  of  wdiich  are  found  nowhere  else  in  the  world.  I 
have  estimated  from  personal  observation  and  data  gathered  f(U'  tlic  pui-pose 
that  more  than  ten  million  birds  formerly  visited  Laysan  Island  each  year.  In 
addition  to  the  rather  large  list  of  regular  residents  that  form  the  bulk  of  the 
inhabitants,  the  island  has  a  goodly  number  of  species  that  visit  it  each 
winter,  including  such  birds  as  tattler,  i)lover.  curlew,  turnstone,  canvas-back, 
shoveler,  and  a  eleven  or  more  occasional  or  accidental  w'anderers,  making  a 
total  of  at  least  three  dozen  species  of  birds  that  are  known  to  visit  this  mere 
speck  of  dry  sand. 

Naturally,  the  struggle  for  existence,  often  for  mere  nest-room,  is  intense. 
The  air,  the  vegetation,  the  earth — all  literallx'  swarm  with  bird  life.  Almost 
every  inch  of  land  down  to  the  water's  edge  is  occupied.  In  their  home  life 
this  concourse  may  be  likened  to  the  inhabitants  of  a  great  city.  Not  finding 
room  enough  for  all  to  live  on  the  ground,  they  have  turned  the  island  into  a 
great  apartment  house,  several  flats  in  height.  Nor  are  all  the  ilats  above 
ground.  Some  of  the  petrels,  for  example,  dig  holes  live  or  six  feet  deep  and 
in  them  live  thousands  and  thousands  of  night-flying  birds  that  rear  thcii- 
>()ung.  as  it  were,  in  the  deeper  sul)-basement  of  the  colon\'.  Another  species  tligs 
l)ut  two  or  three  feet  deep  in  the  sand,  and  in  this  way  occupies  the  entire  sid)- 
basement  flat,  without  fear  of  molestation  by  the  neighbors,  above  oi-  below. 

The  basement  is  inhabited  by  the  wedge-tailed  shearwatei-.  It  has  chosen 
this  part  of  the  island  as  a  home,  and  the  burrows  that  the\-  make  ai'c  in  count- 
less thousands  and  of  such  size  that  a  person  walking  across  the  island  must 
be  careful  where  he  steps,  lest  in  an  unguarded  moment  he  caves  in  the  roof 
of  a  burrow  and  drops  hip-deep  into  it. 

The  surface  of  the  ground,  to  continue  our  comparison,  is  the  most  valu- 
able and  hence  the  most  densely-populated  part  of  this  wonderful  bird  city. 
Under  the  bu.shes,  in  the  roots  of  the  grass,  in  th.-  open  spaces  about  the  bunch- 
grass,  along  the  shore  of  the  lake,  or  on  the  sv;\  slope,  a  dozen  species  find  thi> 

21 


314  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

cuiiditiuns,  conveniences  and  location  that  appeal  most  to  their  fancy,  and  they 
occupy  the  site  selected  by  the  colony  to  its  fullest  capacity.  In  the  bunch- 
grass  the  little  flightless  raiP^  is  found,  nesting  among  the  thick  stems  close 
down  to  the  ground.  The  miller  bird  ^''^  and  the  Laysan  canary  -^  nest  in  the 
main  stems  of  the  bushes,  and  next  above  them  the  tastefully  arranged  nests  of 
the  Laysan  honey-eater -i  is  placed.  On  the  tops  of  the  bushes,  occupying 
the  choice  top-flats,  tm-ns,  boobies  and  man-o'-war  birds  contend  among  them- 
selves and  with  their  neighbors  for  the  desirable  locations;  while  overhead  the 
air  is  literally  filled  with  swarms  of  birds. 

Laysan  is  a  veritable  bird-lovers'  paradise,  for,  having  no  knowledge  of 
man,  most  of  the  species  are  without  fear  and  may  be  lifted  from  the  nest  with 
the  hands  like  a  setting  barnyard  fowl. 

The  Albatross  Dance. 

By  reason  of  their  number,  size  and  unusual  personalities,  there  are  no 
more  interesting  birds  in  the  colony  than  the  two  species  of  albatross  to  which 
allusion  has  already  been  made.  The  Laysan  or  wdiite-breasted  species  are 
most  abundant  and  are  widely  distributed  over  the  island.  From  the  middle 
of  October,  wdien  they  begin  to  reach  the  colony — returning  from,  nobody 
knows  wdiere — all  through  the  winter  months  and  until  the  young  are  ready 
to  leave  with  tlieir  ])a rents  the  following  July,  the  island  is  covered  with 
albatross.  Looking  in  any  direction,  one  can  see  the  old  birds  standing 
stolidly  about,  sitting  on  their  nests,  or  engaged  in  their  curious  dance — a 
singular  performance  for  which  the  albatross  is  justly  famed. 

This  game,  or  dance,  or  cake-walk,  or  whatever  one  may  care  to  call  it,  is 
more  than  a  form  of  courtship,  since  it  is  indulged  in  at  all  times,  day  or  night, 
during  the  entire  period  of  the  birds'  long  stay  on  the  island.  It  is  without 
exception  the  most  amusing  performance  I  have  ever  seen  birds  indulge  in. 
The  dance  is  so  aptly  described  by  Dr.  W.  K.  Fisher,  that  I  quote  from  his 
account : 

"Tw^o  albatrosses  approach  each  other,  bowing  profoundly  and  stepping 
rather  heavily.  They  circle  around  each  other,  nodding  solemnly  all  the 
time.  Next  they  fence  a  little,  crossing  bills  and  whetting  them  together, 
pecking  meanwhile  and  dropping  stitf  little  bows.  Suddenly  one  lifts  its 
closed  wdngs  and  nibbles  the  feathers  underneath  or,  rarely,  if  in  a  hurry 
merely  turns  its  head,  and  tucks  its  bill  under  its  wing.  The  other  bird  dur- 
ing this  performance  assumes  a  statuesque  pose  and  either  looks  mechanically 
from  side  to  side  or  snaps  its  liill  loudl}^  a  few  times.  Then  the  first  bird  boAvs 
once  again,  pointing  its  head  and  beak  straight  up.  and  utters  a  prolonged 
nasal  groan,  the  other  1)ird  snapping  its  lull  loudly  and  rapidly  at  the  same 
time.  Sometimes  both  birds  raise  their  heads  in  tlu^  aii"  and  either  one  or  both 
utters  the  indescribable  aiul  ridiculous  bovine  groan.  When  they  have  fin- 
ished they  begin  bowing  to  eacli  other,  almost  always  I'apidly  and  alternately, 


^8  Prozanida  pahneri.         ">  Acrocephalus  familiaris.         ""  Telespiza  cantans.  -'  Eimatione  freethi. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROFP.  3LS 

and  presently  repeat  the  performance,  the  birds  reversing  the  role  in  the  game 
or  not." 

INIany  variations  oecnr  in  the  order  of  the  dance.  Sometimes  three  oi-  more 
birds  will  l)ecome  involved,  Avhich  adds  lo  the  Indicrons  nature  of  the  per- 
formance, as  it  becomes  at  once  evident  that  the  birds  are  unable  to  dance  the 
more  complicated  round  dances  and  attempts  to  do  so  almost  invariably  result 
in  a  breakdown  before  the  dance  is  carried  to  the  squawking  stage.  By  way  of 
variety,  one  of  the  birds  will  sometimes  pick  up  a  feather  or  stick  and  tender 
it  to  its  partner,  who  promptly  returns  the  compliment,  when  they  pass  to 
the  next  form,  and  so  on.  Through  varying  figures  and  mananivers  these  birds 
will  continue  their  play,  often  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  without  cessation. 
AVhen  the  end  comes,  however,  it  usually  follows  the  uttering  of  a  prodigious 
groan,  after  which  the  birds  retire  to  a  respectful  distance  from  each  other 
and  resume  their  ordinary  vocation  of  preening,  sunning  themselves  or  merely 
looking  on  Avhile  their  neighbors  amuse  themselves  in  the  same  form  of  play. 
So  common  is  the  "dance"  among  them  that  dozens  of  couples  may  be  seen 
engaged  in  it  at  any  hour  of  the  day  or  night. 

While  the  albatross  rears  a  family  of  but  one,  they  devote  much  time  to 
the  feeding  and  care  of  their  offspring.  The  downy  nestling  issues  from  a 
large,  dirty  white  e^ix  (as  large  as  that  of  a  goose)  that  may  be  heavily 
blotched  with  brownish-maroon,  which  encircles  the  egg  in  a  band;  or  from 
a  brownish-butf  egg,  without  any  markings  whatsoever.  However  varied  the 
color  of  the  egg  may  be,  the  young  birds  look  so  much  alike  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  tell  how  they  are  recognized  by  their  parents.  Fortunately,  there 
seems  to  be  little  difficulty,  and  the  old  birds  seldom  molest  one  another  or 
their  neighbors'  children. 

The  old  birds  seem  to  be  very  active  at  night  and  apparently  do  ;i  great 
part,  though  not  all,  of  their  fishing  at  that  time.  Eeturning  to  Ihe  island 
from  a  fishing  expedition,  they  proceed  at  once  to  feed  their  vouiil:.  'I'he 
parent  biixl  settles  down  beside  the  nestling,  which  without  delay  begins  to 
pick  her  beak  gently.  Presently  the  parent  bird  stands  up  aiul,  lowering  its 
head,  opens  the  beak  and  disgorges  a  mass  of  partially-digested  squid  and  oil: 
but  before  it  is  too  late  the  young  bird  inserts  its  bill  crosswise  into  that  of  its 
parents,  and  receives  the  offering  with  apparent  relish.  The  young  bird  is  in 
no  way  modest  in  its  demands,  and  continues  to  beg  for  more  until  the  supply 
is  entirely  exhausted,  when  the  old  bii-d  pecks  back  savagely,  or  walks  oil'  to  a 
safe  distance  and  settles  down  to  rest  and  sleep. 

The  black-footed  albatross  does  not  visit  Laysan  in  such  lai-ge  ininibei-s 
as  do  the  foregoing  species,  and  as  a  consequence  they  live  in  imn'e  i-estricted 
colonies.      In   their   habits  they   closely   resemble  their   white-l)reasted    cousins. 

In  the  guano  beds  for  which  Laysan  Island  is  t'anious  coMnnerciMllN'.  the 
workmen  often  find  the  eggs  of  the  albatross  and  tlu'  shearwaters  bedded  in 
the  rock-like  guano  deposits  in  a  semi-fossil  condition. 


ffi 

z 

c 

^ 

f- 

lr~ 

oi 

r^t 

^ 

a: 

E-^ 

< 

,5 

'^ 

S 

« 

THE  ANI.MAL  LIFE   OF  THE   GROUP.  317 

Nesting  Habits  of  the  Man-o'-Wak  Birds. 

Of  tlie  large  sea-birds  on  Laysaii.  Ilic  iirsliiiL;-  liahits  of  the  great  maii-o"- 
war  bii'ds  are  second  in  interest  only  to  those  of  tlic  alhalross.  'riioiii^h  its 
habits  have  gained  for  it  the  most  undesirable  of  rcpiilatioiis  among  its  fel- 
lows, the  species  is  worthy  of  more  than  ])assing  notice.  'Plicir  nests  ai-c  I'lide 
structures  of  sticks  and  vines,  in  bulk  the  size  of  a  bushel  b;iskei,  that  are 
placed  on  top  of  the  low  bushes.  On  a  desert  sand  island  il  is  not  an  eas\- 
task  to  secure  the  necessary  material  for  the  hundreds  of  nests  re(|uired  by 
the  birds  in  a  colony  of  the  size  of  that  on  La\>;an.  As  a  result  the  l)irds  have 
become  notorious  thieves,  stealing  from  each  other  without  the  slightest  regaicl 
for  the  ordinary  rules  governing  the  possession  of  house-building  materials 
among  birds.  When  both  the  owners  of  a  nest  chance  to  leave  it  at  the  same 
time,  if  only  for  a  few  minutes,  their  neighbors  will  greedily  cari-y  it  away, 
often  not  leaving  a  single  vestige  of  the  nest  to  nmrk  the  former  home  of  the 
absent  owners. 

Both  sexes  sit  on  the  single  large  white  egg,  turn  about,  seldom  lea\in<.:  it 
for  an  instant  day  or  night  for  fear  it  will  lie  broken  and  the  nest  stolen  b\' 
their  neighbors.  They  are  forced  to  keep  even  a  closer  watch  ovei-  the  naked 
young  than  over  the  egg  in  the  nest,  to  prevent  their  defenseless  chicks  fi-oni  being 
carried  off  and  devoured. 

In  securing  their  daily  rations  they  have  acquired  a  skill  that  makes  the 
acts  of  an  ordinary  highwayman  seem  commonplace.  Their  habit  is  to  estab- 
lish their  colony  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  booby  colony.  Here  they  |)ati'ol 
the  island  up  and  down,  out  over  the  open  sea,  a  few  hundred  yards  fi'oni 
shore,  lying  in  wait  for  the  return  of  the  industrious  boobies  and  tropic  birds 
that  have  been  out  sea-fishing.  As  the  birds  near  the  shore  heavily  laden  \\illi 
fish,  the  man-o"-war  l)ird  gives  chase,  often  a  Hock  of  these  winged  pii-ates 
focusing  their  attack  on  a  single  booby.  They  fly  over  it.  in  front  of  it, 
and  pick  it  and  otherwise  buffet  and  molest  it,  until,  in  self-defense,  the  cow- 
fused  bird  lets  go  its  catch  of  fish  one  by  one.  The  fish  are  eagerly  caught  up 
in  mid-air  by  the -assailants  and  the  attack  renewed,  until,  more  times  than 
not,  the  booby,  after  a  hard  day's  work  secui'ing  food  foi-  hei'  family,  nnives 

Descriptiox   of   Plate. 

1.  Albatross  eggs.  The  manager  of  the  guano  company  at  one  lime  packed  down  a  few- 
barrels  of  eggs  for  use  by  the  laborers,  but  eggs  were  never  exported  from  the  island.  The 
picture  here  shown  and  often  published  was  especially  arranged  for  si)ectacular  pliotograpliic 
effect.  2.  Black-footed  Albatross  in  the  wake  of  a  steamer.  Both  tlie  black  and  the  wliite 
speciefi  follow  shij)s  at  sea  and  are  called  gooneys  by  the  sailors.  '^,  4.  Two  views  of  an 
enraged  Red-footed  Booby.  5.  Bristle-thighed  Curlews  roosting  on  a  pile  of  guano  rock. 
6.  Colony  of  Hawaiian  Terns — all  facing  to  windward,  a  iiabit  of  sea-birds.  7.  Red-tailed 
Tropic  Bird  on  the  nest.  8.  Family  group  of  Blue-f.'u-ed  Booliies.  9.  Sooty  Tern  with  egg. 
10.  Laysan  Albatross — the  end  of  the  dance.  11.  Wedge-tailed  Shearwaters  at  home.  li'. 
Young  I^aysan  Alltatross;  partly  fledged.  18.  .Miller  Bird  and  nest.  14.  Hawaiian  Tern  on  a 
bush  of  Clienopodium  Sandwic]ieum.  15.  Laysan  canary  nest  and  eggs.  16.  Crouji  of  Man-o'- 
war  Birds  on  the  nest.  17.  General  view  on  Laysan  looking  to  the  east  across  the  salt  water 
lagoon. 


318  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

at  her  nest  iu  an  exhausted  condition,  without  a  morsel  of  food  left  for  the 
expectant  young  at  home. 

During  the  calm  -warm  days  of  summer  the  sea  is  frequently  so  smooth 
that  the  booby  is  unable  to  bring  home  its  usual  eateli  of  flying-fish.  At  such 
times  tlie  man-o'-war  birds  not  only  resort  to  cannibalism,  but  infanticide  as 
well,  ill  order  to  satify  their  demand  for  food.  If  by  chance  the  parent  bird 
of  a  nearby  nest  sliould  happen  to  leave  its  young  unguarded,  the  ever-watchful 
pii-ate-bird,  with  a  swoop  of  wings  and  a  vicious  snap  of  beak,  will  seize  the 
almost  naked,  helpless  nestling  and  mount  high  in  the  air,  dangling  the  young 
bird  from  its  beak.  When  in  the  bird's  judgment  the  fall  will  be  sufficient 
to  crush  the  life  out  of  its  prey,  the  man-o'-war  bird,  with  nnirderoas  intent, 
will  drop  its  neighbors'  offspring  to  the  ground.  The  falling  nestling  is 
closely  followed  in  its  descent  by  the  bird,  that  it  may  be  first  in  at  its  death. 
If  the  fall  was  sufficient  to  kill  the  young  bird,  it  is  snatched  from  the  ground 
and  gobbled  down  by  the  greedy  pirate-murderer.  If  the  young  bird  strug- 
gles, it  is  again  carried  into  the  air,  this  time  to  a  greater  height  than  before, 
and  again  allowed  to  fall  to  the  ground.  This  performance  is  often  repeated 
several  times  before  the  helpless  young  bird  is  pronounced  dead,  when  its 
body  is  s^vallowed  by  its  assassin  in  a  single  gulp. 

White  Terns. 

There  is  not  space  in  one  brief  chapter  to  describe  the  interesting  nesting 
habits  of  the  beautiful  white  terns  or  love  birds,--  the  colonies  of  thousands 
upon  thousands  of  gray-backed,-^  noddy  and  Hawaiian  terns ;  the  shear- 
waters, petrels  and  boobies,  all  of  which  occur  on  other  islands  of  the  group, 
but  it  seems  unfair  to  nature,  to  Laysan,  and  to  the  reader,  to  fail  to  mention, 
even  though  it  must  be  in  the  briefest  manner,  the  species  that  are  found 
nowhere  else  in  the  world. 

The  Laysan  Duck. 

The  sportsman  finds  it  almost  impossible  to  believe  that  a  distinct  species 
of  duck,  the  Laysan  teal,-^  could  make  so  small  an  island  its  only  home,  but 
such  is  the  case.  On  a  recent  visit,  however,  I  found  this  little  colony  so 
reduced  in  numbers  that  the  species  could  easily  be  exterminated  in  a  single 
day  with  dog  and  gun.  This  little  teal,  a  close  relative  of  the  Hawaiian  duck, 
is  perfectly  fearless.  On  one  occasion  a  pair,  out  of  curiosity,  swam  up  to 
tlie  bank  of  the  little  lagoon  where  I  was  partially  concealed,  and,  coming  out 
on  the  bank,  walked  up  so  close  to  the  camera  that  it  was  necessary  to  draw  back 
to  bring  them  into  focus  on  the  plate. 

The  Flightless  Rail. 

The  great  natural  curiosity  of  the  island  is  the  little  flightless  rail.^^  The 
common  belief  that  thev  are  wingless  is  an  error — growing  out  of  the  fact  that 


"  Gygis  alba  MttUtzi.  ^^  Sterna  hinnta.  -*  Anas  lai/sant-nsis.  -^  Prozanida  ijalmeri. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  TTTF   (IROri*.  319 

t-he  wings  have  become  so  reduced  in  size  as  to  be  almost  hidden  in  the  body- 
feathers,  and  so  weak  as  to  be  useless  in  flight.  Almost  every  square  rod  of 
the  grassy  portion  of  the  island  has  its  pair  of  rails,  and  they  are.  williout 
doubt,  the  most  interesting,  industrious  and  inquisitive  creatures  in  the  world. 
At  the  slightest  alarm  they  slink  into  cover  under  the  grass  tussocks,  only  to 
peer  out  cautiously  in  their  endeavor  to  get  first-hand  knowledge  of  the  cause 
of  their  alarm.  Of  their  many  interesting  habits  none  is  more  entertaining 
than  the  way  in  which  they  secure  a  portion  of  their  food  from  the  Laysan 
canary. 

Laysan  Canary. 

The  Laysan  canary  is  a  sturdy  little  finch-like  bird  that  nature  has  en- 
dowed with  a  strong  bill.  One  of  its  habits  is  to  break  open  the  thin-shelled 
eggs  of  the  terns  and  other  ground-nesting  species  during  the  nesting  season. 
How^ever,  the  canary  is  seldom  allowed  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  its  labor  undis- 
turbed. The  little  rails  are  always  on  the  lookout,  and  at  the  proper  moment 
will  rush  out  at  the  canary  and,  with  a  great  shoAV  of  fuss  and  feathers,  drive 
it  away  from  the  broken  egg.  The  rail  will  then  calmly  spoon  up  the  contents 
of  the  egg  with  its  weak,  slender  l)ill,  leaving  the  canary  to  open  another  egg 
if  it  really  cares  for  fresh  eggs  to  eat.  As  to  how  this  active  little  rail  came  to 
be  on  the  island  we  can  only  conjecture.  As  the  species  has  no  near  relative 
that  can  fly  over  a  wide  range,  it  is  probable  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Laysan 
rail  came  to  the  islands  very  long  ago  by  accident,  possibly  being  lost  at  sea 
during  the  season  of  migration,  or  may  have  been  stranded  there  by  the  sub- 
mergence of  lands  connecting  Laysan  with  other  islands  of  the  group.  Find- 
ing the  island  small,  but  well  stocked  with  food  and  without  serious  naliiral 
enemies,  the  species  doubtless  settled  down  to  live  the  island  life.  Having 
but  little  use  for  their  wings,  they  gradually  lost  the  power  of  flight. 

The  Laysan  canary  is  the  best  songster  on  the  island,  and  as  a  rcsiUt 
many  of  them  have  been  captured  by  occasional  visitors  and  carried  to  Hono- 
lulu to  be  kept  in  cages  as  pets.  On  Laysan  they  are  very  jiumerous.  Being 
of  good  size  and  absolutely  fearless,  they  are  most  interesting,  ot'lcn  coming 
into  the  rough  houses  built  by  the  guano  company,  to  look  for  seed  or  to  secure 
a  drink  of  fresh  water.  Fresh  water  is  a  real  luxury  to  tlicin.  tlnnmh  Ihey 
never  care  to  bathe  in  it  as  ordinary  canaries  do. 

The  MnxEi-:  VUru. 

The  miller  bird,  as  it  has  been  called  on  account  of  its  uinisnal  fond- 
ness for  a  certain  species  of  miller  that  is  vci'v  abiuidanl  on  Laysan,  is  a  snndl 
i'%ed-warbler.  This  small  brown  bii'd  is  the  only  i-epresentative  of  this  exten- 
sive family  of  insect-eating  birds  to  be  found  in  the  native  fauna  of  th»>  gi-oup. 
Ornithologists  have  been  much  interested  in  the  discovery  of  this  well-marked 
species  occurring  only  on  this  isolated  spot  of  hind,  since  all  of  its  relatives  are 
capable  of  making  extended  flights  by  sea    and   occui-  widely   distributed   in 


320  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

Australia  and  China  and  on  various  Pacific  islands.  Like  its  neighbors,  it  is 
(|iiite  fearless  and  is  ahvays  bnsy.  Tlicy  often  l)reak  into  a  sweet,  strong, 
melodious  warble,  that  seems  ((uite  out  of  place  on  a  low.  hot  sand  island:  the 
song-  being  entirely  out  of  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  bird. 

The  remaining  species  peculiar  to  the  island  is  the  Laysan  honey-eater. 
It  is  an  island  form  of  the  apapani,  a  related  species  that  is  common  in  the 
forests  of  the  higher  islands  of  the  group.  It  is  a  small  bird,  red  in  color,  that 
so  clearly  resembles  its  better  known  relative  as  not  to  require  description 
here.  While  not  so  abundant  as  the  other  species  just  mentioned,  theii-  bright 
scarlet  plumage  renders  them  more  conspicuous.  Like  their  cousins,  they  are 
especially  fond  of  the  nectar  of  Howers,  and  their  long,  slender,  curved  bills 
and  tub(^-like  tongues  make  it  an  easy  matter  for  them  to  drink  the  sweet  fluid 
from  the  blossoms  of  the  Portulaca  that  grows  abundantly  al)out  the  edge  of 
the  lagoon.  They  are  also  fond  of  insects  and  nudve  many  a  meal  from  the 
large  grey  millers  on  the  island.  They  are  most  regular  in  their  habits,  return- 
ing hour  after  hour  and  day  after  day  to  the  same  bush  or  flower  to  search 
for  food. 

A  number  of  years  ago  the  Laysan  rail  was  liberated  on  ^Midway  Island, 
where  it  has  established  itself  in  a  thriving  colony.  The  Laysan  canary  has 
also  been  introduced  on  Midway  and  has  found  conditions  there  entirely  suit- 
able to  its  habits.  In  1909  ]Mr.  D.  Morrison  purchased  a  ]iair  of  the  common 
yellow  canaries-"  in  Honolulu  and  soon  after  liberated  their  young  on  ^lidway. 
They  have  increased  in  numbers  until  it  was  estimated  that  there  Avere  more 
than  a  thousand  birds  on  the  island  by  the  end  of  the  nesting  season  of  1914. 
They  are  sweet  songsters,  and  althougli  not  (juite  so  friendly  as  the  Laysan 
finch,  they  will  feed  with  a  person  standing  within  a  yard  of  them.  The 
future  of  this  colony  will  l)e  followed  with  much  interest  1)y  those  who  are 
interested  in  the  introduction  and  naturalization  of  song  and  game  Iflrds,  since 
it  furnishes  an  excellent  example  of  a  species  returning  to  its  natural  wild 
habits  after  centuries  of  conflnement  and  artificial  breeding  and  feeding. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
BIRDS  OF  THE  MARSH.  STREAM  AND  SHORE. 

Moi'c  tluin  half  of  the  complete  list  of  ])irds  i-eeorded  as  occurring  in  the 
Hawaiian  group  are  shore  and  water  hii-ds.  Tbis  pai-t  of  the  fauna  includes 
resident  sjjeeies,  regular  winter  migrants,  and  a  considerable  list  of  occa- 
sional or  accidental  visitors.  As  those  si)ecies  that  are  met  with  in  Hawaii 
(mly  at  irregular  intervals  are  seldom  seen  and  cannot  be  expected  to  con- 
tribute much  to  the  numerical  strength  of  the  meager  bird  population,  the 
present  chapter  deals  only  with  the  more  common  forms. 

We    have   observed    in    an    earlier    chai)ter    that    the    city    as    well    as    the 


"''  Fr:in(iHI(i    ranaria. 


THE  AXLMAL  l.IPE  OF  TIIK   (IHOTP.  .  321 

fanning  lands  on  the  lower  levels  about  all  the  islands  are  wilhuul  native  birds 
of  any  kind.  Fortunately,  this  is  not  true  of  the  ponds,  marshes,  streams  and 
the  sea-slioi'c.  as  the  waters  of  Hawaii  ai'c  slill  inliabitcd  l)y  several  eharaeter- 
istic  forms.  Unfortunately,  some  of  the  species  of  the  rcLiion  jifc  now  vciy 
rare,  while  others  that  are  more  common  are  of  more  lluiii  usual  iul crest,  since 
they  are  not  met  with  elsewhere  in  the  world.  The  majoi-ity  of  the  hii-ds 
belonging  to  this  low-land  section,  however,  are  I'epresentat  i\'cs  of  wide- 
ranging  species  that  visit  Hawaii  as  a  winter  resoi't  to  escape  the  rigoi's  of 
the  climate  in  the  far  north  wliei'c  most  of  the  shoi-e  and  walei-  l»ii-ds  repnii- 
every  summer  to  nest  and  rear  tlieir  young. 

The  Golden  Plover. 

Conspicuous  among  the  migrants  visiting  Hawaii  each  year  are  tlie  tzolden 
plover,  the  wandering  tattlei",  the  turnstone  and  the  sanderling.  A  sti'oll  along 
the  sea-shore,  especially  in  the  coimtry  districts  during  the  winter  s;'as(in.  will 
be  rewarded  by  a  sight  of  one  oi-  more  Hocks  of  at  least  some  of  these  species 
as  they  follow  up  the  receding  waves  in  seai'ch  of  the  dainties  that  are  left 
strewn  on  the  sand  ])y  the  sea.  Often  the  plover  ^  Avill  be  seen  in  lai-ge  num- 
bers, feeding  on  the  upland,  where,  in  th(^  freshly-plowed  fields  or  in  the  newly- 
planted  cane  or  on  the  open  grass  lands,  they  find  an  abundant  supply  of 
worms  and  insects.  They  doubtless  render  a  gi-eat  service  to  tin-  |)lantci-  and 
farmer  during  this  season,  and  are  entitled  to  all  the  protection  they  receive  in 
return. 

When  the  })lover  arrive  at  the  islands  in  the  autumn,  fi'oni  the  summer 
spent  in  the  far  north,  they  are  usually  in  pool*  tiesh.  But  when  we  think  of  the 
long  journey  they  must  make  over  the  three  thousand  miles  of  ocean  witlumt 
a  rest,  the  wonder  is  that  they  do  not  perish  on  the  way.  -Just  wh\'  the  j)lover 
and  all  the  other  migratory  birds  undertake  these  wearisome  Mights  across 
the  wild  open  ocean,  it  seems  must  ever  remain  a  mystei'y.  Without  doulit. 
when  storms  are  encountered  many  must  lose  their  way  aiul  go  down  to  wa1ei-y 
graves  or,  thrown  from  their  course,  must  tly  for  days  over  the  great  dull 
expanse  in  search  of  land.  Perhaps  it  was  in  some  such  accidental  wa\  that 
the  first  plover  happened  to  visit  Hawaii  in  the  long  ago.  Since  it  doubtless 
found  the  islands  a  pleasant  land,  it  seems  almost  incredihie  that  a  helpless 
wanderer  should  ever  put  to  sea  again  in  search  of  the  distant  land  fi-om 
w^hence  it  came.  But  the  instinct  to  migrate  to  the  far-away  north  and  rear 
a  brood  and  return  again  to  these  little  islands  over  the  sea  nnist  have  ix-eii 
very  strong — strong  enough  to  cai'i-y  it  and  its  descendants  liack  and  toi'th 
year  after  year.  Doubtless  such  is  the  story  ot  the  beginning  of  the  colonies 
of  most,  if  not  all.  of  the  ditftM'cnl  spcM-ics  of  mii^i-itoiy  sIku'c  and  watci-  bii-ds 
that  visit  Hawaii  each  vear. 


^Cliarndriiis   do)iii)iiriis   tiilnis. 


322  XATrRAL   IlISTOEY   OF    HAWAII. 

Old  'Stump  Leg.' 

It  is  interesting-  to  know  that  once  the  joiirne}^  is  successfully  made,  bar- 
ring accident  the  voyager  is  able  ever  afterwards  to  make  the  passage  with 
unerring  accuracy.  An  interesting  case  in  point  is  the  record  I  secured  from 
^Ir.  ]\Iax  Schlemmer,  who  for  several  years  was  the  manager  of  the  colony  of 
hiborers  formerly  stationed  on  the  little  sand  island  of  Laysan.  This  island  is 
but  a  mile  and  a  half  across  by  two  miles  in  length.  Nevertheless,  plover 
occur  tliere  in  large  flocks  each  winter  season. 

On  one  occasion  a  fine  male  bird  that  was  in  the  habit  of  roosting  every 
night  on  a  little  mound  of  sand  a  few  rods  fi-om  the  door  of  the  manager's 
house,  attracted  his  attention  as  it  fluttered  about  on  the  sand  apparently 
unable  to  fly.  Picking  it  up  it  was  found  that  a  bunch  of  hair  and  refuse  was 
wound  about  the  liird's  foot  and  leg,  and  that  this  had  been  added  to  with 
dirt  and  sand  until  a  bunch  large  enough  to  weight  the  bird  down  liad  formed. 
In  its  efforts  to  fly  it  had  broken  its  leg  and  was  in  a  pitiable  condition.  The 
numager  amputated  the  leg  at  the  fracture  and  set  the  bird  at  liberty.  To  the 
surprise  of  all,  it  healed  perfectly.  The  stump-leg  furnished  a  mark  for  iden- 
tification that  served  to  distinguish  the  bird  from  its  fellows,  and  it  naturally 
became  an  object  of  interest  in  the  colony.  It  remained  about  the  island  all 
winter,  returning  each  night  to  its  favorite  roosting-place  on  the  sand  mound. 
It  became  luiusually  tame  and  fearless.  "When  spring  came,  however,  it  re- 
sponded to  tlie  most  powerful  call  that  stirs  the  avian  brain,  the  homing 
instinct,  and  with  its  fellows  left  the  wave-washed  shores  of  Laysan  to  make 
the  long  flight  back  from  whence  they  came,  seemingly  for  no  more  intelli- 
gible reason  than  that  they  had  made  the  .journey  before. 

Natui-ally.  the  manager  bade  good-bye  forever,  as  he  thought,  to  his  bird 
neighbor  the  first  night  it  failed  to  return  to  its  roost.  But  being  a  seafaring 
num.  and  accustomed  to  the  excellent  discipline  of  keeping  a  ship's  log-book, 
whether  on  land  or  sea,  he  accordingly  made  a  note  of  the  fact  Avith  day  and 
date  and  dismissed  the  incident  from  his  mind.  The  summer  passed,  and  one 
early  autunni  day  the  whole  colony  was  thrown  into  a  state  of  excitement  by 
the  announcement  that  the  stump-leg  plover  had  returned  the  night  before 
and  had  been  found  that  morning  occupying  his  sand-pile  roost.  The  bird  was 
apparently  as  much  at  home  as  though  a  summer  cruise  to  some  distant  land 
was  a  regular  occurrence  and  a  matter  of  little  consequence.  Naturally,  so 
important  an  event  as  the  return  of  the  stump-leg  plover  to  its  winter  home 
was  made  a  matter  of  record  in  the  log  for  the  day.  The  bird  more  than  ever 
became  the  object  of  interest  and  concern  on  the  part  of  all  hands,  for  had  he 
not  accomplished  a  feat  entitling  him  to  the  highest  respect  among  seafaring 

(Vcscri/ifion    of   Plate    Cnritinupd    from    Opposite    Pafje.) 

Petrel  [Oeoe]  (Oceanodroma  cryptohucura).  5.  Hawaiian  Tern  [Xoio]  {Micranous  hatcaiieyi- 
sis).  6.  Bonin  Petrel  (ZEstrelata  hypoleuca) .  7.  Hawaiian  Coot  [Alae  keokeo]  (Fulica  alai). 
8.  Hawaiian  Hawk  [lo]  (Bufeo  solitarius)  ;  light  plumage.  9.  Hawaiian  Gallinule  [Alae] 
(GaJUnula  saiidvicensis) . 


^^^v- 


PLATE  80.     HAWAIIAN    BIRDtS    UF    VARIOUS    ol.'DI'.KS. 
[From  plates  in  Avos  Ilawaiioiisis.] 

1.     Wandering  Tattler   [Ulili]    (Fliirrartititi  incanus).     2.    Hawaiian  Duck   [Koloa  niaoli] 
(Anas  wyvilliaua).     3.    Hawaiian  (ioose  [None]  (Xrsocltcn  saiulviccnsis).     4.    Hawaiian  Stormy 

(Di'scriiiliiiii    (if   I'liiti'    Ciihtiinii-il    iin    tlie    Opposite    Pane.) 


324  NATURAL   HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

men?  Had  not  this  hifd,  without  a  chart  or  compass,  started  from  a  ^iven 
point  in  the  very  iiii<hlh-  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  made  a  cruise  extending 
over  several  months,  and  at  h^ast  (iOOO  miles  of  trackless  water,  returned  again, 
arriving  by  night  at  tlu'  vei-y  point  of  starting?  Certainly  old  "Stump-leg" 
was  an  ahlc  seaman  and  a  master  navigator. 

But  this  remarkable  record  does  not  stop  with  the  report  of  the  single 
trip.  The  log-book  records  that,  for  five  years,  each  fall  this  bird  returned  to 
Laysan,  arriving  each  year  at  almost  the  same  date  and  departing  in  the 
spring  Avith  ecpial  punctuality  for  parts  unknown.  But,  at  last,  "Stump-leg" 
failed  to  return.  AVhether  he  "vvas  killed  by  hunters  in  Alaska  or  gave  out  on 
the  weary  and  dangei'ous  .joui-ney,  or  lost  his  bearing  and  went  down  strug- 
gling against  fate,  or  died  a  natural  death,  will  never  lie  known;  but  certain 
it  is  that  his  voyage  to  and  from  Laysan  Island  aiul  the  records  made  of  them 
constitute  a  most  interesting  and  valuable  incident,  throwing  much  light  on 
the  unerring  accuracy  of  the  mysterious  instinct  which,  doubtless  through  hun- 
dreds and  perhaps  thousands  of  generations  has  served  to  guide  our  feathered 
friends  in  their  migrations  to  and  from  Hawaii. 

It  requires  but  a  fmv  weeks  in  the  islands  before  the  plover  are  all  in 
good  condition,  and  long  before  they  leave  for  the  north  the  following  spring 
they  are  plump  and  heavy  with  fat.  When  in  that  condition  everyone  knows 
that  the  plover  is  a  toothsome  morsel.  In  the  old  days  it  was  much  prized  as 
food  by  the  natives  of  Hawaii,  who  exhibited  great  skill  in  the  capture  of  the 
wild  birds.  So  skillful  were  they  in  imitating  the  plover's  peculiar  whistle 
that  they  were  often  able  to  lui'e  the  birds  close  enough  to  the  hunter  to 
enable  him  to  pelt  them  with  stones.  Another  less  sportsmanlike  method  was 
to  l)ait  a  fish  line  Avith  a  tempting  worm.  The  bait  Avas  placed  along  the  beach 
at  a  promising  spot  and  the  birds  called  to  partake  of  it. 

It  was  customary  to  cook  the  kolea  (plover)  and,  indeed,  any  of  the  game 
birds,  by  filling  the  body  cavity  Avith  a  .smooth  hot  stone,  that  was  especially 
suited  to  the  purpose.  The  bird,  stone  and  all,  was  then  wrapped  up  in  a 
neat  package  of  ti  leaves  and  sufficient  time  allowed  for  the  heat  from  the 
stone  to  accomplish  the  desired  result. 

The  Turnstone,  Sanderling,  Tattler  and  Curlew. 

Like  the  foregoing  species,  the  turnstone,-  the  sanderling^  and  the  tattler  ^ 
arriA^e  in  HaAvaii  late  in  August  or  September  and  leave  the  folloAving  Aprii 
by  thousands.  HoAvever,  there  are  usually  a  fcAv  individuals  of  each  species 
that  fail  to  leave  for  the  north.  An  examination  of  the  summer  birds  proves 
them  to  be  birds  that  are  young  and  barren  or  too  weak  to  undertake  the  long 
flight. 

Of  the  remaindei'  of  TIaAvaii's  migratoi-y  Avading  birds  it  is  only  necessary 
here  to  mention  the  bristle-thighed  curlew,''  as  such  other  species  as  occasion- 
;dlv  occur  ai'e  rareh^  if  e\'er  seen  bA'  the  ordinarA'  observer. 


ArriKiria   iiiti'riirin.  ^  CdlidriD  (n-cn<iria.  *  UffcractiliK    inrtni iix.  '•  Xiniit'iiiiis  taliififiisi.s. 


THE  ANLMAL   LIFE   OF  THE   (iKoil'.  325 

The  eiirlew  is  by  iiu  means  abuiHlaiit  uii  the  htr^e  ishiiuls,  Ijul  on  the  hnv- 
lyiiig  islands  to  the  northwest  they  are  fairly  common.  The  curlew  are  much 
larger  birds  than  the  plover,  and  are  sucli  conspicuous  objects  when  they  do 
visit  the  inhabited  islands  that  the  securing  of  a  si)ecimen  is  always  a  re^d 
event.  This  fine  game  bird  is  easily  recognized,  as  it  is  the  onl_\-  siion-  liird 
that  has  a  bill  about  three  inches  in  length  that  is  slightly  cui-\c(|  downward. 
It  derives  its  common  name  from  the  peculiar  feathers  of  the  thighs,  which 
terminate  in  long  bristle-like  points.  H  is  of  interest  to  know  that  this  s{)ecies 
visits  the  sea-coast  of  almost  all  of  the  hundreds  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  ocean 
at  all  seasons,  but  curiously  enough  no  one  has  ever  found  its  nest  and  eggs  on 
any  of  them. 

The  Hawaiian  Stilt. 

A  bird  that  is  occasionally  seen  along  the  sea-coast  or  al)()nt  the  salt-water 
marshes  is  the  peculiar  Hawaiian  stilt.''  Its  long  neck,  black  ])aek,  white 
breast  and  unusualy  long  pink  legs  make  it  a  conspicuous  and  interesting 
object.  Unlike  any  of  the  foregoing,  it  is  a  resident  of  the  islands  throughout 
the  year.  Its  ancestors,  doubtless,  long  ago  gave  up  the  habit  of  making  the 
useless  journey  away  over  the  ocean  every  summer  to  rear  their  young.  The 
Hawaiian  stilt,  therefore,  is  found  nowhere  else  in  the  world.  As  it  is  rare 
even  in  Hawaii  it  is  an  interesting  bird,  since  it  has  doubtless  come  to  dilfer 
from  its  near  relatives  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  it  has  long  been  isolated  from 
others  of  its  kind. 

Black-Crowned  Night  Heron. 

No  one  who  visits  the  sea-shore  at  sundown  or  is  abroad  at  sunrise  will  fail 
to  see  the  long-legged,  black-crowned  night  heron."  as  it  flies  from  its  home  in 
the  valleys  to  its  fishing  grounds  on  the  tide-flats  or  along  the  niullet-|)ond 
walls.  While  this  heron  lives  throughout  the  yeai-  in  the  islands,  it  has  not 
been  long  enough  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  its  relatives  to  ])ecome  a  distinct 
species,  as  it  is  still  impossible  to  distinguish  it  from  s{)ecimens  of  the  same 
heron  collected  in  America. 

They  feed  almost  entirely  on  fish,  the  mullet  being  a  favorite  with  them. 
In  certain  localities  they  levy  a  considerable  toll  on  the  mullet  jxmds  in  the 
vicinity  of  their  rookeries.  They  secure  their  food  along  the  sea-shore,  mostly 
at  night,  and  retire  during  the  daytime  to  the  thick  woods  in  the  mountain 
valleys,  where  they  nest  in  colonies.  Their  nests  are  bulky  atVairs  made  of 
sticks,  and  often  are  two  feet  in  diameter.  Sonu'times  a  dozen  nests  will  be 
found  in  a  single  tree.  The  eggs,  which  are  ])ale  blue  in  color.  ai-e  as  lai-^e  as 
small  hen  eggs. 

The  old  birds,  with  their  long  necks  and  legs,  are  vei-y  |>ictui'es(|ue  .-is  ihey 
crouch  in  the  treetops  or  wing  their  heav_\-  flii^ht  about  the  \alleys.  The  black- 
back  and  black  crown  are  in  contrast  with  the  tine  bIuisli-L;ra\'  color  of  the  boilv 


^  Iliiiiaiifopii.s   kiiiiil.it'}ii.  '  \i/rtirorn.r  Di/ctirorax  titi'i'iiis. 


326  XATFRAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

and  wings,  all  of  which  are  marks  of  maturity.  The  male  during  the  mating 
season  is  designated  from  the  female  by  a  pair  of  long  white  streamers 
that  curve  gracefully  down  from  the  back  of  the  head.  The  young  birds  are 
always  spotted  and  mottled  in  various  shades  of  brown,  butf  and  white,  and  are 
so  different  in  appearance  in  this  immature  plumage  that  the  Ilawaiians,  even 
though  they  were  very  close  observers,  gave  to  the  old  and  young  aukuu  dif- 
ferent names. 

The  Coot  and  Gallinule. 

The  Hawaiian  coot  ^"^  is  almost  as  large  as  a  small  fowl.  It  is  seldom  seen 
except  in  the  fresh-water  ponds,  and  brackish  and  fresh-water  marshes.  This 
curious  bird  and  its  cousin  the  Hawaiian  gallinule,''  a  bird  that  in  size  and 
general  habits  it  resembles  very  much,  are  Haw^aiian  species  that  have  near 
relatives  on  the  mainland  from  which  they  differ  but  slightly.  The  coot  is  a 
dark  slaty-gray  color,  and  is  peculiar  in  that  its  toes,  instead  of  being 
w^ebbed  as  they  are  on  a  duck's  foot,  are  provided  with  conspicuous  lateral 
lobes  or  flaps  which  enable  it  to  swim  with  great  speed  and  to  dive  almost  at 
the  tlash  of  a  gun.  The  upper  bill  has  a  curious  large  white  shield  over  its 
base.  This  white  shield  and  the  lobed  feet  help  the  beginner  to  identify  the 
bird  and  prevent  it  being  mistaken  for  the  gallinule.  The  latter  has  the  frontal 
shield,  a  vermillion  red,  and  the  toes  are  without  the  curious  lobes.  Both 
species  build  their  nest  of  dead  rushes  and  grasses,  placing  them  in  the  swamp 
near  their  favorite  haunts. 

The  Legend  of  ^Iaui  and  the  Alae. 

The  Hawaiians  have  a  very  interesting  story  that  seeks  to  explain  how 
the  alae  or  gallinule  acquired  the  red  spot  on  its  forehead.  According  to  the 
legend,  the  great  ]\Iaui,  who  dwelt  in  the  islands  before  the  process  of  making 
fire  was  invented,  had  four  sons,  who  were  fishermen.  Each  morning  at  sun- 
rise they  would  take  their  canoes  and  go  offshore  to  a  favorite  fishing  ground. 
One  morning  they  espied  a  fire  on  shore  and,  being  desirous  of  having  their 
food  cooked,  rowed  to  the  spot  where  the  fire  had  been  seen,  but  lo !  no  fire 
could  they  find.  The  next  day  they  repeated  the  experience  and  were  again 
disappointed.  After  repeated  failures  they  resorted  to  strategy.  Dressing  up 
a  huge  gourd  to  resemble  a  man,  they  placed  the  dummy  in  the  boat  as  a 
substitute  for  one  of  the  four  fishermen,  and  sent  the  canoe  out  to  fish  as  usual. 

The  man  on  shore  crept  close  to  where  the  fire  had  been  located  and 
w^aited  patiently.  To  his  surprise  he  found  it  W'as  the  alae  that  had  guarded 
the  secret  of  the  fire  so  w-ell. 

Knowdng  Maui  had  but  four  sons,  this  cautious  bird  had  Avaited  each  time 
until  they  were  all  away  fishing  before  it  dared  to  light  the  fire,  and  keeping  a 
sliarp  watch  it  scratched  it  out  again  when  they  started  home  with  their  lioat. 
Tliis  time  tlic  dunnny  in  the  boat  had  fooled  the  bii-d.      At  the  proper  moment 


^  Fulica   ttlai.  ^  (Sullinula   .sandvicennis. 


PLATE  81.     SIX    INTERESTING    HAWAIIAN     I'.II.'DS. 
[From  jilatos  in  Avcs   Ifawaiiensis.  | 

1.  Hawaiian  Crow  [Alala  |  (Corrus  Jiairdiiriisifi).  2.  Hawaiian  Hawk  |  lo  |  (Iiiit(<i  soli- 
t(i.riits)  ilark  phiniage.  3.  Hawaiian  Stilt  [Kukulnaco|  (H inuniloinis  l.niKlstiii).  4.  Winlge- 
tailcd  Siiearwater  [Unukane]  (Priofnus  cnneatua).  o.  ilauaiiaii  I\ail  [Molio]  (Peninthi 
ecaudata.     6.    The  same  showing-  the  exjianded  wings. 


328  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

the  oft-defeated  fisherman  leaped  from  his  hiding  place  and,  seizing  one  of  the 
birds,  threatened  to  kill  it  for  hiding-  the  secret  of  the  fire  from  them.  The 
bird  very  ably  argued  that  if  it  should  be  killed  the  secret  of  the  art  of 
making  lire  would  die  with  it.  At  last,  just  in  time  to  save  his  neck  and  after 
considerable  parley  and  repeated  attempts  at  evasion,  the  bird  finally  divulged 
the  ancient  art  of  making  fii-e  by  rubbing  one  dry  stick  on  another.  So  exas- 
perated bad  the  son  of  ^laui  become  before  he  succeeded  in  producing  fire,  for 
be  was  told  to  rul)  together  first  one  thing  and  then  another,  that  at  last  he 
I'ubbcd  tbe  toj)  of  the  bird's  head  until  it  was  red  with  blood,  and  the  red  spot 
lias  remained  thereon  to  this  day. 

The  Haw^viian  Duck. 

Although  both  the  gallinule  and  the  coot  were  eaten  by  the  Hawaiians, 
they  were  not  so  highly  esteemed  as  was  the  Hawaiian  duck.^'^  a  small  species 
that  formerly  was  plentiful  in  the  streams  and  marshes  on  all  the  large  islands. 
Of  recent  years  they  have  become  very  rare  except  on  the  Island  of  Kauai.  It 
is  thought  that  the  mongoose,  together  with  the  sportsman,  have  brought 
about  this  unfortunate  state  of  affairs,  since  this  species  is  peculiar  to  these 
islands.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  such  foreign  ducks  as  the  shoveler,ii  with  its 
spade-like  bill,  and  the  pintail,^-  with  its  sharp-pointed  tail,  and  other  less 
common  species  that  visit  the  islands  each  winter,  coming  down  from  the 
northwest  coast,  are  now  much  more  liable  to  be  shot  in  the  group,  during  the 
open  season,  than  is  the  native  Hawaiian  species.  As  with  the  shore  birds, 
there  are  other  species  of  ducks,  and  occasionally  even  geese,  that  from  time  to 
time  wander  from  Alaska  on  their  migrations;  Init  their  occurrence  is  scarcely 
ever  observed  by  other  than  the  professional  s])ortsman. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

BIRDS  OF  THE  MOUNTAIN  FORESTS. 

With  the  shore,  the  marsh  and  the  ocean  birds  considered  in  other  chap- 
ters, we  come  now  to  the  peculiar  and  therefore  more  interesting  part  of  the 
Hawaiian  bird  fauna,  namely,  that  which  is  at  home  in  the  mountain  forests. 
The  exploration  of  these  almost  impenetrable,  dense,  moist,  often  cloud-swept 
.jungle-like  forests  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task;  but  in  order  to  see  the 
Hawaiian  birds  outside  of  a  museum  collection,  it  is  necessary  to  explore  them, 
since  it  is  there  alone  that  the  curious  forms  of  l)ird  life  for  which  Hawaii  is 
noted  are  found. 

Unfortunately,  many  of  the  more  interesting  forms  are  either  extinct  or 
so  rare  that  they  are  no  longer  to  be  seen  alive.  Of  the  forms  that  still  exist, 
a  few  species  are  sufficiently  abundant  and  conspicuous  in  song  and  color  to  give 
an  interesting  touch  of  life  to  the  forest  that  adds  not  a  little  to  the  pleasure  of 
a  holiday  spent  in  the  mountains. 


^^  Ana.1  u'l/riUicnw.  ^^  Spatula  rhjpeata.         ^-  Dnfidn    aruta. 


THE   ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   ^JROFP.  329 

The  Elepaio. 

A  list  of  fifty-six  species  of  living-  and  extinct  passerine  birds  are  all  that 
has  been  known  to  exist  in  the  forests  of  tlie  inhabited  islands  of  the  gronp. 
This  small  list  must  be  further  reduced  by  sixteen  species  which  are  now 
regarded  hy  ornithologist  as  extinct.  Of  the  remaining-  forty  species,  which 
are  about  equally  distributed  among  the  six  islands,  there  are  none  better 
known  or  more  commonly  met  Avith  than  the  Hawaiian  flyeatchei',  oi'  elepaio  of 
the  natives. 

Kauai.  Oahu  and  Hawaii  still  have  living  species  of  this  fea)-less  lilt  If 
brown  bird  tliat  on  each  island  can  be  recognized  at  once  by  its  pert  air  and 
the  saucy  cock  of  its  fan-shaped  tail.  They  are  common  on  the  mountainside 
all  the  way  from  the  sea  to  well  up  into  the  higher  levels.  WIkmi  hidden  in 
the  forests  they  are  easily  identified  by  their  curious,  loud,  clear,  insistant 
call — "elepaio,"'  which  is  vai-ied  by  a  kissing  noise  as  well  as  by  a  inuiibcf  of 
other  whistled  notes  and  calls. 

The  elepaio^  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  any  of  the  Hawaiian  birds.  Its 
nest  is  a  beautiful  little  structure  about  two  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  that 
in  appearance  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  hiunming-bird.  It  is  composed  of  very 
fine  grass,  mosses  and  lichens,  and  is  placed  in  the  fork  of  a  tree,  usually  but  a 
few  feet  from  the  ground.  While  the  elepaio  is  a  bird  famous  in  song  and 
story  on  all  of  the  islands,  and  according  to  David  Malo  was  formerly  used  for 
food,  it  seems  not  to  have  been  seriously  reduced  in  numbers  and  still  remains 
the  most  abundant  Hawaiian  species. 

The  Apapane  and  Iiwi. 

The  species  most  commonly  noted  by  strangers,  however,  is  the  beautiful 
dark  blood-red  bird,  the  apapane-  of  the  natives.  It  is  al)out  five  and  a 
quarter  inches  in  length  and  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  the  beautiful 
scarlet  iiwi,^^  which  is  a  slightly  larger  and  more  brilliant  bird,  with  llic  bill 
and  feet  vermilion  or  at  least  not  black,  as  is  the  case  with  the  apapane. 

Both  these  species  of  red  birds  occur  in  the  forest  on  all  the  larger  inhab- 
ited islands  in  favorable  localities  from  near  the  sea-shore  to  the  u{)pei-  limit 
of  the  large  forest  trees,  but  they  are  most  abundant  at  from  two  to  four  thou- 
sand feet  elevation.  Both  are  eciually  fond  of  nectar,  and  both  frequent  the 
flowering  ohia  trees.  The  two  species  are  perhaps  the  most  easily  observed  by 
visitors  in  the  vicinity'  of  the  Volcano  House  on  Hawaii.  wIutc  the  pleasant 
though  somewhat  monotonous  song  of  the  apapane  ean  be  heard  fi'om  early 
until  late. 

Amakihi 

All  the  larger  islands  are  inhabited  by  a  small  green-and-yellow  or  olive- 
green  bird  ^   with   a   curved   beak,   known    as   Hie   amakilii.       AVliile   thi'y   differ 


1  Chasiempis   f/ayi  =  Oahu.    C.    xrlateri  =  Kauai,    C.   sandrirensis  =  H.iwaii. 
^  Himatioiie   SfiKi/uiiiea.  ^  Vegtiiirin   coccinca.  *  Chlorodrri)n)ii.'<  spp. 


22 


PLATE  82.     SOME    SONG    BIRDS    OF    THE    HAWAIIAN    ISLANDS. 
[From  plates  in  Aves  Hawaiiensis.] 

1.    Yellow-tufted     Honey-eater      (Moho     apicalis)  :        Oahu — extinct.     2.    Kauai     Akialoa 
(Ilc::iignatlnin  procerua)  :    Kauai.     ?,.    Puaiohi    {Plia'ornis  palmer i)  :    Kauai,      -l.    Ulaaihawane 

( Di'xcriiitiou    of    rUitc    CiiiitinHctl    an    the    Opposite   Pai/e.) 


THE  ANBIAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  331 

slightly  in  size  and  color  from  island  to  island.  Ilicy  ;dl  hdoii^'  to  one  unuis 
and  are  easily  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  common  and  widely  distril)ute(l 
species.  They  are  nectar-feeding  species  and  are  freqnently  seen  in  (•<iiii|)an\-  with 
the  red  species  just  mentioned.  They  are  also  fond  of  insects  and  spend  much 
of  their  time  searching  thi'oiigh  the  foliage.  The  call  note  of  the  amakihi  is 
a  sweetly-whistled  "tsweet,"  which  is  easily  imitated.  Theii-  song  is  a  short 
trill,  and  when  it  is  at  its  fullest  is  loud  and  penetrating  but  not  vei'\-  musical. 
All  of  these  birds  (as,  indeed,  are  all  of  the  birds  belonging  to  the  family 
Drepanidida)  are  characterized  l\v  a  very  strongly-marked  and  peculiar  odor. 
This  goat-like  scent  is  so  peculiar  and  persistent  in  this  family  of  hirds  that 
often  after  they  have  left  the  spot  the  air  retains  a  musk-like  smell.  The  nest 
of  the  amakihi  is  a  simple  structure  of  twigs,  leaves  and  roots  and  is  usually, 
though  not  always,  near  the  ground. 

The  Genus  Oreomystis. 

There  is  a  small  olive-green  bird  occurring  on  Hawaii,  belonging  to  an 
entirely  ditferent  genus  -^  that  is  so  similar  in  appearance  to  the  species  of 
amakihi  found  in  the  group  that  the  Ilawaiians  themselves  did  not  give  it  a 
separate  name.  Several  species  on  the  other  islands,  however,  are  easily 
recognized,  the  adult  males  especially  ditfering  greatly  in  color,  voice.  hai)its 
and  general  appearance  from  the  species  of  amakihi  to  be  found  on  the  respec- 
tive islands. 

The  difference  between  the  two  genera  which  would  serve  to  most  readily 
distinguish  them  in  the  field,  is  that  instead  of  feeding  almost  entirely  on 
Insects  and  nectar  from  the  Howers  and  leaves,  as  is  the  habit  of  the  amakihi. 
all  of  the  species  of  Oreomystis  feed  in  a  large  part  on  insects  secured  from  the 
trunks  and  limbs  of  the  forest  trees  and  bushes.  They  are  all  expert  climbers, 
working  either  upward  or  downv/ard  and  along  the  upper  and  undei*  side  of 
the  horizontal  ])ranches.  The  difference  in  color  of  the  species  on  the  dif- 
ferent islands  is  a  most  remarkable  feature,  since  gray-green,  oli\e-green, 
yellow-olive,  yellow  and  bright  red  species  occur. 

Thrush  and  Finch-like  Birds. 
The  five  genera  mentioned  above  are  represented  on  all  of  the  large 
islands  by  one  species  or  another.  A  large  brown  thrush-like  bird  '■  that  is  a 
remarkable  songster,  and  the  stocky,  olive-green  yelloAV-headed  on"  are  the 
two  species  that  are  next  in  abundance.  Their  representatives  on  Oahu  liave 
been  extinct  for  many  years,  but  on  oiie  oi"  the  other  of  the  islands  one  or  both  are 
occasionally  seen  by  the  casual  observer  about  camjis  an<l  mountain  houses. 


Oreomystis.  ^  Phmornis  spp.  "  Psittacirostra   psittacca. 


(Description  of  Plate  Continued  from  Opposite  Page.) 
{Cirklopfi  anna)  :  Hawaii.  5.  Kona  Thick-bill  (Chloridops  lonn)  :  Hawaii,  (i.  Nukupmi 
(Heterorhynchm  hanapepe)  :  Kauai.  7.  O-o  (Moho  nohilis)  :  Hawaii.  8.  Maui  Parrot-bill 
(P.^eudone.stor  x<intho])hn/s)  :  Maui.  9.  H(ier(yrhynclin.^  \Hci<h(.-<:  Oalni — oxtint't.  10.  .Vkialoa 
{Eemignaihus  obscunis)  :  Hawaii.  11.  Falnuria  dolri :  .Maui,  Molokai,  a  vory  rare  sp«cies. 
12.  Molokai  o-o   {Moho  bishopi)  :  Molokai,  very  raro. 


PLATE  83.     SOME  EARE  AND  EXTINCT  BIRDS  OF  THE  MOUNTAIN  FORESTS. 

[From  jilates  in  Aves  Hawaiiensis.] 

1.    A'iridonia    (Viridonia  sagittirosiris):    TTawaii.      2.    Black  Mamo    [Hoi]    (Drcp<uiurham- 
phus   funereus)  :    Molokai,   very   rare.      3.    Kijii    {llrmuinathus    lichtensteini)  :    Oalui,    extinct. 

( Drurriptiftli    of    Plate    Cdiitiiiui-d    on    tin-    Opiiiisilc    Paf/e.) 


THE   AXTMAT.  TJPE   OF  TITE   riROEP.  ^?,3 

Still  rarer  are  the  vai'ions  species  of  the  o-eniis  Lnxops  or  the  akepa,  wliieh 
are  foxy-red  or  oraiiye  color,  according  lo  the  age  and  the  species  of  the  l)ii-d. 
As  they  feed  chiefly  upon  the  insects  secured  from  tlie  foliage  of  Ihc  1  rces.  they 
are  very  active  little  creatures;  they  resemble  the  dlive-oreen  aiuakihi  in 
habits,  and  although  possessed  of  a  slioi't  liiich-lik-c  hill,  ihcy  may  readily  be 
mistaken  in  the  treetops  foi'  their  cousins  with  the  sh'iKh-f  i-iirxcd  beaks.  The 
striking  peculiarity  of  all  Ihe  species,  however,  is  that  the  heal^  is  not  sym- 
metrical. The  tips  of  the  mandibles  cross  each  other  in  imicii  the  same 
fashion  as  that  of  the  common  "crossbill"  finches  elsewhere. 

The  remaining  species  are  too  rare  to  be  met  with,  except  by  the  merest 
chance,  by  any  one  save  a  professional  ornithologist,  and  even  thfii  the  enthu- 
siast is  often  forced  to  remain  for  weeks  in  the  wildest  mountain  forests  before 
even  hearing  the  voice  of  the  species  sought,  and  more  tinn  s  than  not  the 
whole  effort  to  see  or  secure  a  specimen  results  in  the  most  depi-essinu'  disap- 
pointment. 

Rare  and  Extinct  Birds. 

Of  the  species  that  have  been  known  to  inhabit  the  islands  in  times  ])ast.  no 
fewer  than  twenty  are  now  so  rare  in  collections,  and  for  years  liave  been  so 
scarce  in  the  mountains,  as  to  entitle  them  to  have  their  names  entereil  on  the 
list  of  species  no  longer  in  existence,  or  at  least  bordering  on  extinction.  The 
Island  of  Oahu  can  make  the  melancholy  boast  that  it  has  a  greater  list  i>f 
extinct  l)irds,  in  proportion  to  the  total  number  of  species  known  from  the 
island,  than  any  other  like  area  ni  the  world.  On  Haw^aii  the  moho  ^  has  been 
extinct  for  years,  having  been  exterminated,  it  is  thought,  by  the  domestic 
cats  that  long  ago  ran  Avild.  As  it  was  a  small  flightless  rail  resembling  its 
cousin  on  Laysan,  it  is  doubtful  if  it  would  have  been  able  to  survive  the 
inroad  of  the  more  recentlv  introduced  mongoose,  which  has  been  evervwhere 
merciless  in  its  attack  on  ground-nesting  birds. 

The  fine  black  mamo '•'  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  extinction  by  the  Ila- 
waiians  years  ago.  From  its  rump  the  natives  secured  the  rich  goklen-yclli>\v 
feathers  used  in  the  making  of  their  feather  cloaks,  helmets  and  leis. 

The  0-0  1"  likewise  Avas  driven  to  the  verge  of  extinction  for  similar  rea- 
sons. When  the  mamo  became  rare  the  natives  began  to  substitute  the  yellow 
feathers  growing  under  the  wings  of  the  o-o  foi-  the  i-unip  feathers  of  the 
former.  Though  they  were  not  so  I'ich  in  color,  they  made  acceptable  sub- 
stitutes, and  as  a  result  these  beautiful  birds  are  now  practically  all  gone  on 
Hawaii,  while  on  ]\Iolokai  and  Kauai  the  two  species  belonging  to  the  same 


^  Pi'tDuiIn   lu-auddtn.  "  I) rfp-riin  iircifird.  ^"  Mulm   imhih'x. 


(Description    of   Plate    Cotitinued   from    Opposite    Page.) 

4.  INIaui  Amakihi  (ChlorcxJrcpani.s  wilsoui)  :  Maui.  •').  Hawaii  llalfl.ill  (Heterorhi/ttchus  wil- 
sani)  :  Hawaii.  (5.  Mamo  {Drepanis  parifira)  :  Hawaii,  pxtiiict.  7.  Alauhiio  (Onniui/stin 
montana)  :  Laiiai.  8.  ChcetoptUa  angustipliuna:  Hawaii,  extinct.  !).  Loxops  rufa:  Oahu,  ex- 
tinct. 10.  Lnxops  ochracea:  Maui,  becoming  quite  rare.  11.  Oreomystis  mavuhitu:  Oahu. 
12.    Iilioclacantliis  pulnteri:    Hawaii,   vcrv  rare. 


PLATE  84.     SIX    FAMILIAR    MOUNTAIN    BIRDS. 
[From  j)lat:es  in  Aves  Hawaiiensis.] 

1.  liwi  (restiaria  coccinea)  :  found  on  all  the  islands.  2.  Kauai  Elejiaio  [Apekepcke] 
(Chasmeipis  sclnteri)  :  Kauai.  ?,.  Kauai  Amakihi  (Chhvndrepanis  slejncf/rri)  :  Kauai.  4. 
Apapane  (Himationr  saiu/inca)  :  all  islands.  5.  Maui  Half-bill  (Hetcrorp]n/nrhus  afinis)  : 
Maui.     6.    Hawaiian  Thrush    [Oniau]    (Phcponiis  ohscura)  :    Hawaii. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  TIIH   GROFP.  335 

genus  are  rapidly  dying  out,  apparently  of  their  own  accord,  or  at  least  from 
other  unassignable  causes.     The  Oaliu  species  ^i  has  long  been  extinct. 

Hawaiian  Duck  and  Goose. 

The  Hawaiian  duck,'-  the  gallenuU'  and  llic  cool  are  diininishint:  in  num- 
bers on  all  the  islands  where  the  mongoose  is  i'ound;  while  the  put'iin.  llie 
petrel  and  the  native  goose  ^^  are  all  sub.iect  to  its  toll. 

All  of  these  birds  are  becoming  extinct  from  known  causes,  ]»nt  thci-c  are 
species  which  have  died  out  for  no  assignable  reason.  The  splendid  Chaioptila 
o))gi(s:fiph(}}ia  of  Hawaii  is  a  case  in  point.  Though  it  was  rare  when  first  dis- 
covered by  naturalists,  it  has  not  lieen  seen  in  the  forests  iVom  that  da\-  to  the 
present. 

Likewise,  there  seems  to  be  no  adequate  explanation  for  the  extinction  of 
at  least  five  of  the  six  species  that  are  now  known  from  only  a  few  luuseuni 
specimens  collected  by  early  naturalists,  as  only  one  of  the  extinct  species, 
namely,  the  Oahu  mamo,  was  ever  killed  by  the  natives  for  their  feathers. 
Although  numerous  theories  have  been  advanced,  the  cause  of  their  extermination 
will  doubtless  ever  remain  one  of  nature's  own  secrets. 

In  considering  the  future  of  the  Hawaiian  birds,  especially  those  that 
have  been  rare  or  very  limited  in  their  distril)ution,  we  must  remember  that 
the  forest  areas  are  diminishing  owing  to  the  devastation  of  animals,  the  ax 
and  the  settler,  and  that  in  consequence  the  birds  are  constantly  being  brought 
into  sharper  competition  among  themselves  and  into  a  struggle  with  a  differcMit 
if  not  a  new  environment. 

Already  several  species  that  a  decade  ago  were  regarded  as  fairly  connnon 
in  certain  localites  have  disappeared  from  them  entirely.  Avhile  others  are  only 
found  after  long  and  diligent  search. 

Hawaiian  Crow. 

An  interesting  phase  of  Hawaiian  bird  life  is  shown  I)\  the  nati\f  Ha- 
waiian crow.i^  It  occurs  on  a  certain  portion  of  one  island  only,  and  there 
over  an  area  from  which  it  never  seems  to  attempt  to  pass.  IIa\iiig  originally- 
gained  a  foothold  in  the  Kona  and  Kau  districts  of  Hawaii,  the  bird  seems  to 
be  unwilling  to  extend  its  range  to  the  windward  forests  that  ad.join  is  liab- 
itat,  even  though  they  are  known  to  abound  in  suitabh^  food. 

The  VIridonia  ^'>  is  a  handsome  olive-^i-een  bird  which  fni'iiishes  a  still 
more  remarkable  instance  of  a  restrictetl  habitat.  Tliis,  one  of  the  rarest  of 
Hawaiian  birds,  is  only  found  on  Hawaii,  and  there  it  is  confined  to  an  area 
of  a  few  square  miles  and  is  absolntely  nnioiown  ontside  this  little  valley 
region,  where  it  was  so  rare  as  to  be  unknown  to  tlie  native  inhabitants. 

The  Black  ^Iamo. 
The  hoi  or  Idack  mamo  "'  is  confined  to  the  Island  of  Molokai.     There  it 


11  ilfo/io  aincnUs.  ^'  Ai^as  iri/rilliann.  ^'^  Kesorlit-n   sinidrirfiinix.  ^*  Cnrius  hawaiieiisis. 

1^  V.  sagittirostris.  i"  DreDanorliaiipns  funerea. 


336  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

finds  forest  conditions  that  are  suitable  to  its  liabits  over  only  a  very  limited 
portion  of  the  mountain  area  of  the  island.  While  it  is  an  active,  energetic 
bird,  it  has  apparently  never  attempted  to  cross  the  channels  to  the  nearby 
island  of  ^laui.  For  a  hundred  years  at  least  it  has  l)een  a  rare  bird  on  ^lolo- 
kai,  so  rare,  indeed,  that  in  1907  the  writer  secured  l)ut  three  specimens  as  a 
reward  for  seven  weeks  spent  in  the  mountains  in  a  search  devoted  to  locating 
this  interesting  and  curious  species. 

Still  another  interesing  example  of  limited  distribution  among  Hawaiian 
birds  is  that  of  the  nene  or  Hawaiian  goose,  which  is  confined  to  the  Island  of 
Hawaii,  where  it  leads  a  life  of  seclusion,  high  up  on  the  mountainside,  seldom 
if  ever  descending  to  the  sea  level.  The  Hawaiian  duck  is  more  Avidely  dis- 
tributed, having  occurred  in  considerable  numbers  on  all  islands  of  the  group. 
Unfortunately,  since  the  introduction  of  the  mongoose  it  has  been  quite  rare 
except  on  Kauai,  where  the  mongoose  has  never  been  liberated. 

A  Native  Hawk  and  Owl. 

The  Hawaiian  hawk  or  io^^  occurs  only  on  Hawaii,  where  it  is  still  fairly 
common.  The  Hawaiian  owl  ^'^  occurs  on  all  the  large  islands.  It  is  quite 
closely  related  to  the  short-eared  owl,  common  on  the  American  continent. 
Since  it  differs  from  the  American  species  only  in  minor  details,  it  is  re- 
garded as  an  island  form  of  that  species  which  has  been  reduced  in  size  through 
isolation.  Like  the  coot  and  mud-hen.  it  is  one  of  the  more  recent  arrivals  that 
have  made  the  islands  their  h(mie  long  enough  to  allow  the  principles  of  evolu- 
tion, especially  those  involved  in  isolation,  to  produce  slight,  though  easily 
recognizable,  changes  in  the  appearance  of  the  species.  Though  the  natural 
history  of  the  Hawaiian  birds  is  of  much  general  interest,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  subject  of  the  evolution  of  the  various  species  presents  material  foi-  con- 
sideration that  is  of  deep  and  absorbing  interest  to  all. 

The  Family  Drepanidid.e. 

The  family  Drepanidida',  which  includes  the  majority  of  the  song  birds 
of  Hawaii,  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  example  of  the  evolution  of  a  group 
of  birds  to  be  found  anywhere.  The  family  which  is  peculiar  to  the  islands, 
includes  about  forty  species  that  are  found  nowhere  else  in  the  world.  While 
they  are  all  much  alike  in  their  general  structure,  they  differ  amazingly  in  the 
form  of  bill  and  also  exhibit  striking  differences  in  the  color  of  the  plumage. 
In  almost  all  other  families  the  form  of  the  bill  is  (luite  uniform  among  the 
species  that  belong  to  it.  That  organ  usually  bears  a  close  connection  with 
the  feeding  habits  of  the  group,  and  these  are  usually  very  nearly  the  same 
for  all  the  species  in  the  family.  But  among  the  Drepanidida'  of  Hawaii  we 
find  them  fitted  by  their  structure  to  almost  every  kind  of  life  for  which  a 
song  bird  in  the  tropics  can  become  adapted.     This  adaptation  of  the  bill  has 


^~  Buteo  solitarius.  ^^  Asio  accij/itriitux  siindcicerisis. 


PLATE  85.     COMMON    HAWAIIAN   BIRDS. 
I  From  plates  in  Aves  Jlawaiiensis.] 

1.  Hawaii  Elepaio  (Chiisiempis  sandvicensis)  :  Hawaii.  2.  Katiiau  (riinornia  wj/adcii- 
tina)  :  Kauai.  3.  Ou  bolowai  {Loxops  ccFruleirn.strin)  :  Kauai.  4.  Aivikilii  (Oreomysiis  bairdi)  : 
Kauai.  5.  Oahu  Elepaio  (Clifisiempis  r/ai/i)  :  Oalui.  (!.  Apajiauc  {HinKttioiir  sa»nuiiica)  :  all 
islands.  7.  0-u  {Fsittaci rostra  psiiidced)  ;  foruicrly  on  all  islands.  8.  O-o  a-a  {Moho  brcicca- 
tus):    Kauai.     9.    Loxops  ochracea:    Maui. 


338  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

led  to  some  most  remarkable  changes.  From  the  firm,  straight  bill  of  the 
genus  Oreomystis — the  genus  supposed  to  most  closely  conform  Avith  the  an- 
cestral form  which  may  have  come  from  America  in  very  remote  time,  and  the 
form  from  Avhich  all  other  genera  of  the  family  are  supposed  to  have  evolved — 
we  have  widely  ditferent  types  of  bills  developed. 

In  one  branch  of  the  family  the  bill  passes  through  several  genera,  each 
slightly  modified,  initil  the  normal  straight  bill  becomes  an  unusual  one,  very 
long  and  slender  and  singularly  curved,  w^ith  a  tubular  tongue,  especially 
adapted  to  securing  the  nectar  from  long  tubular  flowers.  The  opposite  branch 
leads  off  by  gradual  degrees  to  wdiere  a  short  thick  bill  of  astonishing  strength 
terminates  the  line  of  evolution  in  Chloridops  koiia — a  grossbeak-like  bird  that 
confines  its  food  habits  to  cracking  the  flint-like  seeds  of  the  bastard  sandal- 
wood. Between  the  long,  slender,  curved  honey-eater  beak  and  the  heavy  finch- 
like  beak  are  all  manner  of  special  forms.  In  one  the  bill  is  parrot-like-,  in 
another  it  is  suited  to  a  fruit  diet,  so  that  many  forms  of  bill  occur. 

Hawaiiax  Birds  Becoming  Extinct. 

"With  th(^  high  specialization  of  the  l)ill  these  birds  have  lost  their 
power  of  adaptation.  As  most  species  are  confined  to  but  a  single  island,  and 
in  some  cases  to  n  single  district,  and  there  to  a  single  species  of  tree,  we  can 
see  how  difficult  it  would  be  for  them  to  adjust  themselves  to  any  sudden 
change  in  their  environment  after  they  had  gradually  become  fitted  through 
countless  centuries  for  the  conditions  that  existed  in  any  particular  locality. 
Developed  under  conditions  most  unusual  and  peculiar — each  within  its  own 
chosen  and  restricted  sphere — change  of  any  sort,  and  competition  however 
slight,  is  likely  to  find  them  unprepared  to  compete,  though  some  species  are 
better  endowed  to  take  part  in  the  struggle  than  are  the  majority.  In  the 
light  of  their  own  past  history,  they  seem  strangely  susceptible  to  any  change 
that  may  occur.  When  the  few  remaining  species  are  gone  there  will  be  left  be- 
hind them,  as  tokens  of  their  existence,  only  a  few  dried  skins  in  the  museums  of 
the  world  and  a  few  meager  pages  in  such  books  as  this,  telling  too  little  of  their 
life  historv  and  habits. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
HAWAIIAX  FISHES:     PART  ONE. 

The  waters  of  Ilaw^aii  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their  fishes  of  many 
peculiar  habits  and  characteristics,  odd  shapes,  and  remarkable  size  and  color. 
As  a  result,  so  much  has  been  written  in  a  popular  and  scientific  way  con- 
cerning them  that  they  are  perhaps  better  known  than  any  other  form  of  life 
about  the  islands. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   (IKOIP.  339 

Fishing  in  Former  Times. 

Doubtless  fish  have  always  been  one  of  the  chief  arlidcs  df  aiiiiiial  food  for 
the  natives,  and  a  visit  to  the  busy  niai'kels  will  no)  only  repay  one  for  the 
trouble.  I)ut  cotiviiicc  liini  thai  llic  business  of  fishing'  still  constitutes  one  of 
Hawaii's  ini])(trtant  industries.  The  name  i  "a  was  ^iveii  by  llie  Hawaiians  to 
all  food  pi'oducts  secured  from  the  sea,  "whether  they  moved  or  not."  But 
for  our  purpose  we  wdll  speak  only  of  the  fishes,  reservint^'  llie  many  otln-i- 
interesting  forms  for  discussion  in  other  chapters. 

As  has  been  said  in  the  account  of  the  people,  fishinu'  in  former  limes  was 
associated  wath  much  religious  ceremony  and  idol  worship.  Altai-s  and  luMaus, 
especially  devoted  to  the  needs  of  the  fishing  class,  were  very  common.  The 
fish  gods,  more  numerous  than  the  heiaus,  were  faithfully  woi-sliipped  by  the 
fishing  class  and  their  every  tabu  and  requirement  most  studiously  observed. 
Before  the  fishermen  would  go  out  on  their  expeditions,  everything  that  could 
be  done  to  placate  the  gods  would  be  carried  out  by  the  devout. 

However,  we  are  told  that  in  those  days,  as  in  these,  there  was  a  cei'tiiin 
class,  more  skeptical  than  the  rest,  who  went  fishing  whenever  the\-  chose  to  do 
so,  without  observing  any  religious  ceremonies  wdiatever. 

Fishing  Equipment  of  the  Ancient  Hawaiia.xs. 

There  was  a  great  variety  of  implements  and  apparatus  employed  b\-  the 
fishermen,  and  their  description  and  enumeration  seems  hardly  necessary 
here;  but  it  is  of  interest  to  know  that  they  had  devices  for  capturing  every 
kind  of  creature  inhabiting  the  waters  about  the  islands,  with  the  single  exception 
of  the  whale. 

The  canoe  w^as,  of  course,  the  most  important  part  of  the  e(|ui])ment  of  a 
fisherman.  These  were  almost  invariably  made  of  koa.  ^Nfany  of  the  older 
ones  were  fashioned  from  huge  trees,  so  large,  indeed,  that  the  finished  canoes 
■were  often  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet  in  length.  A  canoe  to  seat  tin-ee  fisher- 
men would  be  about  thirty-three  feet  long,  while  a  single-seated  one  was 
usually  eighteen  feet  long  by  seventeen  inches  wide.  Some  of  the  canoes  used 
sails,  but  as  a  general  rule  the  paddle  was  the  only  motive  jxtwer. 

The  seines  were  the  most  important  part  of  the  fisherman's  outfit. 
These  were  frequently  two  or  three  hundred  feet  in  lenuth.  and  in  certain 
cases  they  occasionally  joined  the  long  ones  together.  'i'lieii'  seines  for  catch- 
ing bait  were  much  smaller,  usually  only  a  few  yai'ds  in  length,  \vilh  mesh  as 
fine  as  quarter  inch.  Gill  nets  of  different  sizes  and  designs  were  also  much 
used.  They  were  used  nu)stly  at  night  and  wei'e  commonly  set  aci'oss  o|)en- 
ings  in  the  reef.  Frequently  these  nets  wei-e  laid  out  so  as  to  enclose  a  large 
coral  rock.  The  native  fisherman  would  then  di\-e  down  and  drixc  the  lish  I'inmii 
the  rock. 

Another  method  sometimes  used  by  tiie  natives  was  to  join  se\-eral  seines 
together  and  then  paddle  out  to  sea  in  a  semicii'cde.  paying  out  the  seine  as 
thev  w^ent.     The  net  would  then  ])e  hauled  in  to  shore  ami  the  last    few  yai-ds 


PLATE  86.  THE  SHAEKS  AND  RAYS. 

[Assembled   from  U.   S.   Fish   Coiiuu.   Bulletin   Xo.   23.] 

1.  Hawaiian  Cub-shark  [Mano]  {Carcharias  mclanoptcnis).  2.  Thrasher  Shark  (^/oi^as 
vulpes).  3.  Mackerel-shark  (Isuropsis  glauca).  -i.  Dog-shark  (Sqiutlus  mitsiikurii) .  5. 
Hammer-headed  Shark  [Mano  kihikihi]  {Sphijrna  zygcena).  6.  Blue  Shark  (Prionace  glauca). 
7.  Sting  Eay  (Dasyatis  hairaiieiisis).  S.  Spotted  Sting  Eay  [Hihimanu]  (Sfoasodon  nari- 
nari). 


THE  ANI.MAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  341 

of  fine  net  l)i'()ii>i'ht  together  in  a  cii-cnlai'  form.  When  advisable  tlic  lisli  ilius 
cauyht  might  be  left  in  the  seine  ti'aj)  in  tlie  Avater  for  several  days.  Cer1;iiii 
species  of  fish  lliat  run  in  school,  as  the  akulc  i-aii  l)c  srcii  a  considci-iililr 
distance  at  sea.  It  is  the  practice  among  native  hshermen  to  post  one  of 
their  nnmber  on  the  land  at  an  elevation  from  ^vhi('ll  tlicir  praftiecd  eyes  can 
locate  the  school  of  fish  as  it  api)r()ach('s  the  siion-.  hi  dii-cciiiiL;  the  opera- 
tions of  the  fishermen  from  the  shore,  tlic  hxtUoul  uses  a  white  Mag  and 
observes  considerable  snperstitious  ceremon^\'  in  liis  work. 

Several  forms  of  bag  nets  have  been  employed  l)y  tlie  ITawaiians,  some 
of  them  more  than  two  hnndred  fathoms  in  lengtli.  'I'lie  usually  have  de- 
tachable bags  in  the  middle  often  thirty  feet  long  l)y  lialf  as  many  feet  in 
width.  These  were  used  in  w^ater  f-wenty  feet  or  more  in  (lejitli.  The 
opelu  or  bag  nets  are  commonly  about  a  dozen  feet  across  1)\  three  times 
as  deep,  and  have  a  hoop  fastened  in  the  moutli  to  kee])  tiio  net  open.  In  use 
they  are  baited  and  lowered,  and  then  at  the  pi-opei-  moment  ra|)i(lly  liauh-il 
in.  Several  ingenious  nets  are  used  in  capturing  various  si)ecies  of  hsh — the 
upena  hehu,  upena  pua,  kapuni  nehn.  upena  ulm  and  the  npena  i)oo  being 
important  among  them. 

Several  forms  of  dip  nets  w-ere  also  devised  by  the  Ilawaiians.  One  was 
formed  by  tying  two  slender  parallel  sticks  to  a  fine  net  about  five  feet  apart. 
By  running  a  string  through  the  louver  end  and  shirring  it  through  the  net. 
a  rude  bag  was  formed  that  was  used  in  shallow  water  and  foi-  tisiiiuL;  in 
rough,  stony  jjlaces. 

The  Hawaiians  seem  to  have  used  ])nt  few  fish  l)askets.  the  two  kinds  used 
in  catching  the  shrimp  ^  being  the  most  important  forms. 

Several  species  of  fish  were  taken  in  fish-traps  or  pens.  The  group  of 
shark  pens  removed  from  Pearl  Harbor  when  the  channel  was  dredged  Avere 
among  the  best  examples  in  the  islands.  They  were  so  arranged  that  the  fish, 
which  enter  them  freely  at  high  water,  are  caught  as  the  watei-  recedes,  by 
means  of  a  small  seine. 

Fish  spearing  was  an  art  with  the  okl  Hawaiians,  and  tiicy  Avei'c  very 
adept  in  the  use  of  the  weapon,  which  consisted  usually  of  a  long  hard- 
wood pole  six  or  eight  feet  in  length,  ending  in  ancient  times  with  one  or  two 
sharp  wooden  prongs,  but  in  modern  times,  with  a  thin  i-od  of  iron,  a  loot  or  so 
in  length,  that  is  slightly  barbed  at  the  tip.  Tliis  inipleuient  was  only  used  in 
shallow  water  about  the  reef,  where  it  might  be  employed  in  si)eai'im:  sipnd. 
turtles,  and  other  slow-moving  surface-swimming  forms.  In  the  hands  n['  an 
expert  diver,  however-,  it  might  be  can-ied  down  into  the  walei'  se\-ei'al  feet  and 
used  with  effect  in  caves  and  lioles  about  the  reef. 

Fish   Poison. 

The  natives  were  expert  in  making  and  using  a  eet-tain  lish  poison  known 
as  holahola.     A -poisonous  Aveed  -  Avhich  grows  on  the  mountainside  was  eol- 


Opae.  -  Ahuhu. 


342  NATUKAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

lected  and  pminded  together  with  sand.  The  sand  was  used  to  make  the 
mixture  sink  more  readily  to  the  bottom.  With  a  quantity  of  this  poison  in 
the  canoe  the  fisherman  would  search  out  a  tide  pool,  cave^,  or  hole  in  the  reef 
inhabited  by  a  number  of  species  of  fish.  A  long  seine  was  first  put  out  in 
a  circle  about  the  spot  to  prevent  the  fish  from  escaping.  The  poison  mixture 
was  then  rolled  in  small  packages  or  placed  in  a  bag  and  carried  down  to  the 
bottom  by  the  fisherman  in  order  to  distribute  it  about  to  advantage  in  the 
holes  in  the  rock.  In  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  the  fish  would  come  to  the  top  in  a 
stupefied  condition,  when  they  were  easily  gathered  from  the  surface  of  the 
water.  If  allowed  to  remain  too  long  in  the  water  they  would  recover  from  the 
effects  of  the  drug.  When  used  as  food  they  seem  to  be  in  no  way  injured  by 
the  poison  used  in  their  capture. 

Fishing  at  Night. 

A  very  pictures(|ue  method  of  fishing,  much  employed  in  former  times  by 
the  natives,  was  by  the  light  of  tlie  torch.  At  favorable  seasons  dozens  of 
fishermen  could  be  seen,  each  with  a  lighted  fagot  in  one  hand  made  of  a 
bundle  of  ti  leaves  or  a  string  of  kukui  nuts  wrapped  around  with  ti  leaves 
to  make  a  handle,  and  in  the  other  a  small  net  or  spear.  As  the  men  and 
women  waded  about  over  the  reef,  the  reflection  in  the  shallow  vrater  from 
the  flickering  lights,  together  with  the  shadowy  outline  of  the  natives,  their 
excited  voices  and  weird,  fantastic  movements  produced  an  impression  on  the 
mind  of  the  spectator  that  time  could  not  readily  efface. 

A  method  of  fishing  with  a  snare  w^as  perhaps  peculiai-  to  the  Haw^aiian 
Islands.  This  method  was  much  employed  in  fishing  for  eel.  It  consisted  in 
throwing  the  bait  near  a  hole.  In  this  way  these  greedy  and  unsuspecting 
animals  were  enticed  through  a  wide  noose  which,  attached  through  a  loop, 
dangled  from  the  end  of  a  heavy  pole.  When  the  critical  moment  arrived  the 
noose  was  hauled  taut  about  the  eel,  and  up  snug  against  the  end  of  the  pole, 
by  drawing  in  on  the  end  of  the  line  which  passed  along  the  pole  to  the  hand. 

Fishing  with  the  hands  was  a  common  practice  among  the  natives,  but  line 
fishing  was  more  extensively  follow^ed  and  in  general  yielded  better  returns. 
Ingenious  fishhooks  made  of  mother-of-pearl  shells  w^ere  much  used,  though 
bone,  ivory  and  tortoise-shell  found  an  important  place  in  the  manufacture  of 
these  useful  implements. 

Fish  Bait. 

The  selection  of  a  suitable  l)ait  was  by  no  means  a  simple  task.  While  the 
live  shrimp  or  opae  was  very  frequently  used,  Mr.  Joseph  S.  Emerson  collected 
a  list  of  no  fewer  than  twenty-two  compounded  baits  that  w^ere  built  up  on  a 
single  base  material.  It  is  estimated  that  there  w^ere  probably  more  than  a 
hundred  kinds  of  bait  known  to  the  skilled  fisherman  in  ancient  times  in 
Hawaii.  For  line  fishing,  however,  the  live  bait  was  preferred,  and  they  had  a 
method  for  catching  the  daily  supply  that  will  bear  repeating  among  Hawaiian 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROl^P.  343 

fishermen  of  today.  One  ni.-iii  with  a  small  calahash  of  dried  .shi'iiii|»  \\;is  Id't  <iii 
shore  while  the  rest  of  the  party  look  a  seine  with  ycvy  fine  mesh  jiiid  ]);id(lle(l 
their  canoes  out  a  few  yards  from  the  shore.  The  man  Avitli  the  hjiit  then 
walked  alon^'  the  beach  a  short  distance,  and  .ifter  chewing'  up  a  few  shrim{), 
would  select  a  promising  place  and  throw  the  morsal  as  far  out  to  sea  as  possible. 
If  small  fish  come  up  immediately  the  net  was  cast  about  the  spot  and  a  draw 
made  in  which  all  hands  participated.  If  the  bait  was  unmolested  new  bait  was 
prepared  and  thrown  out  as  before  at  what  appeared  to  be  a  more  favorable  ])lace. 
By  this  little  trick,  the  fisherman  was  saved  not  only  the  time  emphned  in  mak- 
ing unprofitable  hauls,  but  the  chagrin  of  finding  nothing,  not  even  bait  in  his 
net.  when  it  was  landed. 

Shark  Fishing  in  Ancient  Times. 

In  the  capture  of  shark  the  ancient  Hawaiians,  especially  the  chiefs  and 
alii,  found  much  sport — and  since  the  use  of  human  flesh  as  bait  was  in  great 
vogue  among  them,  the  method  then  employed  is  of  more  than  ordinary 
interest  to  us;  of  course,  the  flesh  of  other  animals  has  been  substituted  in  these 
latter  days. 

The  human  body  used  was  usually  that  of  a  slave,  or  at  least  some  one  out 
of  standing  Avith  the  royal  fishermen.  The  person  to  serve  as  bait  was  killed 
two  or  three  days  in  advance  of  the  anticipated  fishing  expedition.  The  flesh 
of  the  victim  vras  then  cut  up.  placed  in  a  container  and  left  exi)ose;l  to  the  air 
to  decompose. 

With  the  bait  loaded  on  the  outrigger  of  the  canoe  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  admit  of  its  leaving  a  dripping  trail  of  blood  and  od  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  the  fishing  party  Avould  row  their  canoes  out  to  where  sharks  were 
plentiful.  Large  bone  or  wooden  hooks,  some  of  them  a  foot  loiiLi.  wi-re 
baited  with  the  tempting  morsels  and  lowered  to  the  eager  prey.  Great  skill 
and  courage  was  shown  l)y  the  members  of  the  i-oyal  ])ar1\-  on  such  occasions 
in  roping  and  landing  the  captured  shark. 

Every  part  of  the  bone  and  skin  of  one  of  these  savage  animals  was  sup- 
posed to  confer  unflinching  bravery  on  its  ])Ossessor.  For  this  reason  Kame- 
hameha  I.  was  especially  proud  and  jealous  of  his  title  as  the  great  shark-fisher. 
He  kept  his  victims  penned  up  near  the  great  heiau-'  of  ]\lookini.  near  Ka- 
waihae,  Hawaii,  so  there  was  always  a  supply  of  bait  on  hand. 

In  the  olden  times  the  capture  of  a  shark  was  really  a  great  event,  but  it 
has  been  more  than  one  hundred  years  since  the  last  human  being  was  made  to 
figure  in  the  preliminary  plans  of  a  day's  aquatic  sport,  llowevei-.  shai-k  iish- 
ing  is  indulged  in  as  a  sport  today,  but  the  motoi-  boat,  the  th'sh  of  a  horse  for 
bait,  and  the  use  of  rifles  has  done  much  to  dull  the  heroic  setting  shark  fish- 
ing must  have  had  in  days  that  are  gone. 

While   the    Hawaiians   recognized   bu.t    live   species   of   sharks   and    ga\-e   to 

3  Temple. 


<    5 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  345 

each  a  characteristic  name,  there  are  as  many  as  sixteen  species  belonging  to 
a  dozen  genera  that  have  been  taken  by  scientific  fishermen  from  the  waters 
about  the  islands. 

Man-Eater  Sharks. 

Of  this  number  the  larger  species  are  usually  spoken  of  as  man-eater 
sharks,  or  tiger  sharks.  The  real  man-eater  is  a  great  white  shark  sometimes 
thirty  feet  in  length.  It  is  by  all  odds  the  most  ferocious  of  all  fish-like 
animals.  Specimens  have  been  taken  in  Europe,  Japan,  California,  Hawaii 
and  the  Carolinas  indicating  that  they  encircle  the  globe.  While  but  one  species 
of  this  genus,-*  known  as  nuihi  by  the  natives,  is  alive  today,  the  teeth  and 
certain  other  bones  of  extinct  species  that  lived  in  former  times,  have  been 
dredged  from  the  sea  bottom  in  the  Mid-Pacific.  Some  of  the  other  living 
species  are  really  quite  voracious,  but  that  they  are  really  man-eaters  in  the 
sense  of  pursuing,  capturing  and  devouring  the  living  body  of  a  man  is  doubted 
by  those  who  have  given  time  and  attention  to  the  verification  of  the  various 
shark  stories  that  are  current  in  Hawaii,  as  well  as  in  all  seaport  towns. 

Sharks  with  mouths  twenty  inches  across,  that  are  crammed  with  trian- 
gular teeth  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  are  not  uncommonly  captured  about 
the  islands.  Since  the  number  and  size  of  the  teeth  is  said  to  be  directly  in 
proportion  to  the  ferocity  of  the  shark,  the  larger  species  are  to  be  studiously 
avoided,  be  they  living  or  dead,  even  though  we  are  continually  reassured  that 
they  are  not  dangerous — as  an  incident  taken  from  my  note-book  will  dem- 
onstrate. 

Several  years  ago  I  was  on  board  a  four-masted  sailing  vessel  bound  for 
Laysan  Island,  when  our  good  ship  became  hopelessly  becalmed.  We  had  on 
board  a  party  of  Japanese  laborers  to  be  emploj^ed  in  the  guano  business 
on  the  islancL  To  pass  the  time,  and  in  response  to  an  ancient  and  honorable 
superstition  of  the  sea,  all  hands  fell  to  fishing  for  sharks — since,  as  everyone 
who  has  sailed  with  canvas  knows,  the  catching  of  a  shark  by  a  becalmed 
mariner  has  never  failed  to  bring  a  fair  wind.  As  all  winds  that  blow  for 
becalmed  seamen  are  classed  as  fair,  we  were  not  surprised,  within  an  hour 
after  our  crew  had  succeeded  in  hooking  and  loading  an  eight-foot  shark,  to 
find  our  vessel  under  headway  again.  As  the  Japanese  are  fond  of  shark  stew, 
they  were  granted  permission  to  make  an  open  fire  on  deck  and  dress  and  cook 
the  slimy  savage  token  of  our  good  luck. 

An  hour  later  one  of  the  laborers  commenced  to  clean  the  deck  of  the  blood 


*  Carcharodon  carcharias. 


Description   of    Plate. 

1.  Shark  fisliing  as  practiced  for  the  sport  of  the  chase.  2.  Catching  skip-jacks  [Aku] 
or  Ocean  Boneto  from  the  jib-boom  of  a  sailing  vessel.  .3.  Five  minutes'  catch  from  the  jib- 
boom.  4.  Hawaiian  spearing  fish  with  a  double  pronged  spear  [kao].  5.  Fisherman  with  a 
throw  net.  6.  Man-eater  Sliark  [Niuhu]  {Carcharodon  carcharias)  capturc'd  off  I'earl  Harbor. 
This  shark  is  the  most  voracious  of  all  tlie  fishes.  7.  Natives  fisliing  at  Kahana  Bay  with 
long  sea  net    [upena  kuu].     8.    Large  dip-net   for  reef  fishing. 

21 


346  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

and  ul'fal  left  hy  tlie  butchers.  The  ghastly  head  with  its  gaping  month  was  first 
to  be  dropped  overboard.  Thrusting  one  hand  for  want  of  a  better  hold  into  the 
open  mouth  of  the  dead  .ininial,  the  laborer  slipped  his  other  hand  under  the 
head  as  it  had  been  cut  free  from  the  body,  when,  without  warning,  the  yawn- 
ing mouth  clapped  shut  in  a  death  grip  on  the  hand  and  wrist  of  the  Japanese. 
The  sufifering  man  was  only  extricated  from  the  vice-like  jaws  by  main 
strength.  One  of  his  comrades  seizing  him,  another  the  shark's  head,  his  hand 
was  literally  pulled,  in  a  frightfully  lacerated  condition,  from  the  dead  animal 's 
mouth.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  animal's  tiesh  had  been  boiling  an  hour, 
and  was  ready  to  be  served  to  the  waiting  company  of  Japanese,  the  muscles  of 
the  .jaws  had  responded  to  some  stimulus  that  caused  them  to  clamp  the  man's 
hand. 

Sometimes  the  natives  hunt  for  sharks  in  pools  and  caves  in  the  reef, 
where  they  are  occasionally  found  fast  asleep.  When  a  "shark  hole"  is  lo- 
cated a  diver  will  go  down  and  deftly  slip  a  noose  about  the  tail  of  a  shark, 
which  is  then  hauled  up  and  dispatched.  Experts  have  captured  six  or  eight 
fair-sized  sharks  in  a  day  in  this  manner. 

The  skin  of  sharks  in  the  hands  of  the  natives  found  its  principal  use  in 
tlie  manufacture  of  heads  for  their  hula  drums,  while  the  teeth  and  bones  were 
used  as  ornaments  and  implements.  The  tiesh  was  generally  eaten,  but  out 
of  respect  to  the  great  shark  god  it  was  tabu  to  women,  who  -were  forbidden 
to  partake  of  it  under  pain  of  death. 

The  Hammer-Head  Shark. 

Among  the  various  species  of  sharks  the  hammer-head,''  or  mano  kihikihi, 
is  perhaps  most  curious  in  its  characteristics.  It  is  a  wide-ranging  form 
found  from  the  Mediterranean  to  Cape  Cod  in  the  Atlantic,  as  well  as  at  widely- 
scattered  localities  in  the  Pacific,  including  Hawaii.  The  singular  form  of  the 
head  is  one  of  the  most  unusual  modifications  among  fishes.  Instead  of  retain- 
ing the  usual  form,  the  front  part  of  the  head  of  these  sharks  is  broad,  flat- 
tened and  extended  on  each  side  into  a  process,  on  the  fiat  terminal  surfaces  of 
which  are  situated  the  eyes. 

The  Dogfish. 

The  Hawaiian  dogfish.'^'  which  is  also  found  in  Japan,  is  an  active  species 
of  the  smaller  sharks  that  may  be  identified  by  the  stout  spine  in  the  dorsal 
fins  and  by  their  sharp,  squarish  cutting  teeth.  In  the  Atlantic,  dogfish  are 
sometimes  captured  in  large  numbers,  their  livers  being  used  for  the  production 
of  shark-oil.  In  Hawaii  shark-oil  fishing  has  never  been  carried  on  to  any 
extent,  though  sharks  are  abundant  in  certain  localities,  and  once  or  twice 
vessels  have  been  fitted  out  to  engage  in  the  trade. 

The  Mackerel  Shark  and  'Ku.i.er'  Whale. 
Mackerel-sharks    seven    to    nine    feet    in    length,    which    furnish    the    large 


6  Sphyrna  zygmna.  «  Sqmtlus  mitsukurii. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  347 

jaws  commonly  seen  preserved  as  curiosities  in  Hawaii,  and  the  thrasher- 
sharks,  are  found  a])oiit  the  group.  The  hitter,  sometimes  at1aiiiiii<^'  a  length 
of  twenty  feet,  may  be  identified  at  once  by  the  great  length  of  its  cycle-shaped 
tail-fin.  They  are  not  especially  ferocious,  and  the  cui-reiit  stories  of  their 
attacking  whales  doubtless  arise  from  mistaking  the  Orca  for  this  shark.  The 
Orca,  or  killer,  is  not  a  shark  at  all.  but  is  a  mamnuil  belonging  to  the  oi-der  of 
whales  and  is  allied  to  the  porpoise.  As  a  passenger  between  Honolulu  and 
San  Francisco  I  once  saw  a  numl)er  of  them  attack  a  school  of  whales. 
From  the  deck  of  the  steamer  we  could  see  them  clinging  with  their  strong 
teeth  about  the  heads  and  mouths  of  the  great  animals.  The  whales,  panic- 
stricken,  would  leap  clear  out  of  the  w^ater,  producing  a  terrific  splash  in  their 
efforts  to  free  themselves  from  their  pursuers.  Often  they  would  roll  over 
and  over  in  their  frantic  endeavors  to  escape.  Occasionally  they  w^ould  dis- 
lodge one  of  their  tormentors,  and  it  would  be  sent  whirling  through  the  air, 
apparently  enjoying  the  novel  experience.  As  the  battle  was  at  close  range 
and  lasted  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  more,  I  was  able  to  satisfy  myself  as  to 
the  identity  of  the  combatants. 

Rays  and  Skates. 

Three  families  of  rays  or  skates  are  represented  in  Hawaii  by  five  well- 
defined  species.  Though  differing  widely  from  the  sharks  in  form,  they  are 
related  to  them,  and  belong  to  the  same  sulj-class  of  the  great  group  of  fish-like 
vertebrates.  Three  species  of  sting-rays  have  so  far  been  taken  from  Ha- 
waiian Avaters.  These  flat,  disk-like  animals  have  very  long,  slender,  whip- 
like tails  that  are  without  typical  fins,  but  in  lieu  of  fins  the  tail  is  pro- 
vided with  a  strong,  jagged  spine  covered  with  slime.  The  mouth  is  armed  with 
broad  saw-like  teeth.  The  spine  inflicts  a  dangerous  wound,  not  through  the 
presence  of  any  specific  venom,  but  from  the  danger  of  blood  poison  arising 
from  the  slime  and  the  ragged  and  unclean  cut.  Specimens  six  to  eight  feet 
in  length  are  not  uncommon  in  Hawaii.  They  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
eagle-rays  or  spotted  sting-ray  '  by  the  fact  that  with  the  former  the  fin  on  the 
side  of  the  disk  extends  forward  on  both  sides  to  form  the  tips  of  the  snout, 
while  with  the  eagle-i-ay  the  muzzle  is  entire  and  free  from  the  fin. 

The  Sea  Devil. 

The  sea  devil, ^  or  hihimanu  of  the  natives,  is  even  more  tcn-ihh'  in  ap- 
pearance than  the  sharks  and  rays,  and  is  characterized  by  resembling  the 
latter,  but  the  anterior  lobes  of  the  pectoral  fins  are  developed  so  as  to  stand 
up  like  horns  or  ears  on  the  head.  They  are  by  no  means  connnoii  about 
Hawaii,  and  as  all  the  members  of  the  three  families  belonging  to  Ihis  oi-der 
are  of  little  value  as  food,  they  are  seldom  seen  at  the  mai'kets  in  the  islands. 
They  clifl'er  from  the  sharks  in  that  they  frequent  the  sea  ])ottoni.  where  they 
feed  principally  on  shell-fish,  which  they  crush  with  their  fiat  teeth. 


Stoasodoii   narinari.  '  ilobula  japonica. 


348  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 
HAWAIIAN  FISHES:      PART  TWO. 

The  scope  of  this  brief  account  of  the  fishes  of  Hawaii  will  not  permit  of  more 
than  passing  notice  of  some  of  the  more  interesting,  curious,  valuable  or 
common  species.  It  is  left  for  those  who  are  especially  interested  in  the  sub- 
ject to  either  fish  for  themselves  or  to  visit  the  Honolulu  Aquarium,  the  mar- 
ket, or  the  Bishop  Museum,  where  extensive  collections  offer  opportunity  for 
an  exhaustive  study. 

Food  Fish  in  the  Markets. 

Some  idea  of  the  fish  resources  of  Hawaii  can  be  gained  from  the  fact  that 
of  the  six  hundred  or  more  species  that  scientists  have  found  in  the  island 
waters,  more  than  three  hundred  and  fifty  are  sold  in  the  markets  of  Honolulu 
for  food,  each  species  having  a  Hawaiian  name  by  which  it  is  usually  desig- 
nated. Often  several  dozen  species  may  be  seen  in  the  market  in  a  single  day 
— a  fact  which  adds  not  a  little  to  the  confusion  and  difficulty  of  the  inexperi- 
enced person  when  attempting  to  select  a  choice  specimen  for  table  use  from 
the  many  fish  of  various  sizes,  shapes  and  colors. 

Unfortunately,  though  the  number  of  species  to  select  from  is  very  large, 
(as  is  usual  with  animals  in  warm  countries)  the  number  of  individuals  of  any 
one  species  is  not  liable  to  be  so  plentiful  in  the  tropics  as  in  the  colder  cli- 
mates. As  a  result  fish  are  not  as  abundant  nor  as  cheap  in  the  markets  as 
one  could  wish,  where  sea  food  should  form  the  basis  of  a  wholesome  and 
cheap  diet. 

As  many  species  run  in  scliools  and  arc  liable  at  times  to  be  very  abun- 
dant and  cheap  at  certain  seasons  and  entirely  wanting  at  others,  it  behooves 
the  prudent  housewife  to  be  able  to  take  advantage  of  bargains  at  the  market 
as  well  as  in  the  shops  and  stores. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  care  to  vary  their  fish  order  for  one 
reason  or  another,  the  writer  has  secured,  tlirough  the  cooperation  of  a  num- 
ber of  friends  interested  in  the  culinary  side  of  the  problem,  the  accompanying 
list  1  of  especially  useful  food  fishes,  all  of  which  are  worthy  of  trial  in  any 
home.  All  of  the  long  list  of  fish  offered  for  sale  are  wholesome;  the  brief  list 
appended  serves  simply  as  a  suggestion  and  is  offered  with  the  view  of  encour- 
aging readers  to  explore  further  on  their  oavu  account.  It  will  be  noted  that 
twenty  species  are  enumerated  which  are  used  by  all  nationalities,  which 
are  regarded  as  the  favorite  fish  of  Europeans  in  the  islands.  Other  columns 
show  the  various  fishes  used  by  tlie  several  principal  nationalities  visiting  the 
Honolulu  market.  As  an  aid  in  identifying  the  choicest  food  fish,  fourteen 
species  are  figured  together  on  a  single  plate. 


IMPORTANT   HAWAIIAN    FOOD    PISH. 

^  A  list  of  sixty-five  of  the  more  important  food  fish  found  in  the  Honolulu  market,  showiiiK  the  species 
preferred  by  the  various  nationalities  in  the  city  is  shown  in  the  following  table.  The  culinarv  uses 
made  of  twenty  of  the  species  most  frequently  purchased  by  Europeans  is  also  shown,  bv  the  following 
designation  marks  placed  after  the  native  name,  i.  e.,   *  =  baking:    f  =  boiling:    J  =  pan  fish." 

(Continued  on  opposite  page.) 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   OROrP.  349 

IMPORTANT   HAWAIIAN    KOOl)    FISH    (See   note   on   opposite   page). 


Native   Name.  Scientific  Name. 


a,  ~  -  3 


Ahaaha Tylosurus  giganteus X 

Ahi Germn   germn X 

Aholehole Euhlla    miilo X                       X          X 

Aku OynDKiS'irda    i>elaiiii.i X                                      X 

Akule    *    t    J     Traclniro/ifi   cruiiicfioptlifliiia X           X           X           X           X 

Aleihi  lakea P.ii'inhirhrilirius  ortnto'nia X 

Ama-ama    *    t    t    Mugil  cepfinlus X          X          X          X          X 

A'a Xiphins  glndius X 

Awa Chanos  cIkiiios X                                    X 

Aweoweo Priacanthus  cruentatus X 

Hapu'u    pn'n    *    f    J     Epinephelus   quernus X          X          X          X           X 

Hihimanu Mobxia   japnnirn X           X 

Hilu A  nnmpses   cu  rier X                         X 

Hinalea    lamvili Thalassoma  duperrcy X 

Humuhumu  nukuniiku  apua'a.  .  .  .Balistapus  aculeatus X                                    X 

Iheihe Hemiramphus   depniipenitus X 

Kahnla   *    \    X    Seriola    purpurasccns X          X          X          X          X 

Kaku Sphyrivna   snodyrassi X 

Kala Acaiifhiiriix    unirornis X 

Kawakawa Gymnnscrdn   nUefliTotn X 

Kawelea IraehinocepliaUis   my  ops.  .  .     X                                    X 

Kikakapu Chcetodon   liinida X                                    X 

Kumu    *    +    t     Pseudiipeneus  porphyreus X          X          X          X          X 

Kupijii Ahudt'fditf   sordidus X 

Kupoupou Cheilio    inermis X 

Lae    t    Scomberoides  tolonparali X  X  X  X  X 

Lauia    t     Callyodon   lauia X  X  X  X  X 

Mahihi    *    f    :;:     Coryphcrnn    hippiirus X          X          X          X           X 

Maii'i Hepatus   elongatiis X 

Makiawa Etrumeiis  micropus X 

j  Parexocoetus   hrachypteriis | 

Malolo -:  Exocnetus  I'nlitans >  X 

(  Cypsilurus  siinus I 

Mamamo Monotaxis   grandocitlis X                       X 

Manini    X    Hepotns   snndi-icensis X          X          X           X          X 

Mano Sqiinlus   yiutxiiku.rii X 

Moi   *    t    X    Polydfictylus  sexfilis X          X           X           X          X 

Mu Monotaxis  grandoctilis X                       X 

Nehu Anchovia   purpurea X  X  X 

Ohua Cantherines  sandwichiensis 

Oio Albula   rulpes 

Omaka StethojuHs  axillaris 

Omilu    *    f    X     Carangns   viplampygus 

Ono Aratitliorybiiim   snhoidri 

Oopu    +     Eleotris   sand iricen six 

Oopuhue ChUoiiiyrtcrus   affinis 

Oopukai Cirrliitiis   inarmorntus 

Onakninki    *    +    +  ^  Apsilus   microdon 

upakapaka         T    +     I  Bowrrnia   riolescens 

Opelu    palahu    X    Scomber  japonieus 

Onelu Scomber 

Opule AnaDipses  cuvier 


Pakii    X     Platophrys   pantherinu.s 

Pakuikui Hepntiis  nchilles 

Palawi Hepatiis   dusxuiiiieri 

Papio))io    X    Caraiigiis    (small   size) 

Poopa'a Parncirrhites    ductus 

Pualu HepatuK  diissumieri 

Puhi Gymnothorax   (a  generic  name  for  eels) 

Puhiki'i Parexocoetus  brachy/iterus 


Uhu Callyodon  mineatus .  .  . 

Uku   *    t    X    i  prion    rirescens 

Ulae Satirida   gracilis 

Ulaula    *    t    t     Etelis   marxhi 

Ulua   *    t    X     Carangtis    (large  size)  . 

Ulua   kihikihi Alectis  cilinris 

U'u    X     Myripristis   murdjnn  .  . 


Walu Hepatus   xantliopteru.i . 

Weke  ula    X    Mulloides  auriflamma  . 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 
X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 
X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

PLATP:  88.     EELS    AND    OTHER   CURIOUSLY    SHAPED    FISHES. 
[Assembled  from  U.   S.  Fish   Comm.   Bulletin   No.   23.] 
1.     Bone-fish  [Oio]    {Alhula  vulpes).     2.    Milk-fish  [Awa]    (Chonos  clmnos).     3.    Hawaiian 
Herring    [Makiawa]    (Etntmeus    wicropits).      4.    Anchovie    [Nehu]    (Anchoria    purpurea).      5. 

(Dcsrri/itifin    of    Plali'    ('<iiitUini'<l    on    tin'    Oii/mxitf    J'tnif.) 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROIH^.  351 

Students  of  the  subject  of  Hsli  jiiid  (isli  ciillui-c  IdJ  ^is  tliat  lliei'e  are  now 
known  in  the  waters  of  the  woild  more  than  ten  thousand  species  of  bony 
fishes.  These  they  have  divided  into  about  twenty  ordei's,  which  are  again 
divided  into  numeroiUJ  famiVies,  and  still  nioic  miiiicrous  genera.  Of  the  ini- 
portent  genera,  a  surprising  number  are  represented  in  the  fisli  fauna  of 
Hawaii  by  one  or  more  species. 

Many  of  the  six  hundred  or  more  species  attributed  to  Hawaii  are  never 
seen  in  the  markets,  since  they  dwell  only  in  the  dark  abysses  of  the  deep  o[)en 
ocean,  often  miles  below  its  surface.  They  are  only  captured  by  the  use  of 
complicated  apparatus  operated  at  great  expense  by  scientific  men  commissioned  to 
study  the  wonders  of  the  great  ocean,  and  who  for  their  work  must  employ 
specially  equipped  vessels,  such  as  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  ship 
Albatross. 

Then  again,  fish,  like  birds  and  plants  and  insects,  have  their  peculiar 
habitats,  and  require  special  conditions  or  certain  kinds  of  food.  As  a  result. 
many  of  the  conmion  kinds  are  confined  in  very  limited  localities.  Out  of 
over  one  hundred  species  of  food  fish  that  are  regarded  as  abundant  in  Hawaii, 
only  five — the  aku,  oio,  uku,  ulaula  and  ulua — enter  into  the  records  as  being 
taken  commercially  by  the  fishermen  on  all  of  the  large  islands  of  the  group. 

Of  the  large  number  of  species  of  fish  sold  in  Honolulu,  almost  none  are 
the  same  species  as  are  sold  in  the  markets  of  the  mainland  or  in  foreign  co\ni- 
tries.  This  is  because  the  fish  fauna  of  Hawaii  is  isolated  from  that  of  other 
lands.  However,  most  of  the  common  families  of  sea  fish  have  local  repre- 
sentatives, some  of  them  perhaps  excelling  in  flavor  the  species  with  which 
strangers  from  abroad  are  more  familiar.  While  in  general  it  nuiy  be  said 
that  the  fish  fauna  of  Hawaii  is  in  a  large  measure  derived  from  the  fauna  of 
the  East  Indies,  and  wliile  it  is  more  closely  related  to  the  fishes  of  Polynesia 
than  to  those  of  North  America  or  Japan,  it  should  be  regarded  as  consti- 
tuting a  minor  faunal  group  composed  in  the  main  of  forms  which  have  ])eeii 
isolated  long  enough,  in  most  instances,  to  form  distinct  species. 

Anchovies  and  Barracudas. 
A  good  example  of  this  localization  of  species  is  shown  by  the  nehu,-  which 
is  in  reality  a  very  abundant  local  species  belonging  to  the  genus  including  the 
widely  and  favorably  known  anchovy  of  commerce.  So  far  they  have  only 
been  secured  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  They  are  fish  of  small  size  with  a 
well-marked,  broad,  silvery  lateral  band.  In  1900  the  records  for  the  islands 
shows  a  catch  of  more  than  ninety  thousand  yiounds  of  this  sj)e('ies  for  the  year. 


'  Anchoria   jiuriniri'a. 


'(Description   of   Plate    Confinti/'d   from    Opposite    Pane. ) 

Lizard-fish  [Kawelea]  {TrnchinocephaUis  miiops).  6.  I>izanltisli  |  I'hu' |  {,*>i/n(>(lHs  v(iriiiK). 
7.  Moray  [Piihi]  (Gi/mnotlwra.r  rrcodcs).  S.  yioray  |  Pulii  Inuiiiili  |  {Gfimnothora.r  unduta- 
Uis).  9.  Moray  [Puhi]  {Gi/niiio1liorax  peUlli).  10.  Moray  [Pulii  kapa]  {Kchidna  nchti- 
losa).  11.  Trumpet-fish  [Nunu]  (Aulostomufi  valentini).  12.  Sea-horse  (Hippocampus 
fishcri).  1.3.  Needle-fish  [Ahaaha]  (Alhlen.us  hians).  14.  Half-heak  [Me'e  me'e]  (Hciui- 
ramplnis   dcpauprratu.s).     15.    Half-beak    [Ihcih")    ( Knh  pturfminpus   loiu/irostris). 


m 


a> 

-M 

o 

^ 

a; 

•m 

:3 

M 

^ 

a 

^ 

la 

QJ 

-q 

+j 

^ 

o 

■iH 

• 

,i5 

kH 

^ 

< 

pq 

o 

=H 

o 

w 

^ 

w 

5t1 

ai 

^ 

fu 

M 

l3 

^ 

o 

o 

2; 

M 

a; 

w 

3 

03 

fR 

cS 

S 

(D 

oi 

U 

00 

a) 

r^ 

W 

H 

<J 

O 

h^ 

^ , 

Q; 

hH 

n 

o 

CO 

> 

f* 

o 

^ 

cc 

J3 

a 

cS 

b» 

o 

-M 

o 

^ 

THE  AXLMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  353 

The  family  of  l)arraeudas  •'  has  two  h»cal  forms,  one  of  which,  tlie  kaweh'a* 
is  not  uncommon,  as  it  frequents  the  mullet  ponds  along'  the  shore.  They  seldom 
attain  a  length  of  more  than  twenty-four  inches,  and  are  therefore  but  feeble 
representatives  of  the  great  barracuda,  that  excellent  food  fish  along  the  Cali- 
fornia coast,  which  is  often  five  feet  or  more  in  length.  Our  local  form  i.s 
voracious  and  destructive  to  mullet,  and  do  much  damage  to  seines  with  their 
strong  teeth  which  are  set  in  a  large  mouth — two  characteristics  that  are 
useful  to  the  novice  in  separating  them  from  the  more  valuable  mullet  with 
Avhich  they  frequently  occur. 

Butterfly-Fish. 

No  one  who  has  visited  the  Aquarium  will  need  to  be  reminded  that 
Hawaii  can  boast  of  a  long  list  of  beautiful  creatures  that  might  well  be  called 
the  butterflies  of  the  coral  reefs. 

Their  compressed  bodies,  small  size,  continuous  dorsal  fins,  small  mouths, 
and  bi'illiant.  varied  and  beautiful  colors  are  characteristics  sufficient  to 
distinguish  them  at  once  from  their  near  relatives  under  a  family  name, 
ChcEtodontidce,  which  has  reference  to  their  distinctly  brush-like  teeth.  The 
five  genera  found  in  Hawaii  embrace  at  present  about  eighteen  species  that, 
owing  to  graceful  form,  bright  colors  and  great  activity,  make  them  exceed- 
ingly popular  as  aquarium  specimens.  Their  great  quickness  and  agility 
enable  them  to  maintain  themselves  in  the  struggle  for  existence  in  the  close 
competition  of  the  coral  reef,  in  spite  of  their  conspicuous  habits  and  color- 
ing. In  the  typical  genus  ^  a  black  band  usually  crosses  through  the  eye ; 
kikakapu  is  the  native  name  applied  to  several  well-marked  species  which 
vary  so  widely  in  their  colors  as  to  defy  brief  description. 

Blennies. 

Representatives  of  the  family  known  as  Blennies  *'•  are  certain  to  be  noticed 
by  the  most  casual  observer  strolling  along  the  beach.  The  little  fish  most 
commonly  seen  clinging  to  the  coral  rocks  as  the  waves  recede  is  one  or  another  of 
the  nine  or  ten  species  of  this  family.  They  are  active  and  alert,  and  since 
there  are  in  the  world  more  than  five  hundred  species,  many  of  Avhich  never 
attain  a  length  of  two  inches,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  naturalist  seldom 
ventui'es  to  name,  off-hand,  the  various  examples  that  so  often  form  the  sum 
total  of  the  catch  secured  by  a  w^ading  party.  How'ever,  it  nuiy  be  wi'll  to 
know  that  Enupapferiigius  atriceps  is  the  only  name  given  the  little  fish  with 
the  large  eyes,  three  dorsal  fins  and  the  whip-like  piM^torals  that  is  coiniiion  in 
the  coral  rocks  about  Honolulu. 

The  Hawaiians  did  not  distinguish  it  as  sepai-ate  fi'om  its  relatives.  Of  its 
next  of  kin  two  or  three  species  of  the  genus  Alficiis  are  also  ([uito  ronuuon 
about  the  islands;  they  have  two  dorsal  fins.  The  small  dark  olive  Salaris 
zebra  is  the  most  abundant  species.  It  has  the  l)ody  crossed  by  inuuerous 
alternating  pale  and  dark-olive  ])aiuls,  and  Iuts  a  curious  lash  above  the  eye. 


'■^  Sjiliiiririiidir.  *  J'rncliinocephdlus  myops.  ^  Chmtodon.  "  lileiiniidce. 


354  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

Bone-Fish,  Catalufas  and  Cirrhitid.e. 

The  bone-fish,  or  lady-fish,"  have  a  single  representative  in  Hawaii  known 
as  the  oio.^  It  is  a  silvery  fish  with  soft  flesh  that  resembles  the  milk-fish  in 
some  respects,  but  is  distinguished  by  its  swine-like  snout. 

The  Catalufas  ■'  are  represented  by  but  a  single  genus  of  three  species. 
One  of  these,  the  aweoweo,"'  is  the  famous  "red  fish"  which  duriii^i'  the  month 
of  September,  1873,  entered  Honolulu  harbor  in  shoals.  They  were  evidently 
young  fish,  as  the  largest  were  not  more  than  three  and  a  half  inches  long. 
This  shoaling  has  occurred  from  time  to  time  at  irregular  intervals.  In  the 
mind  of  the  native  the  coming  of  the  red  fish  presages  the  sickness  and  death 
of  some  member  of  the  royal  family.  On  several  occasions  there  has  been  a 
singular  sequence  of  events  of  this  Jiature  which  has  left  its  impress  on  the 
beliefs  of  the  more  superstitious  among  the  people.  The  fish  are  esteemed  as  food 
by  the  natives,  however,  who  regard  their  coming  in  large  numbers  in  the 
nature  of  a  windfall,  as  the  fish  can  be  readily  dried  and  saved.  The  species 
is  of  wide  distribution  and  among  English-speaking  people  is  known  as  the 
"big  eye." 

The  family  Cirrliiticke  includes  among  its  numlier  seven  of  the  more  beau- 
tiful and  highly-colored  fishes  of  the  coral  reef,  and  as  they  are  almost  con- 
stantl}"  to  be  seen  in  the  mai-ket  and  at  the  Aquarium,  the  pilikoa,^^  hilu  {uli- 
koa  ^-  and  piliko  'a^-'  are  well  known,  though  they  are  seldom  more  than  six 
inches  in  length. 


'!^^  ■ 


Deep-Sea  Fishes. 

The  fishes  of  the  deep  sea  are  for  the  most  part  examples  of  the  familiar 
forms  that  have  become  modified  and  specialized  to  suit  the  peculiar  environ- 
ment of  great  pressure,  inky  blackness  and  freezing  cold  which  the  bottom  of 
the  sea  affords.  Eels,  soles,  scorpion  fish,  box  fish  and  dozens  of  other  forms 
found  commonly  on  our  shores  have  their  deep-sea  representatives  that  are 
seldom  seen  by  other  than  experts  to  whom  are  sent  the  rare  examples, 
secured  at  great  cost  and  labor  by  sei<Mitific  deep-sea  expeditions.  We  there- 
fore content  ourselves  with  the  knowledge  that  they  exist  and  confine  our  at- 
tention to  the  more  common,  if  not  the  more  interesting,  species  that  are  met 
with  in  the  markets  almost  daily. 

The  Dolphin. 

The  doI})hin  1^  (mahihi)  is  <in  important  food  fish  in  Hawtiii.  The  body  is 
elongate,  compressed  and  covered  with  very  fine  scales.  The  under  jaw  pro- 
trudes and  the  long  low  dorsal  fin  extends  from  the  nape  to  the  base  of  the 
tail.  It  is  changeable  in  color  and  thus  becomes  a  conspicuous  fish  either 
living  or  dead,  but  unfortunately  its  beautiful  color  rapidly  changes  after 
death.     They  attain  the  length  of  four  to  six  feet. 


'' Alhtdido;.  ^  Alhula    wipes.  ^  Priaranthuliv.  ^"  Princnnfhii/i  mi<>nfntii>,. 

^''- Paracirrhites  spp.  ^- P.  fostiTi.  '■'/'.  nrcatits.  ^*  CanjiilKviin   liiii/mnix. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  355 

Both  known  species  of  d()l])hins  occur  in  llawnii.  As  they  are  very  large 
fish  of  the  oi)en  sea  and  are  surface  swimmers,  they  ai'c  occasionally  seen  by 
passengers  on  board  sailing'  vessels.  While  the  name  dolphin  i-iglitl\-  belongs 
to  a  group  of  small  whales,  it  has  been  associated  with  this  fish.  In  song  and 
story  their  beauty  of  color  and  grace  of  motion  have  received  much  attention. 

Eels. 

The  order  Apodes,  which  includes  the  eels  and  raorays  is  well  represented 
in  Hawaii,  several  dozen  species  frequenting  the  coral  reefs  and  rocky  coasts. 
Eel-fishing  is  a  favorite  sport,  as  the  animals  are  easily  enticed  from  their 
hiding  places  in  the  rocks,  when  they  may  be  hooked  or  speared. 

The  Hawaiian  name  puhi  is  applied  to  the  class  as  a  whole.  Puhi-uha 
signifies  slippery  eel,  and  is  applied  to  the  conger-eel.  Some  of  the  larger 
examples  attain  a  length  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  are  much  sought  after  as  food. 

Frog-Fish  and  Flying-Fish. 

Two  genera  of  f rog- fishes  ^^  occur,  but  representatives  of  only  one  genus 
have  so  far  been  taken  in  the  shallow  water  or  open  sea.  They  all  have  the 
head  compressed,  and  the  skin  covered  with  prickles,  the  body  oblong  and 
much  compressed.  They  are  fantastic -looking  fishes,  often  gaily  colored,  and 
feed  among  the  seaweeds  on  the  reef,  wheie  they  creep  about  like  toads.  They 
are  also  capable  of  filling  their  capacious  stomachs  with  air,  which  enables 
them  to  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  Eight  species  occur  on  the  reefs,  all 
of  which  are  provided  with  one  or  two  whip-like  lashes  that  protrude  from 
the  upper  lip  to  form  a  "bait"  over  their  cavernous  mouths. 

Flying-hsh  "'  abouml  in  the  open  sea  in  all  tropical  waters,  and  Hawaii's 
waters  are  in  no  way  an  exception.  Five  well-marked  genera  include  the 
eight  species,  all  of  which  are  called  malolo  by  the  natives.  They  are  most 
abundant  during  the  summer  months.  A  common  species  ^"^  has  the  upper  part 
of  the  body  dark  blue  and  the  fins  about  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  Ixidy. 
They,  in  common  with  their  cousiiis,  usually  occur  in  shoals,  and  are  a  source 
of  interest  to  the  voyager  as  they  leap  from  the  surface  of  the  sea  and  sail 
away,  sometimes  sustaining  a  so-called  flight  for  a  hundred  yards  or  more. 
The  most  recent  sport  in  Hawaii  is  flying-fish  shooting.  This  is  done  from  a 
power  launch,  as  the  fish  skim  over  the  water.  The  fish  are  a  favoi-it(>  food  of 
the  natives,  who  prefer  to  eat  them  raw  at  their  feasts  (aha-aina). 

Gobies. 

Gobies ''"  have  no  near  relatives  among  the  spiny-rayed  fishes,  and  as  a 
family  may  be  easily  recognized.  The  ventral  fins  are  inserted  very  close 
together;  there  is  no  lateral  line  and  no  bony  stay  to  the  preopercle.  which 
gives  to  the  gills  a  peculiai-  flabby  ap|ieai'ance.  The  species  are  very  nunierous 
in  the  tropics,  there  being  fourteen  genei'a  in  Hawaii,  usually  with  Init  oiu'  or 


'^^  Antenna riid(V.  ^^  Exncoefi(hv.         ^'  Parexocoetii.t   hrarhr/fiti'rui>.  ^^  Gobiidcc. 


> 


as 

a, 

c3 


<1     3 


as 


X     'T  . 


CO 


K     O 

o 

-  o 


CO    o 

of? 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   ORG  UP.  357 

two  species  each.  This  fact  indicates  the  divei-sity  of  form  found  in  the  family. 
They  inhabit  mountain  streams  and  brackish  water,  and  ;ii-e  coiiiinoii  in  pools 
along  the  shore  and  in  shallow  water  generally,  but  they  never  go  far  out  to 
sea.  The  largest  species  rarely  exceed  eight  or  ten  inches  in  length,  while 
many  of  the  small  forms  are  only  an  inch  or  so  long  when  fnll  grown. 

Oopu,  in  combination  with  specific  terms,  is  the  name  applied  by  tlie  ITn- 
M^aiians  to  a  great  number  of  species  of  gobies.  They  are  carnivorous  in  habit, 
and  are  exceedingly  interesting  and  active  little  creatures.  One  of  the  common 
forms  ^-^  is  a  dirty-brown  color  throughout  and  attains  a  length  of  nine  inches. 
They  somewhat  resemble  the  common  catfish  in  shape  and  color,  iind  are 
plentiful  in  fresli  braekisli  and  shallow  water.  The  natives  often  capture 
them  in  large  numbers  from  the  streams  by  the  use  of  the  fish  poison  pi-eviously 
referred  to.  The  practice  is  to  divert  the  stream  from  its  usual  course  so  as 
to  leave  a  series  of  small  shallow  pools  along  its  bed.  The  poison  is  then  freely 
used  in  the  crevices  and  under  stones  where  the  oopu  hide.  In  a  few  minutes 
the  fish  come  to  the  surface  in  a  stupefied  condition,  when  the  native  fishermen, 
both  old  and  young,  join  in  gathering  them  into  their  baskets  and  calabashes. 

A  species  known  as  Eviota  cpiplianes  is  a  very  small  oopu  common  in  the 
shallow  water  at  Waikiki.  It  attains  the  length  of  about  three-fourths  of  an 
inch.  Another  abundant  and  wide  ranging  species  of  oopu  is  Mapo  fuscus, 
M'hich  is  very  dark  in  color  with  black  marblings  and  brown  edges  to  the 
scales. 

A  curious  oopu -"^  is  dark  greenish-olive  with  the  back  and  u[)|)er  parts 
crossed  with  fourteen  black  bars.  They  have  the  pectorals  united  to  form  a 
curious  disk  on  the  chest.  This  species  is  abundant  in  certain  Hawaiian  moun- 
tain streams,  and  is  able  to  cling  to  the  rock  in  the  rush  of  the  mountain 
torrent.  They  are  strictly  a  fresh-water  fish,  attaining  the  length  of  five  to 
seven  inches,  and  are  sometimes  caught  and  used  for  food.  Two  closely- 
related  oopus  -^  are  common  in  fresh-water  streams  of  the  islands  and  are 
taken  in  numbers  sufficient  to  make  them  common  objects  in  the  Honolulu 
markets.  One  species  --  is  olivaceous  in  color,  crossed  with  a  dozen  black 
bars.  It  has  a  black  patch  below  the  eye,  and  its  belly  is  red  wiiile  its 
cousin  2^  is  olivaceous,  marked  with  obscure  duskv  blotches,  aud  has  the  Ix'llx- 
pale  and  wuth  a  dark  blotch  at  the  base  of  the  tail. 

The  FLYiNO-OrxARD. 

The  flying-gunards -^  are  striking  fish  resembling  the  common  ll.\iiig-fish 
in  the  very  large  wing-like  peetoi-al  Hns,  but  differing  from  them  in  many 
respects,  among  others  in  having  the  head  and  body  decidedly  quadrangular  in 
form  and  bony  in  structure,  and  by  baviiiu  Iwo  separate  spines  in  front  of  the 
two  dorsal  fins.  The  tail  fin  ends  s<piai'el\.  while  the  tail  in  tlie  fiying-fish  is 
always  forked.  The  lolo-oau -''  is  not  very  al)un(iant.  and  as  a  i-esnlt  when  a 
specimen  appears  in  the  market  it  is  an  object  of  considerable  euriosity.   Speei- 


^^  Eleotiis  sandwireiisis.         -"  Siri/iUKiii   xtiuiiiKciii.  "'  A  iraoim  spy>.  --  Aicaoiis  yenirillt.tus. 

''^  Awaous  stariiiiteus.         -*  Cephalacnnthiihr.         '-'•  Ccijlialacaiidiiis  urk'ntalix. 


358  NATURAL   HISTORY   OP    HAWAII. 

mens  fourteen  inches  in  length  are  sometimes  caught,  and  as  their  "wings" 
are  ahnost  as  long  as  the  body  and  are  beautifully  colored  with  blue  and 
brownish-red,  they  are  with  reason  pronounced  by  many  as  the  most  striking 
and  fantastic  of  the  Hawaiian  fishes. 

Headfish. 

The  headfish,-"  though  much  rarer,  is  equally  striking  and  has  been 
classed  among  the  rarest  and  most  wonderful  of  all  animal  forms.  To  the 
natives  it  is  known  as  the  apahu,  or  to  some  as  the  makua.  It  appears  simply 
as  a  large  head  separated  from  the  body  and  supplied  with  a  fringed  tail. 
They  are  fishes  of  the  open  sea  and  reach  a  very  large  size.  As  the  flesh  is 
coarse  and  tough,  they  are  rarely  brought  into  market  except  as  curiosities. 
The  cast  of  a  very  large  specimen  is  on  exhibition  in  the  Bishop  ^luseum.  It 
shows  the  beautiful  coloring  of  brown  and  silver  of  the  living  fish. 

The  headfish  is  known  to  the  Haw^aiian  fisherman  as  the  "king  of  all  the 
mackerel,"  and  as  it  is  supposed  to  be  under  the  rule  of  the  spirits,-"  it  is 
feared  that  the  mackerel  will  disappear  if  the  fish  is  killed.  A  similar  fish  in 
the  Atlantic  is  known  as  the  king  of  the  herring,  and  the  local  superstition  is 
doubtless  colored  by  the  influence  of  the  early  whalers  and  traders  that  called 
at  the  islands. 

Curious  fish  known  as  the  half-bills  -^  are  very  common  in  the  markets, 
where  all  three  of  the  species  that  occur  here  may  be  recognized  at  once  by  the 
fact  that  the  under  jaw  is  singularly  bill-shaped,  while  the  upper  jaw  is 
normal.  Of  the  three  species,  the  iheihe  or  me-me'e--'  is  the  most  abundant 
They  are  oviparous  fishes  and  feed  on  green  algte.  The  half-bills  live  in  large 
schools,  usually  near  shore,  and  are  especially  numerous  in  the  channels  about 
the  islands. 

H.vwAiiAN  Herring. 

The  makiawa,^"  so  far  as  is  known,  is  the  only  representative  of  the  great 
herring  tribe  ^^  to  be  found  about  Hawaii.  It  attains  a  length  of  about  ten 
inches  and  is  (init(^  common  in  the  market  at  certain  seasons.  It  is  easily 
identified  by  its  herring-like  shape  and  appearance. 

The  family  KuJdiidce  is  conspicuously  represented  in  Hawaii  by  the  ahole- 
hole,^^  a  silvery,  fish-shaped  fish,  with  the  edge  of  the  first  dorsal  and  the 
caudal  fins  narrowly  edged  with  black.  They  attain  a  length  of  ten  inches 
or  more.  This  active  fish  is  sure  to  attract  notice,  since  it  is  common  at  the 
mouths  of  the  Hawaiian  streams  in  both  brackish  and  fresh  water,  but  dwells 
by  preference  in  running  water,  where  it  may  be  found  in  the  deeper  pools. 
It  is  a  good  fish  and  takes  the  hook  readily,  resembling  the  fresh-water  sun-fish 
of  America  in  this  regard.  The  natives  sometimes  capture  them  by  use  of  the 
narcotic  plant  described  elsewhere. 


-'^  Ratizania  inokiin.  -'  Akua.  "^  Hemiramphid/e.  -^  Heinireiiiiiihiis  (lepaiiperotiis. 

^^  Etimneiis  iiricropiix,  ^^  Clupeida;.  ^-  Kuhlia  malo. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROl'P.  359 

The  Wrasse-Fishes. 

The  Labrid(f  oi-  wi-asse-fish — a  New  England  name — includes  more  than 
twenty  genera  in  wliich  ai'c  distributed  more  than  fifty  Hawaiian  species.  Of 
this  large  family  only  a  few  examples  can  be  mentioned.  The  general  foi-m 
of  the  various  species,  though  it  varies  somewhat  from  one  geinis  lo  aiiolhcr.  is 
sufficiently  characteristic  throughout  the  family  to  render  them  easily  identi- 
fied as  members  of  the  same  division.  The  color  patterns,  usually  of  the 
brightest  hues  of  blue,  green,  golden,  scarlet,  crimson  and  purple,  are  as  i-ich 
and  deep  as  though  laid  on  with  a  brush  by  a  most  lavish  hand.  Often,  in 
addition  to  its  vivid  color,  the  pattern  is  one  of  the  greatest  delicacy  or  the  most 
intricate  design. 

INIost  of  the  wrasse-fishes  feed  upon  mollusks  and  have  their  teeth  adapti'd 
for  crushing  shells,  but  as  they  frequent  the  rocky  coast,  the  coral  reefs,  the 
kelp  beds,  and  the  open  sea,  their  food  must  necessarily  vary  considerably. 
However,  in  all  the  genera  the  teeth  in  the  front  jaws  are  prominent,  separate 
and  pointed. 

Perhaps  the  most  brilliant  species  are  among  those  in  the  genera  Thalas- 
soma  and  Julis,  ])ut  the  more  delicately-colored  species  are  among  the  StctJio- 
jiilis.  The  a'awa,^-'  omaka,-^^  akilolo,^^  opule,""  awela,'^''  hinalea  lauwili,^^ 
lolo  and  hilu'^''  and  poou  ^"  are  among  the  species  to  be  seen  almost  daily  in 
the  markets,  and  often  in  the  Aquarium. 

The  lantern-fishes  and  lizard-fishes^-  are  well  represented  in  the  Ha- 
waiian fauna,  the  kawelea  ^•'  and  ulae -^-^  being  common  exam{)les  of  the 
latter.  Their  large  mouths  and  lizard-like  shapes  render  them  easy  of  iden- 
tification in  the  markets.  The  lantern-fishes  are  for  the  most  part  denizens  of 
the  deep,  and  as  they  live  aw^ay  from  the  shores,  they  are  seldom  seen  except 
when  they  come  to  the  surface  at  night  or  in  times  of  stormy  weather. 

Mullet. 

The  mullet  is  by  far  the  most  important  and  generally  esteemed  food  fish 
of  the  islands.  There  are  three  genera  of  the  family,*"'  each  represented  by 
a  single  species  that  have  been  reported  from  the  group,  l)nt  it  is  the  sj^ecies 
commonly  called  the  ama-ama,'*^  that  is  the  most  abundant.  It  is  this  species 
which  in  former  times  received  the  most  attention  from  the  natives  in  the  way 
of  protection  and  conservation.  So  much  has  been  done  along  this  line  that 
mullet  ponds  have  been  impoi'tant  institutions  since  the  days  of  the  early 
chiefs.  In  fact,  the  time  of  the  building  of  many  of  the  ponds  extends  far 
back  into  the  age  of  fable,  the  Hawaiians  all  I'ibiding  the  consti'iiction  of  one 
of  the  j)onds  on  Kauai  to  tlie  work  of  the  ineiiehunes — a  fabled  race  of  dwai'l's 
that  correspond  in  many  ways  with  oui'  Urownies. 

Many  of  the  oldest  mullet  ponds  are  still  in  use  and  in  an  excellent  state 
of  repair.      As  the  ponds  were  originally  owned   liy  the  kiui;s  and  cliiel's,   it  is 


^^  Leinda plots  spp.  '■'*  Sti-thi>jiili.i  sp.  ''''  Goiiiiihosii.s  sp.  -"^  A  iiinnji.si'-s  sp.  ■''  Thala.ixoiiKi   sp. 

^^  Thnlansitina   sp.  '■'^Jiili.s  sp]).  *"  Cheilinii.s  sp.  *^  Mi/clophidce.  *-  Si/iiodiniitidd'. 

*■'  TracliiiiDVpphahis  iiii/(iii.s.         ■>*  tsynodus  varius.  *^  Muffilidiv.         *"  Mugil  c/phalus. 


360  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

very  probable  that  most  of  them  were  built  by  the  forced  labor  of  the  common 
people. 

The  ponds  are  found  principally  in  the  bays  indenting  the  shores  of  the 
islands,  the  common  method  of  construction  having  been  to  build  a  wall  of 
lava  rock  across  the  narrowest  part  of  the  entrance  to  a  small  bay  and  use 
the  enclosed  space  for  a  pond.  They  were  also  built  on  the  seashore  itself,  the 
wall  being  built  out  from  the  shore  in  a  half  circle. 

Ponds  vary  in  size  from  small  ones  of  less  than  an  acre  in  extent  to  the 
unusually  large  one  at  Moanalua,  on  Oahu,  which  encloses  over  five  hundred 
acres.  There  are  as  many  as  a  hundred  and  sixty  of  these  ponds  indicated  on 
the  maps  of  the  islands.  Of  this  number  perhaps  one  hundred  are  still  in  use. 
The  catch  of  ama-ama  from  the  ponds  of  the  islands  in  1905  was  430,000 
pounds,  valued  at  more  than  $87,000. 

The  mullet  that  find  their  way  to  the  market  from  these  ponds  are  iden- 
tical with  those  found  in  the  markets  of  the  United  States,  Japan,  Chile  and 
even  the  Mediterranean  and  as  far  away  as  India.  The  average  weight  of  the 
mullet  in  the  market  is  from  one  to  three  pounds,  though  they  grow  to  two  or 
three  times  that  size,  attaining  a  length  of  twenty  inches  or  two  feet. 

They  feed  on  organic  matter,  especially  the  minute  plants  contained  in  the 
mud  on  the  bottom  in  the  shallow  water  along  the  shore.  As  they  naturally 
gather  up  a  large  quantity  of  indigestible  matter,  these  fishes  have  the  organs 
of  the  throat  modified  into  a  filtering  apparatus.  They  take  in  large  quanti- 
ties of  mud  and  sand  and,  after  apparently  chewing  it  for  a  time,  spit  out  the 
indigestible  portion. 

The  awa  ^"  and  the  awa-aua  ^'^  are  also  reared  in  large  numbers  with  the 
mullet  in  the  ponds.  They  all  enter  the  ponds  when  young  through  openings 
left  for  the  purpose  in  the  stone  walls.  Owing  to  the  protection  furnished  by 
the  walls,  the  mullets  thrive  and  fatten  rapidly  and,  sheltered  from  their 
enemies,  become  stupid  and  blundering. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
HAWAIIAN  FISHES  :     PART  THREE. 

Flatfish. 

The  visitor  at  the  Aquarium  is  sure  to  be  interested  and  delighted  with 
the  beautiful  and  graceful  flatfish  that,  in  general  habits  and  appearance,  re- 
semble the  butterfly-fish,  but  differ  from  them  in  having  the  dorsal  fin  drawn 
out  to  form  a  beautiful  white  plume-like  filament  often  six  inches  or  more  in 
length.      The  species  is  known  to  the  natives  as  kihikihi,  but  since  it  is  a  wide 

*' Chanus  chanos.         *^  Elops  sniinis. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  361 

ranging'  forni  they  are  known  to  Eurojjeans  generally  as  Moorish  idt)ls.i  They 
are  quite  common  alioiit  tlic  ll;i\vaiinti  reefs,  where  their  y('lh)\v  bodies  crossed 
by  broad  black  bands,  and  tlie  long  plume-like  dorsal  tin  render  them  especially 
conspicuous  even  among  their  brilliant  and  beautiful  associates. 

]\IORAYS. 

The  morays  -  include  an  iiiipoi-tatit  iiroup  of  Hawaiian  fish  that  are  distin- 
guished from  the  true  eels,  with  which  they  are  closely  related,  by  the  presence 
of  the  small  round  gill  openings  and  by  the  absence  of  pectoral  tins.  ^lany  of 
the  species  reach  a  large  size  and  are  extremely  voracious  and  pugnacious.  As 
they  are  especially  abundant  in  holes  in  the  coral  reefs  and  not  infrequently 
spring  out  and  bite  the  hand  of  even  the  experienced  fisherman,  it  is  just  as  well 
for  the  stranger  to  bear  them  in  mind  when  on  wading  expeditions.  Too  often 
it  has  happened  that  underneath  the  most  innocent  looking  tlat  coral  stone  ex- 
posed at  low  tide  there  has  been  hidden  one  of  these  snake-like  fishes.  If  they 
choose  to  do  so  they  can  resent  any  intrusion  from  the  merely  curious  in  an  un- 
expected and  painful  manner,  that  is  long  remembered  by  the  oft'ender. 

Six  genera  of  morays  have  so  far  been  identified  from  the  waters  about  the 
islands.  Of  the  forty-two  species  of  morays  found  here  no  fewer  than  eighteen 
belong  to  the  genus  Cynuudliova.r.  The  puhi  laumili  ^^  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon as  well  as  most  savage  of  these.  They  are  not  infrequently  taken  with  large 
fish  in  their  stomachs,  sometimes  a  fourth  as  long  as  the  moray  itself.  It  ranges 
in  length  up  to  three  feet  or  more,  is  variously  mottled  and  naturally  is  nnich 
feared  by  the  natives. 

One  of  the  fiercest  of  all  the  c^el  tribe  is  the  moray  known  as  pnhi  kapa,^  so 
called  because  it  is  said  to  be  victorious  over  all  kinds  of  fish.  In  life  it  is  a  i)ale 
greyish-white  covered  with  irregular  dark-brown  areas  with  crcmie-yellow  spots; 
the  bars  between  these  areas,  when  present,  are  gray  and  brown.  It  is  rejjorted 
by  the  natives  that  this  eel  goes  ashore  in  the  grass  at  night  and  will  wi^izle 
back  into  the  water  when  disturbed. 

The  members  of  the  order  Apodes,  to  which  the  eel-like  fishes  b(>N)nu-,  are 
very  well  represented  in  Hawaii,  there  being  several  dozen  species,  that  usually 
differ  one  from  the  other  only  by  slight  characteristics.  ^lost  of  tlie  larger  species 
are  much  used  as  food  by  the  llawaiians.  The  fiesh  of  the  morays.  howevei-.  is 
oily  and  not  readily  digested  and  on  the  wh()le  is  not  so  wholesome  as  the  fiesh 
of  the  true  eels. 

The  ^Mackerel  Fa.mh.v. 

Eight  species  of  the  mackerel  family"'  occur  in  Hawaiian  waters,  includinu 
representatives  of  the  frigate-mackerel,  little  tunnies,  ocean  honito.  .Mhacoivs 
and  Petos.  The  opelu,  or  true  mackerel.''  the  aku.  oc  ocean  liniiiid.'  and  the  ahi,^ 
all  belony-  to  different  genera  in  the  mackerel  family.  They  all  vow  the  sea. 
usually  in  large  schools,  and  have  a  wide  range.  While  they  diffei'  in  outline 
considerably,  in  the  different  genera,  they  are  all  ■'niackei'el-shaped"'  and  are 


^  ZanrUihv.  -  M}tr(i'nid(r.  '  Gymnnthnrn.v  iindiilatiix.  *  Echidna  nehulosa. 

°  Scoinhridiv.  "  .Scomber  japonicus.  '  Gyiniionarda  pelamis.  *  Germo  gcrmo. 


22 


9^ 


PLATE  ill.     CHOICE   HAWAIIAN   MAKKET    EESll. 
[Asseml>lr(l    from   IT.   8.   Fish   Comm.   Bulletin   No.   23.] 

•7     ^'  ^^S'^y^^  ^^'"^'1    [Akulel    {Tmchurops  crumcnophthaJmn).     2.    'SlnUet  [Amaama]    (Mu- 
ll  cephalus).     3.    Grouper    [Hapuupuu]     (Epiiicjihchts    quernus).     4.    Amber    Fish    [Kahala] 
(Description   of  Plate   Continued   on   the   Oiipoxite   Pacje.) 


THE  AXLMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  363 

marked  with  two  well  devel()i)ecl  dorsal  fins  wliieh  are  followed  hy  a  scries  of 
little  finlets;  there  is  also  a  similar  series  of  flnlets  posterior  to  the  anal  tin. 

Though  the  flesh  is  usually  coarse  and  dark,  it  is  firm  and  oily.  The  opelu 
especially  is  much  valued  as  food,  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand  pounds 
of  this  species  being  marketed  in  Hawaii  dui-iiiy  the  year  1903.  The  aku  is  very 
abundant  about  Plawaii.  particularly  in  the  summer,  and  ({uantities  of  them  reach 
the  market  almost  daily.  There  is  a  record  of  a  yearly  catch  for  the  islands  that 
approaches  eight  hundred  thousand  pounds.  The  ahi  or  albacore  is  known  fi-oni 
its  cousins  by  the  bright  yellow  color  of  its  finlets.  Though  not  so  abundant 
as  the  other  species  mentioned,  it  is  frequently  taken  witli  a  hook,  and  large 
specimens  are  occasionally  seen  in  the  markets. 

The  little  tunny  or  kawakawa  •'  is  at  once  recognized  as  a  mackerel,  but 
differs  from  the  ocean  bonito^"  hy  its  having  the  lateral  line  straight  and  with 
no  blue-black  stripes  below  the  line.  They  swarm  through  the  high  seas  in 
shoals,  especially  during  the  summer  months,  and  are  easily  captured  on  an  un- 
baited  hook.  The  writer  has  eauglit  them  by  the  dozens  from  the  jil)-boom  of  a 
sailing  vessel  in  mid-oeean.  AVhen  drawn  from  the  water  they  give  one  terrible 
death  shudder  and  are  "as  dead  as  a  mackerel"  instantly.  They  are  usually 
twenty  inches  long  and  weigh  about  three  pounds  when  seen  in  the  market; 
they  are  a  fairly  good  food  fish.  In  this  connection  it  is  of  interest  to  note  that  so 
far  as  the  records  show,  the  California  ])onito  has  been  taken  in  Hawaiian  waters 
only  once. 

]MlLK-FlSH. 

The  milk-fish  ^1  (awa)  is  a  silvery  fish  that  is  largely  used  for  food  in 
Hawaii,  notably  about  Honolulu,  vrhere  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  i)ounds  of 
the  species  is  offered  for  sale  in  the  markets  annually.  Next  to  the  mullet,  it  is 
the  species  most  frequenting  the  artificial  ponds  into  which  it  runs  with  the 
mullet  at  high  tide  and  is  retained.  Although  it  is  an  excellent  food,  it  is  not 
considered  a  game  fish.  Like  the  mullet  it  is  known  l)y  different  names  at  differ- 
ent ages,  all  of  which  are  combinations  of  the  name  awa.  They  can  be  recog- 
nized at  once  since  they  have  l)ut  one  dorsal  fin,  while  the  mullet  has  two.  Speci- 
mens five  feet  in  length  are  not  uncommon  in  the  open  sea. 

Needle-Fisii. 

Three  species  of  needle-fishes,^-  each  belonging  to  a  dift'erent  genera,  are 


*  Gymnosarda  pelamis.  i"  Gymnosarda  pelamin.         "  Chanos  chnnos.  '"  Belonidce. 

(Description   of   Plate    Continued   from    Opposite   Page.) 

(Scriold  jiiirpurascens).  o.  Goat-fisli  |  Kunm  |  (Psruthiiifiuiis  poriihi/r(  us) .  (i.  Comnion 
Dolphin  j  ^lahiinahi]  {Cortiphana  Jiippiirus).  7.  .Striped  8urgeon  Fi.sli  |  MaiiiiiiJ  (Hcinilui^ 
sandvicensis) .  8.  C'avalla  jOniilu]  {Carangoides  ferdau).  9.  Snapper  [Opakapaka]  {Bo- 
werfiin  violeserns) .  10.  Cavalla  [Small  =  papiopio.  niediuiii  size  =  Paiipaii,  larpo  =  T'^lua] 
(Caranf/Hs  if/noblli.s) .  11.  Siiapjier  [X^laiila]  (Ktrlis  nmrslii).  I'l.  \  S<niirrcl-fisli  |  F-u] 
(Mi/ripristis  herndti).  ^^^.  A  Sna]i]  cr  |  I'kn  |  (Aprion  virrsccns) .  14.  S\ininil]it  |  Weke 
ula]    {MuUoiden  artrifi(ni>ma). 


364  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

met  with  in  the  ocean  about  the  islands.  Their  elong-ate,  slender  bodies  with 
loiiii'  beak-like  jaws  that  are  set  with  a  band  of  small  sharp  teeth,  besides  a  set  of 
wide,  sharp,  conical  teeth,  together  with  the  dorsal  fin  opposite  the  anal  fin 
set  far  back  on  the  body,  are  characteristics  sufficient  to  separate  them  from  the 
flying'-fish  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  half-bills  on  tlie  other,  as  these  two  families 
are  the  only  Hawaiian  fish  with  which  they  would  be  confused.  Superficially 
they  resemble  the  connnon  gar-i>ike.  They  are  voracious,  carniverous  fishes  that 
swim  along  the  surface  of  the  sea,  often  leaping  from  the  water.  Specimens 
four  feet  long  occasionally  reach  the  market,  and  are  much  sought  after  as  food 
by  certain  races.  AhaahaJ-^  as  they  are  called  by  the  Hawaiians,  are  common  in 
the  market  every  month  of  the  year. 

Pampanos. 

Of  the  more  than  two  thousand  known  species  of  pampanos,^-'  at  least 
twenty-five  have  been  taken  in  Hawaiian  waters.  Tlieir  bodies  are  compressed, 
somev/hat  resembling  the  mackerels  in  form,  but  they  are  without  the  fiidets 
which  are  so  marked  a  characteristic  in  the  family.  As  a  rule,  they  are  metallic- 
blue  in  color,  varied  with  silver  and  gold,  and  have  the  lateral  line  in  most 
cases  armed  v.ith  ])ony  plates  posteriorally.  The  simple  mark  of  the  family, 
however,  is  the  presence  of  two  separate  spines  in  front  of  the  anal  fin.  The 
Carangidce  are  all  rapid  surface  swimmers,  so  much  so  that  occasionally  the  dorsal 
fin  will  be  seen  cutting*  through  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  are  all  regarded 
as  excellent  fish,  but  the  lae,  puakahala,  opelu,  akule,  apuu-u,  and  the  ulna, 
and  the  curious  ulna  kihikihi  or  thread  fin,  are  among  the  best  known  species. 
The  ulua^^  is  indeed  one  of  the  most  important  food  fish  of  the  islands.  Speci- 
mens three  and  even  four  feet  in  length  are  common  enough  in  the  markets.  It 
dries  readily  and  the  head  is  especially  esteemed  for  use  in  the  making  of  fish 
chowder.  This  species  is  considered  by  many  to  be  the  most  delicate  and  finely 
fiavored  food  fish  to  be  taken  in  these  waters  and  is  quite  generally  substituted  for 
nudlet  and  opakapaka  on  the  bill  of  fare  of  the  most  fastidious. 

Tarpon. 

The  tarpon  occurs  in  Hawaii  and  resembles  the  bonefish  quite  closely,  but 
its  dorsal  fin  is  inserted  well  ])efore  the  anal,  a  characteristic  which  separates  its 
family  1'*  from  the  others  of  the  order.  It  is  said  to  be  a  great  game  fish  in 
Florida,  where  it  is  common.  Tari)on  have  little  value  as  a  commodity  in  tlie 
Hawaiian  markets. 

The  thread-fin  with  the  long  threads,  sometimes  twice  the  length  of  the 
fish,  trailing  from  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  is  a  curious  fish  of  wide  distribution 
that  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  markets,  and  is  without  doubt  the  most  striking 
member  of  this  family  of  pampanos,^"  a  large  family  which  includes  local  repre- 


^^  Athleniies  hians.  ^*  Carangidix.  ^^' Caratupis  ir/nnhili.s.  ^'^  Elapidtv.  '^~  Carangida. 


THE  ANIMAL   LIFE   OF  THE   (iKOFP.  365 

sentatives  of  all  such  well-know  u  forms  as  the  i)ilot-(is!ics.  amlMi'-fishes,  the  run- 
ners, mackerel-scads,  big-eyed  scads  and  eavallas. 

The  Parrot-Fish  Family. 

The  parrot-fish, 1'^  of  which  the  islands  can  boast  of  a  large  assortment, 
resemble  the  wrasse-fishes'''  in  color,  form  and  scales,  l)nt  differ  in  that  lhe\- 
have  the  teeth  more  or  less  fused  together  which  gives  to  the  monlli  a  heavy 
beak-like  appearance  suggestive  of  the  bill  of  a  parrot.  They  are  all  liei-l)ivorons 
fishes,  some  of  them  attaininu'  a  vei"y  larui^  side.  They  are  abundant  alxuit 
the  coral  reefs  where  they  always  add  a  touch  of  vivid  color  to  the  woiidecful 
picture  to  be  seen  through  an  observation  hood  or  a  glass-bottomed  boat.  The 
flesh  is  soft  and  white  and  of  a  rather  pasty  nature.  It  is  a  favorite  fish 
with  the  Plawaiians,  who  eat  it  raw  at  their  feasts.  l)ut  it  is  seldom  cooked  by 
Europeans. 

The  color  pattern  of  this  group  is  greatly  varied  and  the  family  is  broken 
up  into,  many  species.  In  Hawaii  four  well-marked  genera  occur  and  at  least 
two  dozen  species  have  been  found  and  described  from  the  islands.  The  ])onu- 
hunuhu -"  has  the  spinous  dorsal  fin  with  a  distinct  black  spot  between  the 
first  and  second  spines  and  the  sides  somewhat  mottled,  but  without  definite 
spots  or  specks.  They  are  quite  common  in  the  markets.  The  uhu  -^  is  a  gen- 
eral reddish  color  without  conspicuous  markings  other  than  a  narrow  violet  line 
on  the  outer  edge  of  the  dorsal.  They  are  not  very  abundant  and  as  a  result 
command  an  exorbitant  price.  The  uhu  uliuli  --  is  one  of  the  handsomest  fish 
of  the  islands.  It  is  green  in  color  with  bars  or  stripes  on  the  dorsal  and  spots 
on  the  scales  of  the  lower  sides  and  a  curious  rectangular  patch  over  the  snont. 
The  blue  parrot-fish  ^^  is  a  fine  brilliant  blue  fish  that  in  the  olden  time  was 
tabu,  for  the  use  of  the  chiefs  alone.  It  now  sells  at  a  ridiculousl\-  hiLili  price 
and  is  eaten  raw.  The  pipe-fish  family  --^  is  represented  by  three  or  four  genera, 
one  of  which  -•'•  is  of  interest  since  it  includes  two  island  species  of  th(>  cui  i(Mis 
sea-horse.  Both  species  are  so  rare,  however,  that  there  seems  to  be  no  geiierall\- 
accepted  native  name  for  the  curious  animal. 

Porcupine-Fish. 

Porcupine  fishes-"  occur  in  the  gi-oup.  there  being  foni'  s|)ecies  in  all.  They 
are  more  or  less  spherical  in  form  and  as  tlie  name  implies,  have  the  liody  well 
armed  with  sharp  spines  the  ])ases  of  which  a!'(-  so  bi-oad  as  to  form  a  coat  of 
mail  in  the  skin.  The  oopu  kawa  -'  is  the  species  commonly  on  exhibition  in 
the  Aquarium.  It  is  a  sluggisli  tish,  living  at  the  bottom  amoni;  the  seaweeds 
on  the  coral  reefs  aI)out  the  islands.  They  are  reported  as  being  poisonous. 
AVhen  disturbed  they  swallow  aii-  and  float  belly  up  on  the  watei'.  Their  power 
of  inflation,  however,  is  not  so  mai'k'ed  as  that  of  the  giohe-tisli  or  iMirt'ei's.  to 
which  they  are  related.      As  they  ai'e  sehk)m  uslhI  for  food,  their  princi[)al  u.se 


'^  Scaridfp.  i^  Lahridcc.  -"  Calotomus  sandriceiiMs.  -^  Callyodon   uiiniatuii. 

--  CaUi/odnn    pi'i-xi)icrllatiix.         -^  Pxpudoxranis  jardniti.  "*  Sini<jn(ith\d(r.  "••  H iiiixirctiiinin. 

"^  Diodontida'.  '-'  Dindon    niuliinius. 


^jflB^ 

TO5^' 

■  /■« 

/F 

fc^ 

S^ 

>>^ 

V  ,'>»* 

PLATE  92.     CUHlUUa   AND   COMMON   HAWAIIAN   FISHES. 
[Assembled   from  U.   S.  Fish   Comm.   Bulletin    No.   23.] 
1.     Flyiug  Fish    [Malolo]    (Parexocoetus  brarhypterus).     2.    Flying  Fish    [Malolo]    (0//>- 
gihtnis  simus).     3.    Barracuda    [Kawalea]    {Sphyrcena   helleri).     4.    A   Squirrel   Fish    [Alaihi] 

(Descrijitioii    of   I'Idtc   Continued   on    the   Opposite   Page.) 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  367 

is  as  curiosities,  and  they  arc  oljjccts  of  n<'ver-failiiig  interest  at  the  A(|iiariiim 
and  ill  natural  history  collections. 

The  name  porgy  was  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  a  n't\  fish  of  lliis  family-^ 
common  in  the  Mediterranean.  Since  then  the  name  lias  l)cen  carried  over  the 
world  by  the  Spanish  and  came  to  be  the  common  name  applied  to  a  i^roup  of 
carniverous  shore  fishes  of  the  tropics  which  are  everywhere  esteemed. as  food. 
The  single  Hawaiian  porgy  is  the  mu.-''  In  their  general  shape  they  somcAvhat 
resemble  the  sea-snappers,  having  their  bass-like  mouth  armeil  with  several 
conical  canine-like  teeth  in  front.  They  are  greenish  in  color  witli  two  paler 
cross-bands  that  extend  up  into  the  dorsal  fin. 

The  Puffers. 

Tile  puffers  ^^  and  sharp-nosed  puffers  ^^  are  two  families,  closely  related  to 
the  porcupine  fish,  that  have  ten  species  belonging  to  four  genera  in  the  Hawaiian 
fauna.  The  walls  of  the'  abdomen  are  capable  of  distention  so  that  when  in- 
flated the  fish  appears  like  an  animated  glass  giolie  with  a  head  and  a  tail  at- 
tached. The  oopuhue,  or  keke,-^-  is  the  most  abundant  species.  It  is  light 
olive-green  covered  over  the  back  with  pearly  spots,  the  belly  being  striped  with 
light  yellow  and  pearly,  but  the  colors  vary  greatly  with  age.  It  is  an 
abundant  fish  in  suitable  places  about  Honolulu,  where  it  frequents  mullet 
ponds  and  brackish  water  generally.  When  removed  from  the  water  tlie.>'  s\\'ell 
up  as  tight  as  a  drum  and  remain  in  this  condition  until  returned  to  the  water, 
where  they  will  float  on  their  backs  in  a  helpless  condition  for  some  time;  eventu- 
ally they  collapse  and  swim  off.  Cabinet  specimens  hardened  in  alcohol  will 
remain  in  an  inflated  condition  indefinitely.  Specimens  fourteen  inches  in 
length  are  common.  The  native  name,  meaning  "sure  death,"  indicates 
the  Hawaiian  belief  in  its  poisonous  character.  The  gall  doubtless  contains 
an  active  poison,  said  by  some  to  have  been  used  on  spear-points.  Puffers  are 
seldom,  if  ever,  seen  in  the  markets,  but  are  commonly  captured  in  seines  in 
the  mullet  ponds.  They  vary  greatly  in  color  with  age.  while  in  some  the  body 
is  smooth  and  in  others  more  or  less  covered  with  prickles. 

The  Remora. 

The  remoras,   disk-heads  or  sucking-fish, •^•'^   while   not   commonly   met   with 


"**  Sparidce.         -"  Monutaxis  </rand(i<-iiUs.         ""  Tetraudontidic.         ^^  Caiitliiijasteiidif. 
■'-  Tet.raodon  hiapidus.         ^a  EehenididcB. 


( Dt'urniitimi    iif    I'liih-    ('iiiitiii  i(cd    innii    OiiimKitr    I'lK/e.) 

{Holoccntius  niicrof<tuinu.s).  5.  Swordfish  |  A 'ii  |  {Xipliids  gladius).  (>.  Mackerel  [Opolu 
j);ilalui|  {Scoinhcr  jdponicu.s).  7.  Ocean  Jiotiito  [.\ku|  {(li/mnosardd  pclamin).  8.  Little 
Tuna  or  Bonito  [KawakawaJ  {(li/iiinosarda  aUcltcrnta) .  9.  Pilot  Fish  or  lioinero  {Naucra- 
Ics  (luctor).  10.  A  Cavalla  [Piiakahala]  (tV(/Y//i//i(.v  afliiiis).  11.  'rincad  i'isli  [Ulna  kilai- 
kihi]  (Alectis  ciliaris).  12.  Sea  Perch  |  AholelioleJ  {Kuhlia  niul<j).  I'.i.  ratahit'a  |  .Vlalaiia] 
(Priacanthus  alalaua).  14.  Porgie  [^Iu|  (Monotojis  (jrandoculis).  15.  A  HurinuUet  |  Weke 
nlaiila  ]  (Midloldis  pdinmcns).  l(i.  Goat-fisli  |  Muinu  |  (I\'«'iidiiiniicit.s  hifascialus).  17.  A 
Wrasse  Fish  [OniakaJ  {^Stctliojulis  a.iill(iri.s).  IS.  .\  Wrasse  Fish  |  OpuleJ  {Anampses 
curicr). 


368  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

are  so  curious  in  form  and  lial)it  that  they  are  sure  to  attract  attention  when 
they  occasionally  come  to  market  attached,  barnacle-like,  to  the  body  of  some 
sliai'k.  or  turtle,  or  large  fish.  They  are  slender,  violet-blackish  colored  fish 
that  are  peculiar  in  that  they  have  the  first  dorsal  fin  transformed  into  a  suck- 
ing disk,  which  covers  the  entire  head  and  nape.  The  shark  sucker  ^^  of  Hawaii 
is  one  of  two  widely  distrilnited  species,  but  as  they  are  neither  very  abun- 
dant nor  used  as  food,  their  appearance  in  the  markets  is  entirely  owing  to 
their  interesting  habits.  By  affixing  themselves  to  their  hosts  they  are  car- 
ried through  a  much  greater  extent  of  w^ater  than  their  own  limited  swim- 
ming powers  would  admit.  They  obtain  thereby  a  much  greater  supply  of 
food  than  they  would  otherAvise  secure.  They  may  be  carried  about  for 
weeks  by  their  hosts,  leaving  them  only  to  secure  food.  This  is  done  by  a 
sudden  rush  tlirouuh  the  water.  The  remora  does  not  injure  the  carrier- 
animal  in  any  way,  and  as  they  are  of  small  size,  rarely  being  more  than  six 
or  eight  inches  in  length,  they  do  not  materially  impede  the  progress  of  their 
hosts. 

The  Scorpion-Fishes. 

The  scorpion-fishes  •'■"'  are  so  varied  in  form  as  to  render  a  brief  character- 
ization of  the  group  impossible.  In  the  more  extreme  examples  which  are  sure 
to  attract  attention  great  changes  take  place  in  the  form  of  the  fish  and  their 
appendages.  The  head  may  Ix-  distorted  with  ridges  and  grooves,  the  anal 
spines  lost  and  the  dorsal  spines  variously  modified.  The  scales  may  be  lost 
or  replaced  by  warts  or  prickles,  and  in  others  the  ventral  fins  nuiy  be  reduced, 
while  in  still  others  the  pectorals  are  often  greatly  enlarged. 

They  are  especially  abundant  in  the  Pacific  and  form  a  large  portion  of 
the  fish  fauna  of  Hawaii,  where  ten  genera  aiid  twenty  or  more  species  occur. 
In  general,  they  do  not  migrate,  but  make  a  permanent  home  about  the  rocks 
and  in  the  coral  reef.  Curiously  enough,  they  are  esteemed  as  food  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  some  of  them  have  a  venom  sac  at  the  base  of  the  dorsal  spine, 
to  the  poisonous  efifect  of  which  they  owe  their  name. 

The  noho  or  amakaha^'^  is  perhaps  as  tyjiical  and  as  common  in  tlie 
market  and  Aquarium  as  any  of  the  scorpion-fish.  They  are  indescribably  mot- 
tled and  streaked  with  brown,  claret  color,  sulphur-red,  salmon  color  and  near- 
white  The  inner  or  posterior  side  of  the  pectorals  is  l)rightly  marked  with 
yellow  varied  with  black,  so  that  when  swimming  from  the  observer  they  look 
like  heavy-bodied  I)utterfiies  winging  their  way  about  the  tide  pools  in  the  reef. 

The  Sea-Bass  FA^[ILY. 

Although  it  is  customary  for  the  angler  to  talk  of  the  great  variety  of  sea- 
bass  to  be  caught  in  Hawaii,  he  doubtless  speaks  fi'om  the  abundance  of  mis- 
information which  is  current  on  the  subject  of  fish  ami  fishing,  and  not  from 
a  desire  to  misrepresent  the  facts.     Anything  that  takes  the  hook  and  in  the 


'*  Echcnris  sp.  ^°  Scorpaniidw.  ^^  Scor/HCiiopfiis  f/ihhasa. 


THE  ANBFAL  LIFE   OF  TTTH   (iROFP.  369 

least  resembles  a  bass  passes  as  one  among  this  class  of  tishci-men.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  there  ar<'  lint  five  species  belonging  lo  as  )iiaiiy  iicin'ra  n\'  iIk; 
sea-bass-*'  family  that  have  so  far  been  taken  from  Hawaiian  watcis.  h  is 
trne  that  it  requires  some  skill  to  deteet  the  characteristics  1hat  s('i)ai-a1('  the 
cardinal-fishes  on  the  one  hand  and  the  catalufas  and  snapjx'rs  on  Ihc  other. 
If  the  fish  in  hand  shonhl  pro\-e  to  have  three  and  only  lliree  stiff,  strong  spines 
in  the  anal  fin  and  be  bass  or  perch-like  in  form,  the  chances  are  it  would  [irove 
to  l)e  a  time  liass.  However,  it  wonld  then  re(piii'e  mneh  consulting  of  author- 
ities to  prove  the  specific  identity  of  the  species,  as  the  matter  is  fni'ther 
complicated  by  a  disagreement  in  popular  nomenclature  as  to  whetlier  it 
should  be  called  a  Jew-fish,  a  grouper,  or  a  hind. 

The  liainFu  i>n 'u '^'^  is  the  most  important  and  conniion  species  in  the 
market,  where  specimens  three  feet  or  more  in  length  are  not  uncommon.  It 
is  a  dark  pnr])]ish-brown  fish  Avith  occasional  irregular  pearly  spots  on  the 
sides  and  with  l)lacl<  ventral  fins,  though  in  old  specimens  the  spots  disa])pear, 
leaving  the  fish  a  uniform  reddish  leather-brown.  They  are  usually  cauglit 
with  a  hook  and  are  the  only  species  of  the  bass  family  conimonl\-  known  by  a 
Hawaiian  name. 

One  might  naturall\-  ex{)ect  that  the  ocean  about  these  islands  would  \)o 
inhabited  by  representatives  of  almost  every  type  of  animal  to  be  found  in  the 
sea  anywlier(\  However,  the  announcement  of  the  discovery  of  the  presence 
of  the  sea-devil  -"  family  close  at  liand  will  come  in  the  nature  of  a  surprise 
to  many.  That  the  creature  was  a  new  species  and  called  for  the  creation  of  a 
new  genus  is  made  plain  from  its  description.  Avhich.  briefiy  put.  characterizes 
it  as  an  inky  black  animal  with  small  eyes,  a  white  mouth  and  a  protruding 
chin.  Any  fear  and  uneasiness  that  may  have  been  felt  at  the  discovery  of  a 
member  of  this  satanic  family  about  the  islands  will  be  allayed  somewhat  Avhen 
it  is  known  that  the  only  specimen  of  the  genus  ever  discovered  is  h^ss  than 
fo.ur  inches  long  and  was  dredged  from  the  fioor  of  the  ocean  under  .">()() 
fathoms  of  water. 

Snappers. 

The  snai)per  family  ^"  is  represented  in  Hawaii  by  seven  or  eight  important 
food  fish.  As  has  been  stated,  they  closely  resemltle  the  sea-bass.  One  fa- 
miliar with  the  characteristics  of  tlie  two  fanulies.  however,  will  be  able  to 
point  out  that  in  the  snappers  "the  maxillary  slips  along  its  edge  into  a  sheath 
formed  by  the  broad  end  of  the  pre(U'bital. ""  ^vhile  the  sea-bass  have  no  siich 
sheath. 

The  eight  species  are  all  fairly  abundant.  carui\-orous.  voracious,  gamey. 
excellent  liigh-colored  fish,  and  all  are  known  at  the  marekt  by  Hawaiian 
names.  The  ukikiki  ■'^  is  a  fairly  common  red  fish  ^\•itll  diagonal  golden  cross- 
bands.      It  is  a  fine,  firm.  whiTe-lleshed  fish  especially  suitable  for  b.-dcing.     The 


'•'~  i^erraiiifhr.  "'*  E /liin  iilnliis  f/ufnuin.  ^^'  Ceratiida'.  *"  Lutin»idir. 

■"  Roosf  relti    ( A  psiliix  )    lirii/hiinii. 


.<!f-> 


PLATE  93.     PARROT  FISH,  BUTTERFLY  FISH.  PUFFERS  AND  THEIR  RELATIVES. 
[Assembled   from  U.   S.  Fish   Comm.   Bulletin   No.   23.] 

1.     A  Wrasse  Fish   (Tliahissnuid  uiiiirostigma) .     2.    A  Wrasse  Fish   [Hilu  lauwili]    (Julis 
Icjiomi.s).     3.    A  Parrot  Fish   [Uhii]    (CaUyodon   iiiiniatus).     4.    Blue  Parrot  Fish    (Psendosca- 

( Description    at    Plate    Continued    on    the    Ojiposite    Pa(je.) 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFP]  OF  THE   GROUP.  371 

opakapaka  ^-  is  liyht  rosy-olive  with  violet  shades,  especially  on  the  scales  over 
the  back ;  the  ulaiila  *^  is  a  beautiful  rose-red  or  reddish-pink,  while  the  uku  ^'' 
is  uniform  liii'ht  gray,  the  upper  parts  tiivm'd  with  liliir  whicli  on  the  head 
becomes  dark  blue.  Some  of  the  si)ecies  maj'  be  procured  almost  every  day, 
there  being  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  pounds  sold  annually  in  the 
Hawaiian  markets. 

Soles. 

Of  the  true  soles  ^"  but  two  species  were  secured  by  the  scientists  of  the 
Albatross,  and  they  were  taken  only  from  deep  water.  But  of  the  nearly- 
related  flatfishes,  especially  the  flounders,"*"  five  genera  with  a  half-dozen 
species  have  been  recorded.  By  far  the  most  plentiful  flatfish  is  the  pakii,^^ 
a  curious  sand-colored  fish  with  numerous  eye-like  markings  of  light  grayish- 
brown  and  bluish-gray  and  some  with  blackish  edges.  They  are  mostly  small 
in  size,  but  are  excellent  when  fried.  In  the  Aquarium  this  flatfish  loves  to 
lie  almost  concealed  in  the  sand.  Both  eyes  have  been  moved  by  nature  far 
over  on  one  side  of  its  head.  It  is  indeed  a  natural  wonder  that  well  repays 
the  trouble  it  often  takes  to  discover  it  when  it  has  hidden  itself  in  the  sand 
and  pebbles  for  protection. 

Squirrel-Fishes. 

The  squirrel-fishes  ^^  are  conspicuous  shore  fishes  frequenting  the  rocky 
banks  and  coral  reefs  of  the  tropical  seas.  They  are  usually  red  or  reddish 
in  color  and  have  eleven  spines  in  the  dorsal  and  four  in  the  anal  fin,  the  third 
usually  being  very  strong.  Five  genera  have  been  taken  in  the  group,  to 
whieh  twenty  gaily-colored  species  have  been  credited.  Several  of  the  species 
ai-e  abundant  and  are  always  to  be  seen  in  the  market.  The  u'u^*^  is  the 
common  red  species  that  lives  in  the  rocks.  The  natives  have  an  interesting 
way  of  fishing  for  them.  One  is  first  caught  on  a  hook,  which  they  take  quite 
readily.  The  fish  is  then  attached  to  a  line  and  dropped  in  again  in  some  place 
suitable  to  the  habits  of  the  u'u.  If  the  rock  is  inhabited  the  resident  species 
will  come  out  at  once,  bristling  with  rage,  to  drive  off  the  intrnder.  Both  fish  are 
then  lifted  out  with  a  hand  net ;  the  last  one  caught  being  substituted  for  the 
decoy — and  so  the  fishing  proceeds. 

The  alaihi  ''^  are  interesting  members  of  this  family,  represented  liy  seven 
or  more  species  that  are  quite  abundant  about  the  islands.     They,  like  tlieir 


*-  Apsilus  microdon.         **  Etelis  ninr.shi.  *°  A  prion   virensceus.  *'^  Holeidir.         *'  Plettronectidce. 

**  Platophrys  pantherinus.         *^  Uolocentridce.         ^°  Myripristis  murdjan.         ^^  Holocentrus  spp. 


(Description    of    Plate    Continued    from    Opposite    Page.) 

rus  jordani).  5.  A  Butterfly  Fish  [Kikakapu]  (Chcetodon  unimactdatus).  G.  A  Butterfly 
Fish  [Kikakapu]  (Chcetodon  mdiari.s).  7.  Moorish  Idol  [Kihikihi]  (Zanndus  canesccns). 
8.  A  Surgeon  Fish  [Naeuae]  (Hcpatas  olirarctis).  9.  A  Surgeon  Fisli  |  Puala]  {Hei>atus 
guntJuri).  10.  A  Trigger  Fish  |  Huinuhu'nu  nukuuuku  apua'a]  (B(dist(ipitf!  rcctanijidiis) . 
11.  Sharp-nosed  Pufl^er  [Puu  olai  |  {('anthigastcr  epdamprus).  12.  Porcupine  Fisli  [Oopu 
kawa]   (Diodon  nudifrons). 


2>71  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

eonsiiis.  are  mostly  small  hiyli-eolored  fish  and  are  peculiar  in  the  development 
of  small  spines  almost  everywhere  over  the  surface  of  the  body.  The  name 
refers  to  the  noise  they  make  when  taken  out  of  the  water,  which  suggests  the 
bai'k  of  the  squirrel.  Tlie  stripes  on  some  species  also  add  to  their  squirrel- 
like appearance. 

The  Surgeon-Fishes. 

The  surgeon-fishes  or  tangs  •"'-  are  herbivorous  inhabitants  of  the  tropical 
seas,  notably  abundant  about  the  coral  reefs  and  in  the  tide  pools  along  the 
shore.  They  undergo  great  changes  with  age,  the  young  often  having  been 
described  as  distinct  genera.  Hawaii  has  five  genera  and  perhaps  a  dozen 
and  a  half  species  of  these  interesting  fishes.  They  are  mostly  dark  in  color, 
with  some  vivid  color  added,  and  all  have  an  armament  developed  on  the  side 
of  the  tail.  In  some  genera  this  armament  consists  of  a  movable  spine  set  witli 
the  point  turned  forward  which  can  be  dropped  down  into  a  sheath-like  groove. 
In  other  genera  one  or  two  sharp  knife-like  plates  are  rigidly  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  tail.  It  is  from  these  spines  that  the  fishes  derive  their  common 
names,  surgeoii-tish,  doctor-fish,  or  lance-fish,  and  thev  form  verv  effective 
weapons  against  their  enemies,  be  they  fish  or  man. 

The  pa  kuikui  •''"  is  common  about  Honolulu,  and  may  lie  recognized  by  its 
brown  color,  which  is  relieved  by  an  orange  patcli  about  the  murderous  spine 
on  the  side  of  the  tail.  The  nae-nae ''^  is  olivaceous  and  has  a  liright  spot  on 
the  shoulder.  The  pualn  •"'"'  is  a  common  species  in  the  Ilonolnlu  market.  It  is 
brown  in  color  and  has  four  or  five  golden  longitudin.il  bands  on  the  dorsal 
fin  and  four  similar  ones  on  the  anal.  The  most  alnmdant  member  of  the 
extensive  genus,  howevci".  is  the  delicious  panfish  known  to  everyone  as 
manini.*''^  They  are  almost  daily  offered  for  sale  in  the  markets;  their  dull 
olive-gray  bodies  crossed  by  five  narrow  vertical  lines  renders  their  identity 
easy  and  certain.  They  are  seldom  more  than  seven  or  eight  inches  in  length, 
but  their  small  size  is  more  than  made  up  for  by  their  delicate  flavor  when 
fried.  They  are  fearless  shore  fishes,  usually  to  be  seen  in  pools  in  small 
schools.  The  young  are  often  trapped  in  holes  in  the  rocks  along  shore  as  the 
tide  recedes,  "vvhere  they  swim  about  without  alarm,  patiently  awaiting  the 
return  to  the  sea.  They  are  hardy  and  thrive  in  the  Aquarium,  where  their 
stripes  have  won  for  them  the  popular  name  of  convict-fish. 

The  kala."'''  or  unicorn-fish,  is  an  alnindant  member  of  the  family.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  two  large  pale  blue,  blunt,  immovable  spines  on  the  tail,  placed  one 
in  front  of  the  other,  it  has  as  a  special  distinctive  mai'k  a  long  horn  growing 
forward  from  the  o'anium  ai)ove  the  eyes. 

The  Goat-Fish. 

The  surmullets,  or  goat-fish"''^,  are  shore  fishes  of  moderate  size  and 
possess  the  notable  features  of  two  long  unbranched  barbules   of  firm   sub- 


'•-  Acaiithui-idfe.  ^'^  He  pat  11.1  arliilli'X.  ^*  Hepntiis  nlivari'ii.i.  ^^  Hcpatiig   i/initlii'ri. 

^^  Hejiatus   Sfindvicensi.s.         ^'  AcaiitliiirKS  uiticorids.         ^^  MuIHiUc. 


THE  AXLMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  2>72, 

stance  on  the  chin.  These  they  employ  for  feelers,  using  tln'iii  to  slii-  ii[i  the 
sand  on  the  bottom,  as  they  search  for  the  small  animals  iiixui  wliidi  they  feed. 
Their  scales  are  large  and  thin,  and  the  fish  are  all  bright-colored,  usually  red 
or  red  and  golden.  About  a  dozen  and  a  luilf  of  closely-related  species  are 
found  in  the  ocean  about  Hawaii.  These  wrv  divided  among  three  important 
genera.  Weke  is  the  name  applied  by  the  Hawaiians  to  a  luunber  of  the 
species.  The  name  is  also  used  in  condjination  with  moi-e  speeitie  descriptive 
terms,  so  that  weke  or  weke  ula  '''•*  is  specifically  applied  to  the  bi'ight  red-col- 
ored surmullet  of  which  enormous  quantities  are  annually  marketed  in  the 
islands.  In  the  Aquarium  they  attract  much  attention  as  tliey  swim  along- 
carrying  their  chin  barbules  extended  in  advance  of  them,  cautiously  feeling 
their  way  as  they  go. 

The  goat-fish  proper  'J'^  are  represented  by  the  moano,*^^  the  munu  '^-  and 
the  kumu,*^^  all  of  which  are  highly-colored  common  species. 

SwORDFlSll. 

Occasionally  a  swordfish'''^  is  taken  by  the  Hawaiian  fishermen,  and  in 
this  way  reaches  the  market  under  the  name  a'u.  They  are  fishes  of  great 
size,  with  the  upper  jaw  prolonged  to  form  a  "sword,"  which  is  flattened  hori- 
zontally. h)0  far  as  is  known,  the  family  ^'^  is  represented  by  a  single  species 
of  world-wide  distribution.  They  are  mainly  pelagic  in  their  habits  and  are 
among  the  most  predaceous  and  savage  of  the  monsters  of  the  deep.  They  not 
only  transfix  their  ordinary  prey  with  their  formidable  sword,  but  use  it  in  a 
merciless  attack  on  whales,  which,  from  repeated  stabs,  often  succumb. 

Occasionally  this  pugnacious  fish  mistakes  a  ship's  hull  for  an  enemy  and 
charges  it,  sending  its  sword  crashing  through  several  inches  of  timber.  On 
one  occasion  the  writer  ])liotographed  a  swordfish  bill  that  had  been  rammed 
tlii'ough  the  stern  sheets  of  a  small  deep-sea-going  craft.  The  vessel  had  l)eeii 
hauled  out  of  the  water  for  repairs  in  Honolulu  harbor,  when,  to  the  surprise 
of  the  ship's  master,  the  beaks  of  the  swordfish  were  found  driven  deep  into 
the  hull,  one  of  them  piercing  the  solid  pine  shell  to  a  depth  of  twelve  inehes. 
Whih^  swordfish  are  usuallx'  four  to  six  feet  in  leimth,  \\\v\  may  measui'e 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  and  have  a  sword  a  yard  in  length.  The  largest  animals 
sometimes  weigh  as  much  as  600  ])ounds  or  more.  The  flesh  of  the  swordfish 
is  red  in  color  and  rich  in  flavor,  and  is  evei'vwhere  prized  as  delieious  food. 

The  trigger-fish'''"'  are  I'alher  large-size  shore  fislies  tliat  are  partl\-  hei'biv- 
orous  and  pai'tly  earnivoi'cMis  in  habit.  They  are  i-arely  used  as  food,  and 
some  of  them  are  reputed  t)y  the  natives  to  be  poisonous.  They  ai'e  I'ein.-ifkable 
and  interesting  in  that  the  fli-st  dorsal  fin  is  composed  of  a  short,  stout  I'ough 
spine  Avith  a  smaller  one  behind  it.  and  usually  a  third  so  placetl  that,  by 
foucliing  it,  the  first  s])i!ie  may  be  i'igidl_\'  set   oi'  c-isily   I'cleased.  wIkmi   it  folds 


^^  MtiUoides  aurijii} iiiiiiii .  ""  I'xi'inhiiH'iieii.s  s])]).  *"   I'sfiniii /ii'iit'iis   in iiltifiisridhi/!. 

^- Pgeiulii ii''>ii'iis  hijiisriiitiis.  '^'•^  Paeiidupinieiis  ixiriilii/n'ii.i.  "  '  A'i'/'/(i«.v  'iliidiiix,         "^  Xiphiidcf. 

8'>  Balixtida\ 


PLATE  94.      GOBIES,   BLENNIES,   FROG   FISH,   TRUNK   FISH   AND   OTHER   ODD 

FORMS. 

[Assembled   from   U.   S.  Fish   Gomm.   BuDetin    No.   2H.] 
1.     lleadfish     |  Ajiahul     (Fanzania     malua).     2.    Trniik    Fish     [Moa]     {Ostracion    sehce). 
3.    A    Cirrhitoid    Fish    [Pilikoa]     (Paracirrhites    forsieri).     4.    A    Cirrhitoid    Fish    [Oopukai] 

( Descrirition    nj    Plate    Continued    nn    the    O/i/jnxite    Page.) 


THE  ANI.MAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  375 

The  Trigger-Fishes. 

back  into  ;i  pocket  out  of  the  w;iy.     This  tiives  the  family  the  iiaiiic  oi"  trigger- 
fish,  as  well  as  llie  older  name,  Batistes,  which  rcfci-s  to  a  cross-how  shooter. 

Hawaii  has  five  genera  with  eleven  species.  The  species  of  the  j)rincipal 
genus  Batistes,  ai'c  known  as  hmnnhuinu,  lo  which  as  occasion  i'c;|uii-('s  is 
added  a  second  name  and  even  a  third  by  the  natives  for  more  specific  desig- 
nation. 

Many  of  the  Hawaiian  species  are  most  fantastically  colored.  The  hnmu- 
humn  nnkunnkn  a  pna'a"'  has  a  bln.c  hand  over  the  nose,  a  broad  black 
one  slanting  diagonally  across  the  body  from  over  the  forehead  to  the 
pectoral  region,  thence  backward  to  the  anal  fin.  and  a  Avedge-shaped  l)lack 
band  on  the  side  of  the  tail;  but  several  of  its  cousins  outdo  it  in  striking  and 
unconventional  colors  aiul  nuirkings. 

Trunk-Fish. 

The  odd,  box-like  trunk-fish,"^  or  coffer-fish,  as  they  ai-e  called  hy  some, 
have  the  body  enveloped  in  a  boney  box  of  six  sides  out  of  which  the  movable 
jaws,  fins  and  tail  protrnde.  They  live  in  shallow  water,  are  slow  of  motion, 
but  often  are  bi'ightly  colored. 

Five  species  of  trunk-fish  have  so  far  been  recorded  from  Hawaii.  The 
moa -'■'  are  conspicuous  in  their  dress  of  bright  l)lue  with  golden  spots,  and  are 
the  most  abundant  of  the  island  species.  Their  knoAving,  stolid  countenances 
as  they  swim  gracefully  about  among  their  associates  at  the  Aquarium  give 
them  a  "position  among  fishes  that  correspoiids  to  that  held  by  the  owls  among 
birds.''  When  taken  from  the  Avater  these  fish  Avill  live  a  considerable  time, 
and  they  appear  to  be  hardy  enough  to  commend  them  to  l^eepers  of  private 
salt-Avater  aquaria. 

Trumpet-Fish. 

The  trumpet-fish.'"  known  locally  as  the  nunn,  is  not  uncommon  al):)ut 
the  islands.  By  reason  of  its  odd,  elongated  body.  h>ng  head  and  small  moulh 
set  at  the  end  of  a  long  compressed  tulie.  Ihe  luuui  is  sure  to  attract  attention. 
The  single  species  varies  greatly  in  coloc.  i-anging  from  light  yelloAv  to  dark 
lu'OAvn.  varied  Avith  five  or  six  nai-row  longitudinal  stripes.  In  spite  of  its  odd 
appearance,  it  is  a  food  fish  of  sonu'  inipoitance.  and  is  often  exposed  foi'  s;de 
in  the  markets. 


^'  Balistapvs  rectarKjiihis.  '^^  O.straciido-.  '"'  Ontrncinti   .ii'Iki-.  '■"  AuHstamus   vnlentitii. 


(DcHcription    of   Plate    ('oiitiniicd   from    Opponite   Page.) 

(Cirrhitus  ni(iniinratns).  ^^.  A  Scoriiion  Fish  |Xohu]  (Scorjxrndiisis  ftihhofia).  (i.  Flying 
fiiu'iiard  [Lolo-oau  I  {CcplialacdnlJni.s  ori<iit(ilis) .  7.  A  Goliy  |()ojni|  {lihotris  sandwicctisis). 
8.  A  Goby  [()oim|  (Eviota  epii'luuitw).  9.  .\  Cohy  [Oopu]  {Mapo  fnsnis).  Ki.  .\  Goby 
[Oopu]  (Sicydluni  stimp.ioiii) .  11.  .\  (ioby  |()()pu|  {Airanu.'i  fifiiirittati(s).  12.  A  Blonnie 
(Enncapfcn/f/iits  otrireps).  ]'A.  A  P>l(>iniio  {Altirns  marmarol u.^) .  11.  .\  Blcnnic  (Salarin 
zebra),     lo.    Frog  Fish    (AiilcniKiris   Jcprosus). 


376  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 
INTRODUCED  FRESH  WATER  FISH. 

Goldfish. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  ])y  private  citizens  to  introduce  well- 
known  food,  game  and  ornamental  fish  into  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  One  of  the 
earliest,  if  not  the  first  attemjit  of  this  nature,  resulted  in  introducing'  the 
Avell-known  goldfish  ^  into  the  streams,  ponds  and  in-igation  ditches  of  Oahu, 
from  whence  they  liavc  been  generally  distributed  to  the  other  inhabitetl 
islands  of  the  grou]).  The  original  stock  of  goldfish  came  from  China,  but 
the  date  of  the  first  shipment  is  not  known.  As  early  as  1867,  however,  they 
were  being  exported  to  California,  and  from  that  time  to  the  present  they 
have  been  abuiidant  about  Honolulu,  and  have  contributed  their  share  to  the 
ideal  beauty  of  the  streams  and  the  pleasure  of  the  young  angler.  Since  the 
original  introduction  some  of  the  fancy  varieties  have  been  liberated  at  differ- 
ent times,  with  the  result  that  there  is  much  variation  in  form  and  color  among 
the  wild  species.  Ooldfish  are  regularly  offered  for  sale  in  the  market  in 
Honolulu,  but  they  are  mainly  eaten  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese. 

The  goldfish  is  a  native  of  China,  and  from  there  it  was  introduced  into 
Japan  at  an  early  date.  From  Japan  they  were  carried  to  Europe  in  1611, 
and  later  to  America,  where  many  of  the  various  artificial  varieties  that  have 
been  produced  in  China  and  Japan  are  reared  with  great  success  by  fanciers. 
The  rich  golden  color  is  found  only  in  the  domesticated  species,  and  is  re- 
tained by  artificial  selection.  The  native  fish  are  olivaceous  in  color,  and  in 
the  ponds  and  ditches  about  Honolulu,  as  in  China  and  Japan,  they  readily 
revert  to  that  color.  In  the  Orient  several  score  of  forms  have  been  produced 
by  patient  selection  and  breeding.  Eighteen  forms  of  so-called  toy  goldfish 
are  known  among  the  fanciers,  each  of  them  ])rovided  with  a  name  based  on 
its  origin,  history,  form  or  color. 

They  are  rather  sluggish,  hardy  creatvires  that  devour  large  quantities  of 
mosquito  larva?  froiu  pools  and  fountains  about  the  city.  Unfortunately,  the 
more  recently  introduced  "mosquito  fish"  are  reported  to  feed  on  the  eggs 
and  very  young  of  the  goldfish  and  mullet,  as  well  as  the  mosquito  larvtv  and 
the  young  of  the  fresh-water  shrimp.  As  a  result,  goldfish  are  not  as  plentiful 
in  our  streams  as  they  were  formerly. 

Carp. 

Carp-  were  introduced  into  the  islands  from  America  some  years  ago. 
They  were  first  ])lanted  in  the  iri'igation  ditches  near  Waihiku.  and  from  there 
Avere  distributed  to  Hawaii  and  Oahu,  and  doubtless  will  be  fouiul  on  all  the 
islands.  They  are  not  much  used  as  food  on  account  of  their  nuiddy 
flavor    and    are    onl\-    used    in    the    absence    of    better    fish.       Thev    iiaturallv 


'  Carassitis  aurattis.  -  Ci/praKKS  carido. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  2,77 

prefer  shady,  shig'gish  walcr  Avitli  muddy  hottoiiis,  wlicfc  tlioy  feed  voraciously 
on  small  water  animals  and  vegetable  matlci'.  particularly  the  leaves  of 
aquatic  plants.  'IMic  common  carp  is  closely  i-clatcd  1o  tlie  goldfish  and  was 
originally  a  native  of  tlic  rivci's  of  ('liina,  wlici'c  it  has  long  been  ai'tificially 
reared  by  the  inhalntants.  Fi'om  thci-c  it  was  iiili-oduced  into  Eui'opc,  pci-haps 
three  centuries  ago,  and  has  since  Ijecoiiic  naturalized  and  several  varieties 
produced  in  domestication.  From  Europe  carj)  were  introduced  into  America, 
and  from  America  they  were  brought  to  Hawaii,  thus  eom|)letin^  tlieii'  journey 
around  the  globe.  They  attain  a  size  of  several  pounds  and  ma\-  be  identified 
as  the  only  scaled  fresh-water  tish  in  Hawaii  that  have  bai-bules  on  the  upper 
lip.  A  single  specimen  has  been  known  to  pioduee  as  many  as  seven  liumlred 
thousand  eggs  in  a  single  season. 

Catfish. 

The  common  l)ullhead  catfish,  or  horned  pout,'*  was  introduced  about 
twenty  years  ago  from  California,  Avhere  it  had  been  naturalized,  and  Avas 
planted  in  ponds  about  Hilo,  but  it  has  not  been  seen  since.  In  the  meantime 
it  has  been  introduced  on  the  Island  of  Oahu,  where  it  has  been  secured 
from  the  sam*^  ponds  with  the  Chinese  species.  The  Chinese  cattish  ^  was 
introduced  by  the  Chinese  about  a  dozen  yeai's  ago  from  their  country.  It  has 
survived  and  is  becoming  ({uite  common  in  the  fresh-watei-  j)onds  and  finds  its 
way  to  the  markets,  where  it  is  sold  under  the  name  of  Chinese  catfish. 

Since  both  species  occur  about  Honolulu  in  the  same  environment,  it  will 
be  well  to  know  that  the  Chinese  species  have  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  much 
elongated,  each  with  many  rays,  and  extending  throughout  the  greater  length 
of  the  trunk,  while  in  the  bullhead  the  dorsal  and  anal  are  nnich  shorten',  the 
dorsal  Avith  one  hard  and  seven  soft  rays. 

China  Fish. 


Ti 


Easily  mistaken  for  the  Chinese  cattish  in  the  Avater,  is  the  •'China  lish, 
which  in  I'eality  is  a  snake-head  mullet.  They  are  long  and  cylindi'ieal.  and 
the  head  is  coA^ered  with  scales.  They  are  carnivorous  and  voracious  in  lial»it, 
and  are  extremely  tenacious  of  life,  liA'ing  for  hours  out  of  water  when  thi'own 
on  the  banks  of  the  ii'rii;ation  ditches  or  when  carried  to  market.  Dr.  A.  (liinther 
states  that  they  ai'e  able  to  survive  drouth  by  living  in  the  semi-lluid  mud  or 
lying  in  a  semi-torpid  state  below  the  hard  snn-bak'ed  crusi  of  the  bottom  of  a 
tank  from  \vhicli  cA'ery  di-o])  of  watcn-  has  disappeared. 

Black  Bass. 

The  first  attempt  to  establish  black  b;iss  dates  from  the  summer  of  1897, 
when  a  shipment  Avas  made  from  the  California  P^'ish  Commission  to  a  number 
of  citizens  at  Ililo.  ITnfoi't  unalely.  oidy  twenty-one  of  these  eleizant  sun  fishes 
suiwived  the  journey.     Tliesi'   were    planted    in    Wailuku    ri\(M'   near    Kainbow 


^  Ameriunm   xrlnihisiiK.  ^  Chirins    i'l.iruK.  ''OiihicriilKiJiis   sti'idtus. 

23 


378  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

Falls,  but  the  following  day  a  heavy  freshet  in  the  river  is  supposed  to  have 
carried  them  out  to  sea,  as  they  were  never  seen  afterward. 

In  1908  Mr.  W.  A.  Templeton,  while  visiting  California,  secured  a  number  of 
large-mouthed  black  bass "'  which  he  brought  back  with  him  and  planted  in  the 
great  artificial  fresh-water  reservoir  at  Wahiawa.  Under  his  supervision  the  intro- 
duction has  proved  successful,  and  this  exceedingly  valuable  game  fish  is  now 
well  established  in  these  waters  and  in  time  will  doubtless  be  carried  from 
Wahiawa  to  similar  reservoirs  and  ponds  throughout  the  group.  As  these 
ponds  are  filled  wath  shrimp  and  the  temperature  and  other  conditions  seem 
favorable,  the  black  bass  is  doubtless  to  become  a  common  article  of  food  in 
Hawaii  and  will  prove  a  worthy  substitute  for  almost  any  of  the  native  fish. 

Trout  and  Salmon. 

Attempts  to  establish  trout  in  Hawaii  have  so  far  proved  unsuccessful, 
though  two  or  three  attempts  have  been  made,  the  first  as  early  as  1876.  It 
is  thought  by  the  writer  that  there  are  streams  in  the  group,  especially  one  or 
two  on  the  Island  of  ]\Iolokai,  that  are  well  adapted  to  the  trout,  and  that  if 
proper  precautions  were  observed  in  planting  them,  they  would  soon  establish 
themselves.  Salmon  eggs  were  sent  here  for  planting  in  1876,  but  this  experi- 
ment proved  unsuccessful. 

Mosquito  Fish. 

Work  along  the  line  of  mosquito  control  had  advanced  in  the  Territory 
to  a  point  where,  on  the  advice  of  experts,  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  import 
small  fish  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  on  the  larva^  of  this  pest  that  hatches  in  the 
streams,  ponds  and  ditches  of  the  Territory.  The  Legislature  of  1905  made  a 
small  appropriation  for  that  purpose,  and  a  special  collector  was  employed 
to  transport  to  Hawaii  representatives  of  the  so-called  "top  minnows"  or  killi- 
fish  from  Galveston,  Texas.  Three  species  ^  belonging  to  three  genera  of  the 
family  PoeciUidcc  were  successfully  introduced  into  especially-prepared  ponds 
at  Moanalua,  Oahu.  From  these  they  have  since  been  spread  broadcast  over 
the  group  until  it  is  now  almost  impossible  to  find  slowly-moving  or  standing 
fresh  water  that  is  not  inhabited  by  one  if  not  all  of  the  species.  They  are 
silvery  fishes  of  small  size,  scarcely  more  than  two  inches  in  length.  They 
have  a  wonderful  appetite,  devouring  large  quantities  of  mosquito  larvie,  but, 
as  was  expected,  they  do  not  discriminate  as  closely  as  might  be  desired,  with 
the  result  that  they  are  charged  with  eating  the  eggs  and  young  of  the  other 
aquatic  animals.  However,  the  introduction  of  a  few  into  any  closed  body  of 
water  infested  Avith  mosquito  larva?  will  convince  anyone  of  their  economic 
value  to  the  Territory.  Their  small  protractile  mouths,  scaled  heads  and 
"minnow"  shape  is  sufficient  to  separate  them  from  other  fresh-water  fish, 
but  the  species  are  so  smnll  that  their  certain  identification  by  the  novice  is  not 
an  easy  matter. 


«  Micropterus  salmoides.  '  Gambusia   affiiies,   Funduliis  grandis  and   MoHenesia  latHpinna. 


tup:  axdial  life  of  the  group.  379 

chapter  xxx. 
ixaiportant  economic  insects:    i>art  one. 

The  insect  life  of  Hawaii  is  as  yet  far  from  being  completely  explored. 
Howevei-.  tlinnigh  the  patient  researches  of  a  number  of  specialists  extending 
over  a  period  of  years,  the  native  and  introduced  fauna  is  becoming  better 
known,  though  all  testify  to  the  nuiny  insect  rareties  as  well  as  pests  yet  to 
be  found  by  almost  any  one  who  will  search  with  patience  and  industry  in  the 
rich  fields  offered  bv  the  wonderful  varietv  of  environments  to  be  met  with  in 
the  islands. 

Importance  of  the  Study  op  Insects. 

The  study  of  the  habits  of  insects  by  young  pe()i)le  as  a  part  of  their 
school  work,  or  on  their  holiday  excursions,  is  especially  to  be  commended, 
since  it  is  sure  to  result  in  the  learning  of  many  valuable  lessons  that  deal  with 
the  wonders  of  nature.  Besides  being  of  absorbing  interest  to  old  and  young, 
such  study  may  lead  the  enthusiast  to  follow  a  pursuit  in  life  that  offers  possi- 
bilities of  great  usefulness  and  benefit  to  all. 

The  tourist  and  visitor,  however,  whose  conception  of  the  islands 
has  been  too  literally  based  on  some  traveler's  account  wherein  the 
tropical  forests  are  portrayed  as  "a  wilderness  jeweled  with  a  myriad  bril- 
liant-colored butterflies,"  is  sure  to  be  disappointed  on  his  first  expedition 
into  the  mountains  of  Hawaii.  AVhile  they  are  plentifully  stocked  with  insect 
life,  unfortunately  from  some  points  of  view  it  is  not  of  the  gorgeous  and 
showy  kind  that  one  is  wont  to  associate  with  tropical  islands. 

The  few  small  dull-colored  species  the  novice  is  able  to  collect  on  the  first 
day's  outing  are  usually  not  such  as  to  excite  much  enthusiasm  for  Hawaii  as 
an  insect  collector's  paradise.  Bvit  on  careful  study  of  the  daj-'s  catch  it  will 
be  found  that  many  of  the  insects  belong  to  species  that  cannot  be  found  else- 
where in  the  world,  and  that  many  of  them  have  habits  of  the  most  absorbing 
interest.  Further  and  more  searching  study  of  the  fauna  M'ill  bring  to  light 
peculiar  local  representatives  of  almost  all  of  the  great  orders  of  insects.  When 
we  consider  the  isolation  of  the  islands,  one  is  surprised  to  find  represented 
so  great  a  proportion  of  the  large  number  of  families  into  Avhich  the  world's 
more  than  three  hundred  thousand  known  species  of  insects  have  been 
classified. 

Important  Destructive  Species. 

As  there  are  several  thousand  species  thai  ai-e  native  to  the  isljiiids.  a  few 
of  wliicli  are  touched  upon  in  a  succeeding  chapter,  and  since  thei'e  ar(^  several 
hundred  tliat  have  been  introduced  by  accident  or  desio-u.i  only  the  briefest 
notice  can  be  taken  in  this  chaptei'  of  a  few  of  Ihe  more  iinpoi'tant  economic 
species  that,  for  one  reason  or  a]U)tht'v,  ai-e  lial)U'  to  attract  tlie  attention  of 


'  As  many  as  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  species  being  intercepted   and   prevented   from   landing  at   the 
wharf  during  the  biennial  period  ending  December  31st.    1914. 


X 


C    g 


X       > 


*-  o 

T    O 


K 


g     ■ 

O 

O 

Q 


CIS 


X  ■ 


C 

X 


C-1 


—         ^ 


OJ   o 


s 
o 


THE  AXIMxVL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROrP.  381 

the  ordinary  observer,  or  those  ])ersons  whose  occupations  often  bring  them  in 
touch  with  things  of  nature. 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  of  the  large  number  of  species  jx-culiar  to  the 
islands  only  a  few  are  noticeably  destructive  to  agriculture  or  to  ciillivaled 
exotic  plants.  The  worst  enemies  of  the  agriculturist  have  been  introduced 
from  abroad  and  are  frequently  cosmopolitan  j)ests.  They  usually  come  with 
fa  I'm  produce,  ornamental  plants,  earth  and  seeds.  The  result  is  that  one  is 
liable  to  meet  here  in  the  islands  all  of  the  old  enemies  of  tlie  Imsbandmaii  with 
which  one  nuiy  be  familiar  in  his  native  country,  and  to  the  list  may  l)e  added 
several  other  forms  equally  destructive  that  were  before  uidviiown  to  the 
observer. 

The  number  of  destructive  insects  in  the  islands  has  led  to  the  adoi)tion  of 
the  i>oli('y  of  controlling  them  whenever  possible  by  the  introduction  of  their 
natural  enemies.  This  plan  has  been  steadily  pursued  for  almost  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  with  the  result  that  probably  in  no  other  country,  particularly 
when  its  size  is  considered,  have  so  many  benelicial  insects  been  artificially 
established. 

Control  by  Natural  Enemies. 

As  the  natural  enemies  of  most  of  the  insects  are  parasites,  which  as  very 
minute  insects,  usually  attack  and  feed  in  one  way  or  another  upon  the  host 
species  wdiich  itself  is  often  microscoj^ic  in  size,  this  warfare  is  not  a  very 
conspicuous  one,  nor  one  liable  to  attract  very  much  attention.  However,  in 
the  struggle  l)eing  continually  waged  to  keep  the  enemies  of  agriculture  in 
check  in  the  islands,  these  often  unseen  and  unknown  insect  friends  are  always 
active  and  have  already  saved  millions  of  dollars  to  Hawaii. 

The  Stgar-Cane  Leaf-Hopper. 

Perhaps  no  more  remarkable  example  of  the  effectiveness  of  this  method 
of  control  can  be  found  than  that  of  the  introduction  of  the  leaf-hopper  c^^^^ 
parasites.  The  cane  leaf-hopper  had  been  known  to  plantation  managei-s  and 
expert  entomologists  in  the  islands  for  a  number  of  years,  but  in  the  early 
spring  of  1908  it  appeared  so  generally  throughout  th(^  cane  fields  and  in  such 
numbers  as  to  prevent  the  growth  of  the  cane.  It  was  found  to  be  a  typical 
member  of  the  leaf-hoi)per  family  {  Asl)-aci(}((') .  and  ju-ovimI  to  l)e  a  i-eccMit  in- 
troducti(»n,  ])i-o])ably  ])i-onght  with  seed  caiu'  fi'om  (Queensland.  Australia. 
Owing  to  its  small  si/.e  and  inconspicuous  color  and  habits,  its  spi'ead  was  un- 
noticed  until  it  could  be  found  almost   wherever  cane   was  grown. 

The  sugar-cane  leaf-hopper-  Hies  readily  and  is  attracted  long  distances 
by  liulit  :  so  besides  ti'aveling  with  the  cane,  it  llew  to  new  lields  an  1  from 
one  plantation  to  another. 

A  peculiai'  smut  that  developed  on  the  lowei'  leaves  of  cane  attacked  by 
the  leaf-hopper  was  found  to  l;i-o\v  on   the  ■'honey  dew,'"  a   ti'ansparent   sticky 


-  Perkinsii'lhi    xiirrhii riciihi. 


382  NATUKAL   HISTOKY   OF   HAWAII. 

fluid  exuded  by  the  insect,  and  was  one  of  the  conspicuous  signs  of  the  subtle 
attacks  of  the  troublesome  bug. 

As  the  development  of  the  insect  from  the  egg  to  the  adult  is  not  divided 
into  definite  stages,  as  is  the  ease  with  the  buttertiy  for  example,  the  young 
when  hatched  resemble  the  adult,  except  they  do  not  at  first  have  wings.  The 
wings  are  acquired,  however,  by  a  process  of  moulting,  and  in  due  time  the 
insect  is  fully  matured.  The  eggs,  necessarily  quite  small  are  deposited  along 
the  mid-rib  of  the  leaf,  or  in  exposed  portions  of  the  stalk.  The  place  of 
insertion  is  marked  at  first  by  a  white  spot  with  a  waxy  covering  over  the 
opening.  Four  to  six  eggs  are  deposited  in  each  opening;  moreover,  several 
clusters  are  deposited  by  a  single  female. 

As  time  passes  the  white  spot,  if  occupied  by  living  eggs,  becomes  claret- 
colored.  When  first  hatched  the  young  are  almost  colorless.  After  some 
effort  thev  emerge  from  the  nest  and  begin  to  feed.  Thev  continue  to  feed 
until  they  develop  their  wrings,  and  finally  die  of  old  age.  As  a  rule  they  do 
not  fly  when  disturbed,  but  sidle  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  leaf  or  ,iump  to  a 
more  secluded  spot. 

Scientific  study  of  their  habits  shows  that  the  first  injury  done  to  the  cane 
by  them  is  when  it  is  punctured  for  the  deposition  of  the  eggs.  The  puncture 
produces  a  drain  on  the  plant's  vitality  and  admits  various  diseases  through 
the  wound.  But  the  most  serious  injury  is  that  done  by  the  young  insects  to 
growing  cane. 

Everything  that  ingenuity  could  devise  was  tried  to  lessen  the  damage 
done  by  them,  but  without  success.  The  seriousness  of  the  invasion  was  soon 
appreciated  and  scientific  entomologists  were  speedily  assembled  in  Hawaii, 
and  from  here  sent  out  to  all  promising  countries  to  look  for  the  most  effec- 
tive natural  enemies  of  this  insect  pest,  a  pest  that  had  already  cost  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  dollars  in  diminished  returns  from  this  important  crop.  When 
the  entomologists  went  seriously  to  worlc  they  found  a  number  of  natural  ene- 
mies of  the  hopper.  But  in  choosing  the  most  desirable  and  efficient  one,  they 
had  to  consider  their  effectiveness,  the  possibility  of  their  transportation,  the 
probability  of  their  thriving,  and  the  rate  of  increase  to  be  expected  when  they 
were  once  established. 

It  was  found  for  the  work  to  be  done  that  certain  little  egg  parasites  were 
very  promising,  since  they  completed  their  life  cycle  every  three  weeks  the 
year  round,  and  the  greater  part  of  those  produced  Avere  females.  With 
such  habits  it  was  plain  that  within  a  very  few  months  after  the  original  col- 
onies were  liberated,  thousands  of  millions  of  descendants  of  the  original  stock 
would  be  at  work  searching  out  the  spots  on  the  cane  where  the  leaf-hoppers 
had  deposited  eggs,  and  in  turn  depositing  their  own  eggs  in  them  in  such  a 
way  that  the  young  of  the  parasite  would  feed  upon  and  kill  the  eggs  of  the  leaf- 
hopper  before  they  had  time  to  develop. 

When  the  proper  data  had  been  secured,  the  egg  parasites  were  imported 
into  Hawaii,  the  species  carefully  studied  in  captivity,  and  the  young  parasites 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  383 

liberated  on  all  the  important  ])lantations.  Seit'nee  was  thus  a^ain  i-alletl  to 
the  aid  of  the  planters,  as  it  had  been  many  times  before,  and  the  experiment 
worked  out  has  been  so  successful  that  the  effects  of  the  leaf-hopper  on  the 
cane  crop  of  Hawaii  is  almost  a  negligible  quantity.  The  outbreak  is  now 
under  control,  and  the  whole  industry  saved  and  restored  to  its  normal  con- 
dition. 

The  Slgak-Cane  Borer. 

The  search  for  the  parasites  feeding  on  the  almost  eciually  destructive 
sugar-cane  borer  ^  has  been  a  thrilling  scientific  adventure.  Happily,  after 
years  of  search,  Dr.  Frederick  Muir  was  rewarded  by  the  discovery,  and  sub- 
sequently succeeded  in  the  successful  introduction  into  Hawaii,  of  parasites  to 
prey  upon  this  most  destructive  insect. 

Lantana  Insects. 

Examples  of  the  controlling  of  injurious  insects  by  introducing  their  insect 
enemies  might  be  multiplied  at  length,  but  one  more  instance,  of  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent nature,  in  which  insects  were  used  to  combat  the  spread  of  an  injurious 
plant  must  suffice.  A  great  many  years  ago  (1858)  the  common  Lantana,^  a  na- 
tive plant  of  the  subtropical  regions  of  Soutli  America,  l)ut  elsewhere  eultivatci 
extensively  as  a  green-house  or  ornamental  shrul),  was  introduced  into  Hawaii  as  a 
garden  plant.  In  course  of  time  the  mynah  bird,  which  was  likewise  introduced, 
made  the  discovery  that  the  small  blue-lilack  aromatic  berries  of  the  Lantana 
were  edible.  As  a  result,  in  a  very  few  years  this  hardy  plant  had  been  spread 
broadcast  to  all  parts  of  the  group  b}^  these  birds.  Thousands  of  acres  of 
what  was  formerly  open  pasture  land  became  completely  choked  with  the  rank 
growth,  while  even  in  the  lower  forests  it  grew^  several  feet  in  height,  often 
forming  an  almost  impenetrable,  though  beautiful,  flowering  jungle. 

Although  the  plant  was  regarded  as  beneficial  by  reason  of  its  powei'  to 
force  its  long  roots  down  deep  into  the  earth,  thereby  loosening  the  soil  and 
furnishing  to  it  a  large  amount  of  humus  as  fertilizer,  its  inroads  into  pasture 
and  tilhible  land  hecaiiii'  so  inarlvcd  and  persistent  as  to  cause  it  to  l)e  regarded 
as  a  serious  scourge.  Entomologists  began  to  look  into  the  natural  enemies  of 
the  plant,  and  before  long  had  found  a  numl)er  of  insects  and  fungus  parasites 
that  naturally  fed  on  the  Lantana.  prel'eri'ing  it  to  any  other  food. 

By  far  the  most  important  among  these  is  the  Lantana  seed-fly."  which  is 
a  small  black  two-wing  insect,  the  maggot  of  which  lives  in  and  destroys  the 
seed.  So  perfectly  has  it  done  its  woi-k  that  in  favoral)]*^  localities  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  find  a  seed  that  has  not  been  killed  by  this  insect.  This  is  of  great 
importance,  foi-  if  land  is  once  cleared  of  Lantana  it  will  not  gi-ow  a<:ain. 
though  unfortunately  guava  often  springs  up  to  take  its  place. 

The   Lantana   plume-moth,''   a    small   brown   moth   about    a    half   inch    in 


^  Rlicihdncnemis  =  (SjjhcKuiiliorus)   (ih.sriiriis.  *  Ltintana   CiiiiKifd.  ^  Agromyza  sp. 

"  PlatypHUa  sp. 


a:    T 


X    o 


z 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   (JROFP.  385 

expanse,  is  also  an  important  species  in  dcstfoNini;  Lantana,  as  it  lays  its  cu^s 
at  the  base  of  the  tiower  cluster.  On  hatching',  the  minute  caterpillar  dius  a 
tunnel  under  the  flowers  and  attacks  and  destroys  them.  The  woi-k  of  this 
species  on  the  flowers  is  supplemented  by  the  work  of  two  species  of  Lantana 
butterflies"  of  the  family'^  of  gossamer-winucd  bulterfiies,  both  of  which  lay 
their  eggs  on  the  flowers  so  that  the  young  woi-nis  may  feed  on  the  l)l()ssoiiis  and 
fleshy  seed.  These  caterpillars  are  so  abundant  among  the  Lantana  of  Ihe 
low  lands  that  they  occur  in  almost  every  tiower.  The  larger  species''  has 
delicate  tails  on  the  hind  wings;  the  smaller  species  ^'^  is  without  the  tails. 

The  Lantana  leaf-minci' "  is  a  moth  that  is  also  effective,  since  it  develops 
in  the  leaves  up  to  the  pupa  or  resting  stage.  Often  as  many  as  a  half  dozen 
of  these  miners  occur  in  a  single  leaf  and  thus  produce  a  serious  drain  on  the 
plant's  vitality.  A  second  leaf  pest  is  the  Lantana  leaf-bug.^-  which,  being  a 
true  bug,  sucks  its  food.  The  young  frequent  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  and 
are  very  destructive  during  the  dry  season.  The  Lantana  gall-Hy  ^•' -also  does 
much  damage  to  the  pest  host  by  laying  its  eggs  in  the  stem  of  the  plant.  These 
form  galls  that  further  impair  the  plant's  growth. 

All  of  these  insects  were  introduced  for  a  definite  purpose  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  distinguished  entomologist  Mr.  A.  Koebele,  and  none  of  them  have 
been  observed  to  attack  other  ])lants.  This  is  the  first  example  in  the  world 
of  the  introduction  of  insects  to  prevent  the  spread  of  a  plant.  As  time 
passes,  the  success  of  this  delicate  and  difficult  piece  of  scientific  work  is  more 
and  more  fully  appreciated  by  scientists  as  well  as  citizens.  It  furnishes 
science  with  another  convincing  example  of  the  value  of  the  study  of  ento- 
mology, and  indicates  the  ])ower  of  the  subtle  influence's  in  nature  with  which  the 
biologist  is  Avont  to  deal. 

The  INIaui  Blight. 

In  speaking  of  Lantana  insects,  it  is  only  just  to  say  that  the  Lantana 
blight  or  Lantana  scale  ^"*  or  ]\Iaui  blight,  Avhich  is  the  great  tea  pest  of 
southern  Asia,  was  not  introduced  by  I\Ir.  Koebele.  It  was  first  found  at 
AVailuku,  on  Maui,  in  1889.  In  1904  it  was  noted  on  Lant^ma  on  the  wind- 
ward side  of  the  Tali,  on  Oahu.      Since  then  it  has  spread  even  into  Honolulu, 


"  Tlii'rln   sp]).  "^  Liiciviiidiv.  ^  Thi'chi   rrliiaii.  '"  Thi'clii  ar/rii. 

^^  C'reiiifistiihonihi/cia   l(int<iiii-lhi   Busek.  ^-  Tlii'lcdiu'miri   lutithiiii'.  ^'■^Eutri'to   s/Kirsd. 

'^*  Ortliezia   insiijiiis. 

DEscRri'Ttox    OF   Plate. 

1.  ^laiii  Blight  or  Lantana  Scale  (Ortliezia  insifjHi.s)  on  Ijantana.  ''A  well  known 
greenhouse  pest  of  Europe  and  America.  First  observed  on  Maui,  though  not  known  l>y  whom 
or  how  introduced.  Apjiarently  a  jtowerful  enemy  of  Lantana,  but  unfortunately  is  destructive 
also  to  a  large  variety  of  ornamental  ])lants. ' '  2.  Excrenu'ut  of  American  Toad  [Htifo  rolHin- 
biensis) .  The  Toad  feeds  very  largely  on  the  Japanese  beetle.  3.  Florida  Bed  Scale 
{Chrysomphalus  ficus)  on  Citrus  and  Palm  leaves.  4.  Lnp(U'ted  enemies  of  the  Lantana 
showing:  (a)  seed  destroyed  by  fly;  (b)  ami  (c)  buttiTllies  wlu>se  young  eat  flowers  and 
leaves;  (d)  motli  whose  young  eats  the  flowers;  (e)  injury  causes!  by  thi^  lt>af -miner;  (f) 
moth  of  the  leaf-miner  ;•,  (g)  its  pupa;  (h)  the  Lantana  leaf -bug ;  (i)  tlie  gall  and  (j)  the 
fly  producing  it.  5.  Pineapple  scale  (T)i(isj}is  hroinilii}')  on  jiineapple  leaves,  (i.  Australian 
T^advliird  beetles   introihicfil   into    Hawaii. 


386  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

where  it  occurs  as  a  pest  on  a  number  of  ornamental  plants,  most  noticeably  on 
the  species  of  Gardenia  and  Coleus. 

The  scale  has  a  white  body  and  black  head,  and  its  presence  induces  the 
growth  of  a  sooty  mould  so  that  everything  it  overruns  turns  black,  often 
leaving  whole  fields  of  Lantana  leaves  in  a  blackened  condition  as  though  run 
through  by  fire.  It  is  a  decidedly  beneficial  parasite  working  against  Lantana, 
and  were  it  not  for  its  unfortunate  tendency  to  spread  to  beneficial  and  orna- 
mental plants,  it  would  have  been  credited  with  a  large  share  of  the  laurels 
due  the  insects  that  have  given  man  the  control  over  this  plant  pest. 

The  effect  of  the  ]\laui  blight  on  Lantana-ridden  pasture  land  was  early 
recognized  by  ranchmen,  and  it  is  said  by  some  that  they  very  unwisely  aided 
in  its  spread  to  new  fields  and  to  dift'erent  islands.  Fortunately,  as  yet  it  has 
done  more  good  than  harm,  though  there  are  many  who  are  fearful  of  what 
it  may  do  in  the  future. 

Of  the  effort  of  man  to  secure  control  over  the  Lantana  in  Hawaii,  it  can 
be  said  that  the  work  done  by  scientific  men  in  seeking  out,  introducing,  breed- 
ing and  spreading  the  natural  enemies  of  this  noxious  plant  has  been  singu- 
larly successful;  so  successful,  indeed,  that  everywhere  in  the  group  the  pest 
has  been  arrested  in  its  invasion  of  the  land,  while  in  certain  localities  Lantana 
has  been  completely  routed  by  its  minute  enemies.  Brilliant  and  successful 
as  has  been  the  Lantana  campaign,  there  is  unfortunately  a  long  list  of  intro- 
duced insect  pests  ^''  for  which,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  persistent  search  has 
been  made  to  secure  them,  there  seems  to  be  no  known  effective  natural  para- 
sitic or  predaceous  enemy. 

The  ^Mediterranean  Fruit-Fly. 

As  one  of  the  most  recent  as  well  as  the  most  troublesome  introductions 
in  this  class,  the  Mediterranean  fruit-fly  ^'^  may  well  be  mentioned,  as  there  is 
scarcely  a  fruit  grown  in  Hawaii  that  is  not  attacked  by  this  pest.  It  is  about 
the  size  of  a  common  house-fl.y;  the  body  is  yellowish,  the  eyes  of  a  reddish- 
purple  tint,  and  the  back  and  wings  variously  marked  witJi  blotches  and  lines 
of  black,  yellow  and  dirty  white.  The  home  of  the  species  is  supposed 
to  be  about  the  Mediterranean,  perhaps  in  Africa,  from  whence  it  has  been 
distributed  by  commerce  to  many  lands,  among  them  Australia.  From  Aus- 
tralia the  fly  has  doubtless  been  introduced  into  Hawaii. 

The  eggs  are  inserted  by  the  female  fly  in  the  various  kinds  of  fruit  Avhen 
they  are  just  turning  ripe.  By  the  time  the  fruit  is  ripe  the  white  wriggling 
maggot  is  ready  to  emerge.  Leaving  the  fruit,  it  burrows  in  the  ground  a  short 
distance  and  forms  for  itself  a  wheat-shaped  ]inp;i  case  from  which  it  emerges 
in  a  few  days  as  an  adult. 

The  species  was  first  noticed  in  llonohdu  during  the  summer  of  lUlO.  By 
the  summer  of  1912  it  had  spread  to  all  the  large  islands  of  the  group  and  is 
now  common  wherever  fruit  is  grown. 


Among  tlicin   many  that   are  exceedingly   troul)lesonie.  i"  Cerntitis  capitata. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  387 

jNIelon-Fly. 

A  somewhat  larger  and  liandsoiiK'r,  lliough  similar  appearing  fly  pest,  is 
the  melon-fly.''  It  was  first  noticed  on  Oaliii  as  long  ago  as  1807.  and  since 
that  time  has  succeeded  in  doing  for  the  melons  and  fleshy  vegetables  what  the 
fruit-fly  has  done  for  the  fruit  of  the  islands.  They  not  only  infest  the  fi-uit, 
but  the  vines  as  well,  and  as  there  is  an  abundant  variety  of  ))lants  on  which 
they  feed,  they  ravage  the  truck  gardens  throughout  the  year. 

The  Horn-Fly  and  Other  Injurious  Flies. 

The  horn  fly  i'^  is  a  pest  of  the  live  stoclc  of  the  islands;  Ihe  damage  it 
does  is  of  equal  rank  with  the  fruit  and  melon-flies.  It  was  introduced  from 
California  in  1897,  and  within  a  year  had  spread  throughout  the  group.  In 
the  years  that  have  passed  it  has  bred  uninterruptedly,  and  the  annoyance 
caused  by  its  blood-sucking  habits  has  been  felt  by  all  the  live  stock  on  the 
Hawaiian  ranches.  Owing  to  its  vicious  bite,  a  loss  of  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  dollars  has  lieen  sustained  hy  ranchmen  through  the  shrinkage  in  weight  of 
animals  to  be  sent  to  market. 

Other  flies  that  have  more  or  less  economic  importance  are  the  stable  fly  ;^^ 
the  horse  bot-fly.-"  found  on  horses  or  about  stables;  the  sheep-head  maggot 
fly  ;-^  tw^o  flesh  flies ;--  two  bluebottle  flies  ;-^  the  sheep-maggot  fly  -^  on  sheep ; 
and  warble-flies  of  two  species  -''-  on  cattle.  The  familiar  house  fly  -"  is  every- 
where present  and  in  some  localities  al)undant,  though  it  is  kept  in  control  by 
parasites  -'''  that  make  it  their  host,  and  to  some  extent  doubtless  by  certain 
species  of  ants. 

iMoSQUITOES. 

With  the  flies  as  members  of  the  great  orch-r  Diplcfa,  should  be  considered 
the  representatives  of  the  mosquito  family.  Of  these,  three  important  mos- 
quitoes, the  night  mosquito  -^  and  the  two  day  mosquitoes,  one  -'•  with  two 
white  stripes  on  each  side  of  the  thorax,  and  the  other""  witli  one  wliite  stripe 
on  the  thorax,  are  common  in  the  islands.  They  are  so  abundant  in  certain 
localites  as  to  be  the  principal  source  of  man's  discomfort  in  Hawaii.  So  far 
they  have  not  themselves  become  innoculated  with  the  diseases  Avliicli  else- 
where they  transmit  from  one  person  to  another,  producing,  in  the  case  of  one 
of  the  day  mosquitoes, "^^  the  dreaded  yellow  fever  of  tropical  and  subtropical 
countries.  Through  the  introduction  of  natural  enemies,  as  the  mosquito  fish, 
frogs,  dragon  flies  and  the  like,  in  eonnection  with  tlie  various  camjmigns  to  do 
away  with  standing  water,  which  is  thcii-  naliiral  breeding  jilace.  all  of  the 
species  have  been  materially  reduced  in   nundjcrs  in  Honolulu,  but  they  are 


1"  Darns  cucurhitce.  '"  Ilaniidtohia  serratd.  '"  Stainoxj/s  ralcitrtnis.         ""  Oaiitrni>)iilti,i  equi. 

-1  fEstru.1  ovis.  -"  Sarriip)i(i<i(i  harbatii  and  N.  iKiHinervis,  the  latter  with  a  red  tip  to  the  abdomen. 

-^  The   European   bluebottle,    Liifiliii   sericata.   and   the   .Vmeriean   species,   L.  ccesar.        -*  Oestrus  ovis. 

^^  Uypoderma    horis  and   //.    liiienta.  -"  Miisrn   (Idniestira. 

-'  Eucoila   impatiens,   the    stable   fiy   parasite,    and   SiKduniiiii    hlrta.  -*  Ctilex  fatif/ans. 

-^  Steffonn/iit  fasciata    (Fabr)  =  .S'.   calopus    (Meigen).  '■'"  Sfii/omyia  scutelluris   (Walk.). 

^^  S.   scufellaris. 


388  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

far   from   being   luidei-    the    complete    control    that    it    was   hoped    M'onld    be 
possible. 

It  is  asserted  on  the  best  authority  that  mostiuitoes  were  unknown  in 
Hawaii  previous  to  the  year  1826.  when  the  night  tlying  species  was  brought 
from  San  Bias,  ^Mexico,  to  the  port  of  Lahaina.  on  ^Nlaui.  by  the  ship  "Welling- 
ton.'' Prior  to  the  above  date  the  Hawaiians  had  no  word  for  mosquito. 
They  almost  immediately  adopted  the  corruption  "makika"  as  the  native  name 
of  the  insect.  The  day  mosquitoes  have  been  introduced  during  the  present 
generation,  but  there  is  no  definite  record  of  the  exact  date. 

Sugar-Cane  Insects. 

While  mention  has  been  made  of  the  sugar-cane  borer  and  the  sugar-cane 
leaf-hopper  as  the  most  important  pests  of  sugar-cane,  it  is  not  to  be  assumed 
that  there  are  no  others.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  more  than  sixteen 
insects  liable  to  do  more  or  less  damage  to  the  growing  crop.  Among  them  are 
four  beetles.-"^-  The  cane  borer,  a  species  which  is  known  elsewhere,  and  is 
either  an  importation  of  man  or  a  natural  immigrant,  as  it  is  also  found  in  the 
banana,  pandanus,  cocoanut  palm  and  under  stones  in  the  mountains,  is  the 
most  important  of  this  order.  The  long-horned  beetle  -^-^  attacks  the  cane  only 
accidentally,  as  its  natural  food  is  the  decaying  wood  of  forest  trees,  while  a 
small  borer,-'-^  and  a  nitidulid  beetle,-'^  which  breeds  in  the  parts  injured  b\- 
the  mealy-bugs  and  plant  lice,  complete  the  list  of  beetles.  There  are  three 
cater])illars,''*'  including  the  sugar-cane  leaf-roller.^'  Besides  the  leaf-rollers, 
the  well-known  troublesome  peelua.-'^'*  or  grass  army-worm,  occurs  occasionally 
in  the  cane.  It  is  vei'\-  ti'oublesome  in  grass  land  at  all  seasons,  occurring  in 
millions  of  individuals  at  irregular  intervals,  working  great  havoc  in  pasture 
lands  The  four-banded  i\y  of  the  family  Ortalidce-^'^  is  sometimes  found  about 
injured  cane.  The  grasshopper  family  -^"  has  four  representatives,  the  African 
mole-cricket  ^'^  being  the  most  troublesome.  They  are  blackish-brown  insects 
an  inch  or  more  in  length,  that  are  peculiarly  fitted  for  living  in  the  ground. 
The  front  legs  are  modified  to  serve  as  very  powerful  spades  and  are  used  in 
2nuch  the  same  way  that  the  common  mole  uses  its  fore  paws.  The  mole 
cricket  feeds  on  the  tender  roots  of  various  plants,  and  where  they  are  abun- 
dant become  very  destructive.  Two  species  of  grasshoppers,  one  the  short- 
hoi-ned  grasshopper-*-  which  was  introduced  about  1878.  the  other  the  long- 
horned  species,-^-^  the  latter  species  appearing  first  in  Pauoa  Valley  about  1898, 
but  now  present  in  the  cane  fields,  as  well  as  elscnvhere.  feed  to  some  extent  on 
the  succulent  gi'owtli.  The  black  beetle-roach,  cypress  roach  "'"^  or  ground 
cockroach,  does  some  slight  damage  also. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  two  sj)ecies  of  leaf-ho|)p('r  that  occurred  in  the 
islands  prior  to  18!)2  are  found  in  the  cane  iioUU.      Thcv   iwc  known   to  have 


^- Coif o /if era.  ^'"  JEnnsoina   reflerlum.         ^*  Hapfonciix   sji.  ^^  Hi/potheiiewis  up.  ^^  Lejiidoptera. 

3"  Oiiiiodfs  acceptu,  ami  prolialily   allied  species.       ^^  Spodoptcrn    iiinuritia.       ^^  Perliaiis  Eii.ri>sta   innume. 
*"  Orthoplera.  *i  Gri/lhifdlpii  nfrirana.         *-  O.vi/a    velo.i-. 

*^  Xipfiidiuiii   itificinn  =  Xiphidiiim    rnripimtii-.  **  Eletitherodii   di/tixciiides. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  389 

been  imported,  however,  as  they  bear  no  reseiiil)l;m(M'  to  tlic  '^r-c-ii  (iivh'i-  of 
true  bu^s  ^'"^  that  occur  in  the  forests.  The  one  i)i'evi()usly  iiiciil  ioncd.  in  wliich 
the  winos  do  not  touch  each  other  doAvn  the  liaclc,  and  the  corn  Icaf-liopper.*'' 
having  the  wings  folded  closely  together  on  the  back,  ai"e  1lie  ini[)()rtant  forms. 
A  gray  sugar-cane  mealy-bug,'*'^  a  pink  sugar-cane  meal\-bug,^''^  and  a  ]>! ant- 
louse  known  as  the  sugar-cane  aphis  *'•'  are  also  members  of  the  same  great 
order.^"^  They  are  injurious  locally,  and  though  their  relatives  ai'e  more  oi'  less 
readily  kept  in  check  on  other  vegetation,  the  latter  species,  when  it  occui's  on 
cane,  hides  at  the  base  of  the  leaves  and  is  almost  inaccessible. 

It  will  be  seen  that  some  of  these  pests  l)or(^  into  the  stem  of  the  cane, 
some  eat  or  cut  the  underground  roots  or  stems,  some  eat  the  leaves,  some  suck 
the  juice  from  the  leaves  and  stems,  and  some  feed  on  the  parts  left  after  otlu-r 
species  have  had  their  fill.  Yet  in  spite  (»f  th(^  formidable  list  of  enemies  and 
the  diverse  lines  of  attack  which  they  pursue,  some  of  the  l)est  and  most  favor- 
ably located  plantations  are  able  to  harvest  as  much  as  thirteen  tons  of  raw 
sugar  of  the  finest  quality  from  an  acre  of  this  seemingly  pest-ridden  plant. 

Aphids  or  Plant-Lice. 

The  sugar-cane  aphis,-'^^  since  it  probably  occurs  throughout  the  islands 
where  cane  is  grown,  may  well  be  taken  as  the  type  of  its  family.'-  The 
aphids  ai'e  minute  insects  with  more  than  twenty  species  already  known  in  the 
islands,  all  of  which  have  been  introduced. 

]Most  of  the  species  of  plant-lice  or  aphids  in  Hawaii  occur  on  well-k'nnwn 
or  imported  plants,  and  were  doubtless  imported  with  their  host  plants.  They 
are  inconspicuous  but  are  very  injurious  on  account  of  their  innidx'i-s  and 
their  juice-sucking  habits.  They  make  up  in  nund)ers  fen-  what  they  lack  in 
size,  and  nnist  be  recognized  as  among  the  greatest  pests  with  Avhidi  the 
farmer,  gardener  and  horticulturist  has  to  contend. 

The  i)lant-lice  and  aphids  are  minute,  soft,  i)uli)y  little  creatures  with 
rather  long  antennae  and  conspicuous  round  eyes;  they  are  commonly  seen 
crowded  togeth(>r  (m  the  ends  of  stems,  the  under  side  of  leaves,  in  1)nds  and 
flowers,  in  clefts  in  the  bark  and  sometimes  even  on  the  roots  of  ])lants.  Their 
fore  Avings  are  longer  than  the  hind  ])aii'  and  repose  roof-like  over  the  hind 
l)art  of  the  body.  While  the  majority  of  them  are  green  in  coloi-.  Ihey  \arv 
greatly,  being  brown,  Idack,  red,  yellow,  and  variegated.  They  aic  usually 
named  after  the  plant  on  whicdi  they  occui"  most  abundantly.  .\s  a  I'ule,  though 
not  always,  they  conline  their  attack's  to  a  single  species  of  plant.  Among 
the  moi'c  noticeable  species  in  Hawaii  we  find  the  hanana  aphis."'-'  Ihe  Tei-n 
aphis,'^'*  the  |)aliii  aphis,"'''  the  I'ose  a|)lii.s."'''  the  corn  aphis. "'^  the  viold  a]»his,''^^ 
the  orange  a[)his  ■'•'  on  citi'us  fruit  generally,  the  (dii-ysaiithem\nn  ai)his.'''"   the 


*^  Hemiiiltiii .  *"  Perer/rinvs  iiididif:.         *~  Pseudocoiciif:  xiu'i-lm riinlii.  *"  Pxetidocnrcii.s  narchari. 

*^  A  phis  siirrhdri.         ^'"  Hcmi/iti'rd.  '■''  A/ihis  .inrrliari.  '■'- A  jiliidtr.  ••■^  Pi'titnhniia   tiij/ronerriian. 

^'''  III  io  III  mix   iii'pli  roIi'iiiiJifi.  '^''^'  ('I'riitii /iliis  liinlimiiv.  ■''^  Miicrnni  jilnitii   rn.sir.  ••'Aphis  mai(li.s. 

^^  Kliopalosiphiiiii    riolir.  ^"ili/zus  cil rirlihix.  ''"  Macrusii/hiiin   sanbvnii. 


390  NATUEAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

coffee  aphis,''^  the  bamboo  aphis, '^^  and  the  cotton  aphis, •''■'*  occurring'  on  cotton, 
Hibiscus,  cucumber,  taro,  Portulaca  and  several  other  common  plants. 

The  life  history  of  the  plant-lice  is  very  interesting,  but  is  exceedingly 
complicated.  Although  it  differs  somewhat  in  different  species,  it  is  always 
characterized  by  what  is  known  as  an  alteration  of  generations.  Thus  several 
broods  or  generations  of  a  species  will  appear  during  the  year.  Usually  the 
young  spring  from  eggs  laid  by  a  female  capable  of  producing  fertile  eggs 
without  the  intervention  of  males.  The  females  of  some  species  give  birth  to 
living  young  instead  of  laying  eggs.  The  true  males  are  generally  though 
not  always  provided  with  wings,  but  the  true  sexual  female  always  has  wings 
which  enable  her  to  carry  her  eggs  to  a  distance  and  establish  a  new  colony. 
Several  wingless  broods  will  follow  one  another  parthenogenetically,  wdien  in 
course  of  time  true  sex  individuals  will  appear  ^^  and  mate,  and  the  females  go 
elsewhere  to  establish  new  colonies.  A  little  study  and  calculation  Avill  show 
that  millions  of  individuals  may  result  from  a  single  fertilized  female  in  the 
course  of  a  very  few  months. 

The  aphids,  as  well  as  many  other  insects,  especially  the  leaf-hoppers, 
have  the  power  of  secreting  a  viscous  saccharine  substance  called  honej^-dew. 
This  they  deposit  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves  and  stems  of  plants.  It  thus 
happens  that  the  sugar-cane  aphis  and  the  sugar-cane  leaf-hopper  have  been 
directly  responsible  for  the  increase  in  the  production  of  honey  in  Hawaii, 
as  the  bees  are  very  fond  of  this  sweetish  deposit  and  gather  thousands  and 
thousands  of  pounds  of  it  annually.  In  fact,  the  bees  gather  so  much  of  this 
substance  that  it  has  been  necessary  to  give  to  this  class  of  honey  from  these 
islands  the  distinctive  name  of  "Hawaiian  honey-dew  honey,"'  since  hone.y- 
dew^  enters  so  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  local  product.  However, 
algaroba  flowers  furnish  an  immense  amount  of  fine-flavored  honey  that  finds 
a  ready  market  here  and  elsewhere. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

IMPORTANT  ECONOMIC  INSECTS:      PART  TWO. 

Scale  Insects. 

The  family  of  scale  insects  i  includes  the  mealy-bugs  and  scale-bugs,  or 
bark-lice.  Like  the  aphids,  they  were  practically  all  introduced  into  Hawaii 
with  some  of  the  host  plants  on  which  they  are  found.  They  owe  their  name 
to  the  fact  that  the  females  of  many  species  look  like  oval  or  rounded  scales 
attached  to  the  bark,  stems  or  roots  of  plants.  The  sexes  are  very  dissimilar. 
The  adult  males,  though  very  rarely  seen,  are  provided  with  one  pair  of  func- 
tional wings,  the  hind  pair  being  rudimentary.     They  have  rather  long  an- 


"^Toxoptera  nurtivtim.  ""Aphis  hambuso'.         "^  Aphis  ffoss}/pii.  8^  Usuallv   in    the   autumn. 


Coccidce. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  391 

tennte  and  distinct  eyes.  The  females  are  always  wingless  and  generally, 
though  not  always,  remain  fixed  at  some  one  spot.  In  many  species  tlie 
female  soon  dies,  leaving  her  body  as  a  protection  over  the  eggs  until  the 
young  have  hatched  and  begin  to  rove  about  in  search  of  food,  which  they 
secure  by  puncturing  the  plant  and  sucking  up  the  sap. 

Scale  insects  are  more  numerous  within  the  tropics  than  in  llie  more  tem- 
perate regions.  They  multiply  i-apidly  and  are  very  injurious  to  jolant 
life.  They  infest  a  large  number  of  fruit  and  ornamental  trees  in  the 
islands,  and  are  already  firmly  established,  w^th  representatives  of  most  if  not 
all  the  more  injurious  species  found  on  the  mainland,  as  well  as  from  Aus- 
tralia and  the  Orient.  In  spite  of  the  precautions  taken  to  prevent  their  im- 
portation, along  with  other  injurious  insects,  new  species  occasionally  gain 
an  entrance,  and  it  is  to  be  expected  that  they  Avill  continue  to  arrive  in  the 
future. 

Like  the  apliids,  their  common  name  is  generally  derived  from  the  plant 
infested  by  them,  or  at  least  the  one  on  which  they  were  first  discovered  or  on 
which  they  are  most  prevalent;  but  it  may  also  refer  to  the  color  or  shape  or 
some  peculiarity  of  the  insect.  In  addition  to  the  sugar-cane  mealy-bug 
already  noted,  we  have  the  avocado  mealy-bug,-  occurring  on  avocado,  fig 
grape,  guava,  mulberry,  soursop,  asparagus,  etc. ;  the  ivy  scale,^  the  oleander 
white-scale,^  occurring  on  oleander,  mango,  banana  and  avocado ;  the  avocado 
scale  ^  and  pineapple  scale,^  occurring  also  on  the  Canna,  Hibiscus,  and  a  list 
of  such  plants.  The  last  species  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  Pine- 
apple mealy-bug,'^  which  is  a  larger  insect  with  a  soft  body  that  is  white  all 
over  and  is  provided  with  well-developed  legs.  The  cottony  guava-scale  ^  is 
found  on  coffee,  citrus  fruit,  etc. ;  the  black  scale  ^  on  sisal  and  Ceara  rubber ; 
the  cotton  or  globular  mealy-bug.^  ^  on  cotton,  grape,  citrus  fruit,  mulberry 
and  other  plants;  the  citrus  or  common  mealj^-bug,^^  which  is  one  of  the  com- 
mon, though  by  no  means  the  only  species  of  the  class  infesting  citrus  fruit  in 
the  islands. 

Other  citrus  scales  worthy  of  mention  are  the  Florida  red-scale,^-  Avhieh 
also  infests  bananas,  mangoes  and  palm  trees,  including  the  cocoanut;  the 
green-scale^^  and  two  or  three  other  species.  The  large  cottony-scale'^  infests 
coffee,  mangoes,  oranges  and  ferns.  The  flat  black-scale  ^^  occurs  on  the 
banana,  fig,  pepper  tree  and  Ceara  rubber.  The  hemispherical  scale  ^"^  and 
palm  mealy-bug  ^'  are  species  found  on  the  palms.  Others  found  on  the  plants 
for  which  they  are  named  are  the  rose  scale. ''^  the  peach  scale,'"  the  pepper- 
tree  scale, -"^  also  found  on  wild  guava  ;  the  bamboo  scale. -^  the  croton  scale. -- 
the  pit  or  algaroba  scale, -"^  the  cottony-cushion  or  fluted  scale,-"*  on  the  black 
wattle.     The  list  might  easilv  be  extended,  but  the  foregoing  will  be  sufficient 


-  Pscudoeoccus  nipiv.  ^  Ax/ndiotus  hedertv.  *  Phenacaspis  eugenice. 

^  Aspidiotus  perseariim.  "  Diaspix  hromflifv.  ~  Psi-iidornccvx  hromelicv.  ^  Pulvinaria  psidii. 

^  Saissetia  olece.         ^^  Pseudococcus  fiUnnmldsus.         ^^  Purudoromis  citri. 
1-  Chrysomplmhoi  ficiis  =  Chrpsoniplinhis  oinii(lin)(.  ^^  Cdfcit.s  riridis.        ''^^Piilvinaria  mammece. 

'^^  Saisxefia   nigra.  ^^  Saisxetin   lifiinspfwuira.  ^'  Pseitdordrciin  sp.  '^^  Aulacaspis  roscB. 

"^^  AuUicaspis  pentagnna.  -"  Anpidiotits  hnitiniiw.  -^  Astcrolerainum  viiliaris. 

-"  Lepid<>sii]))ii's  pnlHdd.  -^  Asterulet-anium   pii.st  idini.t.  -*  Icerya   purrhiixi. 


1i     -J 

I—     "^ 

<:    i- 


c    ^ 


a:    = 

c    ~ 


I-  ,~ 

\^        O 
< 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROri\  393 

to  show  that  the  scale  insect  life  of  TTawaii  levies  a  heavy  lax  on  plant  urowlh 
in  the  islands. 

Fortunatel.N',  the  expei-ience  of  the  oi"an<ie  growers  of  Califoi'iiia  in  tlieir 
successful  attempts  at  curbing-  the  invasion  of  a  scale-'*  which  had  Iteen  acci- 
dentally introduced  from  Australia  and  had  spread  with  great  rapidity,  was 
turned  to  account  in  Hawaii.  The  plan  of  checking  injurious  insects  by  their 
natural  enemies  in  that  State,  in  the  above  instance,  was  so  signally  successful 
that  ^Ir.  A.  Koebele,  wiio  was  in  charge  of  the  woi'k,  was  induced  to  come  to 
the  islands  to  put  into  operation  the  natural  enemy  method  of  warfare  which 
has  since  avou  many  brilliant  battles  against  tlie  injui'ions  insect  pests  in  the 
interest  of  the  Territory. 

The  Ladybird  Beetles. 

Under  ]Mr.  Koebele 's  guidance,  with  the  aid  of  his  associates,  many  bene- 
ficial insects  have  been  brought  to  Hawaii  from  the  most  remote  quarters  of 
the  earth.  Few,  however,  have  been  more  generally  useful  in  their  habits  than 
those  of  the  ladybird  beetle-*^  family.  The  "ladybirds"  as  they  are  familiarly 
known,  are  snuill.  more  or  less  hemispherical  beetles  that  vary  greatly  in  coh)r, 
but  most  often  are  red,  yelloAV,  black  or  steely  blue,  and  are  usually,  though 
not  always,  mottled  or  spotted  with  bright  colors.  The  larva?  are  sometimes 
spotted,  but  nu)re  commonly  are  marked  with  warts  and  spines.  There  are 
more  than  a  thousand  species,  some  of  which  are  found  in  the  native  fauna  of 
almost  every  part  of  the  world  except  Hawaii.  As  most  of  the  species  are 
predaceous,  both  in  the  adult  and  larval  form,  and  are  especially  fond  of  the 
plant  aphids,  mealy  bugs  and  scales,  their  introduction  into  the  islands  has 
been  going  on  steadily  for  years.  A  long  list  has  been  liberated,  and  the  indi- 
viduals have  established  themselves  to  such  an  extent  that  there  is  scarcely 
an  ornamental  plant,  fruit  or  shade  tree  in  Hawaii  on  which  these  useful 
insects  cannot  be  found  by  a  close  observer,  at  some  time  during  the  day.  The 
more  common  species  have  suggestive,  descriptive  names  that  aid  the  observer 
in  his  efforts  to  identify  the  insects  at  sight.  Among  those  easil\'  recognized 
are  the  yellow-shouldered  ladybird,-"  the  ten-spotted  ladybird.-^  llie  vedjilia 
ladybird,--'  which  was  fii'st  successfully  introduced  from  Austi-alia  into  Cali- 
fornia to  feed  on  the  fluted  scale,  and  from  there  brought  to  Hawaii  as  earl\-  as 


-"  Icerya  purchani.  -'^  Cuccineltiilir.  "'  I'liitniniiiit.-  Uridis/astfr.  -^  Cocl(i}ilinr(j  jiiiiiillatn. 

^^  Novius  cardinaliK. 

Dbscriptiox    of   Plate. 

1.  Kamehameha  Butterfly  {Vanessa  iammcamca).  2.  KMincliamclia  liiitterfly  {Vanessa 
iammeamea)  inverted.  3.  Cabbage  Butterly  {Pontia  rapa').  4.  ('al)l)aire  Butterfly  {Ponfia 
^■apa')  inverted.  5.  Dragon  Fly  {Anax  Junius).  6.  Pantala  /lavesccns.  7.  Sj/tnpetruni 
blackburni.  8.  Periplaneta  americana.  9.  Oxya  velox.  10.  Brachymctopa  diseolor.  11. 
Xyphidium  raripenne.  12.  Atraciomorpha  erenaiiecps.  13.  Elim(jea  ajipcndieulata.  14. 
Paratenodera  sinensis;  (Egg  case).  1.1.  Paratenodera  sinensis.  16.  GnjJhttidpa  africana. 
17.  Leueophcfa  .surinanesis.  1(S.  Eleutheroda  di/tiseoides.  19.  EuHii/nliajiha  parifica.  20. 
PliyUodromia  hieroolijhica.  21.  Eleutheroda  di/tiscoides.  22.  EleuiJieroda  dyti.ieoides  ; 
(Nymph).  23.  GnjUodes  poeyi.  24.  Periphaneta  australasice.  2.").  Atractomarpha  crenati- 
ceps. 

24 


394  NATURAL   HISTOEY   OF   HAWAII. 

1887;  the  steel-bhie  hidybird.-^"  the  ocheroiis  ladvbird,-^^  the  eight-marked  lady- 
bird''- and  the  mealy-bug  or  "Brownie"  ladybird.-^-^ 

The  Japanese  Beetle. 

While  the  ladybirds  belong  to  a  famil\-  in  the  order  of  beetles.-'^  and  are 
among  the  most  beneficial  members  of  that  great  order,  they  are  by  no  means 
so  typical  in  appearance  as  is  the  injurious  Japanese  beetle,35  ^yjiieh  is  an  ex- 
ceediugiy  troublesome  and  aggressive  pest  in  orchards,  gardens  and  door- 
yards.  By  reason  of  its  ravenous  appetite  for  the  leaves  of  certain  plants,  espe- 
cially roses,  foliage  plants,  strawberries,  grapes,  cotton,  tobacco,  certain  grasses 
and  a  long  list  of  other  cultivated  trees,  shrul)s  and  plants,  it  is  one  of  Hawaii's 
worst  introduced  pests. 

They  are  ordinary -looking,  grayish-brown  beetles,  a  little  over  a  half  inch 
in  length,  with  a  broad  flat  head.  They  are  night  feeders,  hiding  by  day  under 
the  loose  earth  about  the  roots  of  plants  and  under  boards  and  rubbish.  ^Nlany 
attempts  have  been  nuule  to  rid  the  country  of  this  pest  since  it  first  became 
troublesome  about  1890.  Perhaps  the  most  successful  enemy  has  been  a  certain 
fungus  that  has  now  been  well  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  group.  Like  all 
fungi,  it  is  a  plant  of  low  order  which  grows  in  threads.-^''  After  a  certain 
period  of  growth  some  of  these  threads  "fruit,"  producing  small  sacks  packed 
full  of  minute  granules  known  as  spores.  The  spores  are  very  light  and  small, 
and  are  bloAvn  about  or  carried  l)y  birds  and  insects.  Some  fungi  are  inju- 
rious, especially  such  species  as  grow  on  tlie  mango  and  the  coffee,  but  the 
one  in  question  is  beneficial,  since  it  grows  in  the  body  of  the  Japanese  rose 
beetle  and,  if  conditions  are  favorable  as  to  moisture  and  so  on,  it  will  event- 
ually kill  the  insect.  Dead  beetles  show  the  whitish  or  greenish  fungi  about 
the  numerous  joints  of  the  body  and  legs.  In  a  few  days  after  death  the  spores 
develop  and  tlie  fungus  turns  greenish  and  the  disease  is  then  readily  commu- 
nicated from  the  dead  infected  insects  to  healthy  ones. 

The  disease  can  be  easily  distributed  by  simply  caj^turing  a  supply  of 
beetles  and  placing  them  in  a  secure  box  partly  filled  with  moist  earth.  The 
box  should  be  set  in  a  eool,  shady  jilaee  and  the  insects  fed  on  any  of  the 
weeds  or  plants  of  which  they  are  fond.  "When  they  die  and  the  greenish  mold 
appears,  the  dead  beetles  should  be  mixed  together  with  dry  earth  and  sand 
and  distributed  a])out  the  garden  or  under  bushes  attacked  by  the  beetles. 

Fuller's  Rose  Beetle. 

Fuller's  rose-beetle,-"^"  or  the  "]\Iaui"  or  "Olinda"  beetle,  introduced  from 
America,  is  an  oval  black  snout-beetle  about  a  half  inch  in  length  that,  by 
reason  of  the  extensive  range  of  its  food  plants  of  native  and  introduced 
species,  makes  it  a  serious  pest.  The  only  parasite  so  far  a  known  is  the 
larvae  of  a  certain  click  beetle  introduced  to  feed  upon  it.     Toads  have  doubt- 


^''  Orciis  chab/heus.         ^^  Chilocorus  (•irciimdatiis.         ^~  Coelophora  inasnualis. 
"3  Cryptolmmus  montrouzicri.  ^^  Coleoptera.        ^^  Adoretus  tenuimaculatus.        ^^  Mycelia. 

^~Ararniffvs  fuUeri. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  395 

less  had  a  beneficial  effect,  however,  and  the  pest  is  not  so  serious  as  in  former 
years. 

J\Iany  species  of  smallci-  introduced  beetles  do  more  oi-  less  daniiiuc  to 
various  cultivated  plants  or  stored  commodities.  Among  the  more  common,  or 
those  liable  to  attract  attention,  are  the  rice  weevil,-'*^  the  coffee-bean  weevil.-'-* 
the  rust-red  flour  beetle  ^*^  on  rice,  the  sisal  weevil  ;"^i  the  cadelle  beetle,-*-  a 
whitish  grub  destructive  to  stored  products,  as  rice;  the  tobacco  leaf -beetle,'*^ 
the  carpet  beetle,^-'  the  cigarette  beetle  ;^''  the  mango  weevil,-*'^  supposed  to  have 
been  introduced  in  1903;  the  bean  weevil,^''  the  common  ground  lieetle,'"'  tlu^ 
algaroba  bean  weevil, ■*•'  and  the  algaroba  pod  weevil,-"''^  both  feeding  on  alga- 
roba  beans.  In  addition  there  are  long-horned  beetles  of  several  species  on 
algaroba,  black  wattle  and  various  other  trees,  as  well  as  numerous  species  of 
bark  beetles — but  a  sufficient  number  have  been  enumerated  to  indicate  the 
nature  of  the  imported  pests  in  this  order  of  insects. 

Leaf-Rolling  IMotiis. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  sugar-cane  leaf-roller  ^^  as  an  injurious  moth 
belonging  to  the  order  Lepidoptera.  With  it  might  be  considered  the  cocoanut 
leaf-roller,-''-  which  is  especially  destructive  to  the  cocoanut  leaves,  and  the 
common  banana  leaf-roller,-''''^  one  of  the  four  species  that  infest  the  banana 
plants  to  some  extent.  All  three  are  native  species  belonging  to  a  genus  of 
twelve  or  more  species  of  fair-sized,  brown  moths  that  occur  in  Hawaii  and 
nowhere  else,  and  that  are  peculiar  in  their  leaf-rolling  habits.  The  larvie  oi- 
caterpillar  of  all  species  are  very  similar  in  appearance,  varying  in  size  in 
proportion  to  the  adult.  They  feed  voraciously  on  the  green  leaves  during  the 
period  of  growth  and  fold  the  leaf  by  fastening  two  portions  together  with 
silken  threads.  When  full  groAvn,  which  requires  three  or  four  weeks  usually, 
they  change  to  the  pupa  within  the  folded  leaf  and  remain  dormant  for  one  or 
two  weeks. 

The  ragged,  unsightly  edges  on  palm  leaves,  especially  of  the  cocoanut 
palm,  is  the  result  of  the  work  of  this  leaf-roller.  As  it  is  abundant,  and  the 
largest  species  of  the  genus,  it  is  readily  collected  and  studied.  The  egg- 
masses,  with  thirty  to  eighty  eggs  in  a  cluster,  are  placed  along  the  inidi-ib 
on  the  new  leaves  as  they  open.  As  from  four  to  six  broods  are  reared  in  a 
year,  the  work  of  defoliation  continues  as  rapidly  as  the  palm  puts  out  new 
leaves.  The  mynah  bird  is  very  fond  of  the  larva3  of  the  palm  leaf-i-ollcr  and 
without  doubt  helps  to  reduce  their  numbers. 

The  bean  leaf-i-ollcr -''^  feeds  on  several  species  of  native  hcaiis.  iiirJiuling 
the  wiliwili,  and  to  some  extent  on  garden  beans.  In  feediim  llif\-  hold  the 
heaves  together  with  a  silken  thread  and  eat  the  inner  siii-faee  (if  the  Ic.-if, 
leaving  the  outer  surface  undisturbed. 

Some  of  the  species  of  this  genus,  ineluding  the  sugar-cane  leaf-rollei-.  are 


'^  Calandra   orj/za>.         ^^Arwcc.'^ii.i  fa.srii-iildtiis.  ^^  Tribolimii  fen-in/iiicii»i.         *^  I'xfiiddlus  loiii^iihis. 

*-  Tenehroides  muritanirvs.      *^  Epitrix  parriilfi.  ^*  Anthreiiim  scrojjluilnria'. 

^^  Lasiodermn  serrirorne.         *"  Criiptorhync)ius  mnnniferrc.         *~  liriicliiis  prosoins. 

■**  Ompntrinn  scrratiim.  *"  liriirliiif!  prn.sopi.s.  •'"  Cnri/nbonis   f/oyiiu/rti.  '''  Omiodes  ncceptn. 

^-  Omiodes  hlncliburni.         ^^  Omiodes  mcyricki.  ^'*  Omiodes  )nonot/o)ia. 


396  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

grass  feeders,  while  two  species  feed  exclusively  on  sedges.  The  genus  Omiodes 
have  been  extensively  studied  by  economic  entomologists,  who  find  the  cater- 
pillars of  the  species  are  attacked  by  a  number  of  parasites,  some  of  which  are 
native,  liut  several  of  the  most  valuable  have  been  introduced.  The  cane  leaf- 
roller  and  the  palm  leaf-roller  are  the  two  most  injurious  species.  The  para- 
sites do  much  good,  but  at  certain  seasons,  especially  in  winter,  and  in  certain 
localities  the  cateri>illars  get  the  start  of  their  enemies,  and  one  or  two  broods 
appear  before  parasites  are  abundant  enough  to  check  them. 

Sometimes  as  high  as  ninety  per  cent  of  the  caterpillars  are  found  to  be 
parasitized.  One  might  ask,  "Why  are  they  not  completely  exterminated  or, 
at  least,  why  do  they  continue  to  do  so  much  damage!"  The  answer  seems 
to  be  that,  although  they  have  many  enemies  that  prey  upon  them,  they  are 
still  prolific  enough  to  overbalance  their  enemies.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate 
the  damage  they  would  do  were  they  entirely  free  from  their  burden  of 
parasites. 

Cutworms. 

Cutworms  of  various  species  are  a  serious  agricultural  drawd^ack,  as  they 
attack  corn,  tobacco,  cotton,  cabbage,  wdieat  and  other  useful  plants,  nipping 
the  young  plants  off  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  before  they  have  fairly  started. 
There  are  several  species  of  these  night  maraudei's.  but  they  all  belong  to  a 
family  of  owlet  moths  or  Xoctuids  (Xocfuidfp),  one  of  the  largest  groups  of 
the  order  Lepidoptera.  They  feed  at  night  in  the  larval  stage  and  fly  by  night 
in  the  adult  stage,  often  being  attracted  by  lights.  The  fact  that  their  eyes 
shine  brighly  in  a  dim  light  and  that  they  are  seldom  seen  in  the  daytime  has 
resulted  in  the  populai'  name  for  the  adults,  while  the  unfortunate  haliit  of  the 
larvjv  has  given  them  the  unenviable  name  of  cutworms.  The  species  are 
mostly  small-sized,  dull-colored  moths.  The  most  troublesome  species  in  Ha- 
waii are  the  widely-known  and  doubtless  introduced  black  or  corn  cutworm  ^^ 
with  the  hind  wings  greenish;  and  a  second  si^eeies.  a  large  native  cutworm,'^*'' 
with  fuscous-colored  hind  wings,  both  being  plentiful  on  corn  and  other  field 
crops.  A  third  species  known  as  the  small  native  cutworm  "'"  is  also  common. 
They  are  kept  in  check  in  Hawaii  to  some  extent  by  their  natural  enemies, 
which  include  both  parasites  and  birds,  but  as  there  are  two  or  three  dozen 
native  species,  the  caterpillars  of  all  of  Avhich  resend)le  each  other  and  have 
similar  habits,  it  is  difficult  to  identify  the  spices  that  feeds  on  the  various 
crops  and  weeds,  even  when  adult  specimens  are  securetl. 

Army- Worms. 

The  widel.v-known  ai'iiiy-worm,"''^  with  its  cousins  the  grass  army-worms, ^'^ 
at  times  do  much  damage  to  grass  and  forage  crops.  They  appear  in  great 
numbers  occasionally,  and  after  destroying  the  vegetation  in  the  field  where 


^^Ar/rotis  ypsilon         ^"  Ai/roHti  criiiii/fra.  ^~  Ar/rofis  dixlorntri .         •'''*  Ifi'liniiliihi    iniiinnictn. 

5i»  Spodoptera    mauritia    and   Spodoptera   exiyua. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   (iROUP.  397 

they  hatch  fi'oiii  the  eggs,  they  march  like  an  anny  to  other  fiekls.  'I'lic  woi'iii 
of  the  coninioii  species,  which  occiu's  in  America  and  elsewhere,  is  ;iii  inch  and 
a  half  in  lengtli  when  fnll  urown  and  is  striped  with  l)lac]\,  yelloAv  and  green. 
The  adull  niotli  is  dnll  Ijtowii  in  eolor,  niarlvcd  in  the  center  of  cacli  foi-c-wing 
witli  a  small  distinct  white  spot.  The  two  species  of  grass  army-worms  occur- 
ring here  are  widely  distribnted,  especially  in  the  Pacitie  islands  and  con- 
tinents. 

The  Hau  Moth. 

The  hau  moth  ''"  is  also  a  Avide-ranging  species  occun-ing  in  Africa,  south 
Asia  and  Fiji.  It  can  scarcely  be  separated  by  the  layman  from  another  more 
local  species.  However,  as  it  confines  its  depredations  quite  closely  to  th-' 
hau  and  allied  plants,  it  can  be  recognized  as  the  small  brown  moth  Avhich 
develops  from  the  caterpillar  that  feeds  so  voraciously  on  the  leaves  of  that 
picturesque  tree.  Its  principal  enemy  is  an  ichncmmon  fly  that  destroys  them 
by  depositing  its  eggs  in  the  body  of  the  caterpillar. 

LOOPERS. 

Several  species  of  measuring  worms  or  si)an  worms,  belonging  to  the 
family  Hijdrionx  )uda%  occur  in  the  islands.  The  koa  is  often  attacked  by 
them  and  the  trees  seriously  defoliated,  but  so  far  as  known  they  are  not  a 
serious  economic  pest.  A  species  of  the  group  Plitsiada',  known  as  the  corn 
looper.''^  or  green  garden  looper  or  owlet  moth,  attacks  wheat  and  corn  and 
other  plants,  often  fraying  the  leaves  to  a  considerable  extent. 

The  larvcp  of  the  kolu-bush  moth  ''-  are  to  be  found  in  the  pods  which 
follow  the  beautiful  little  golden  ball-like  blossoms.  They  feed  upon  the  seed 
and  doubtless  keep  this  thorny  shrub  from  spreading  as  rapidly  as  it  otherwise 
would. 

The  Silkworm. 

An  exceedingly  useful  insect,  long  ago  introduced  into  Hawaii,  is  the  silk- 
worm.''-^ The  first  specimens  were  imported  by  the  missionaries  with  a  view 
to  encouraging  the  natives  to  take  up  this  form  of  productive  occupation.  The 
experiment  was  given  up,  however,  before  anything  definite  came  of  it.  Some 
say  that  the  pious  and  faithful  observance  of  the  Sabbath  as  taught  1)\-  the 
Christian  fathers  prevented  the  natives  from  gathering  the  fresh  leaves  to 
feed  the  worms  on  that  day. 

More  recent  experiments  have  ])rovi'd  be\-ond  a  doubt  thai  silk  of  a  good 
(juality  can  be  pi-odiiced  in  Hawaii  with  as  little  effort  as  in  any  silk-  eountry 
in  the  world.  The  mulherry.  especially  the  white  iiinlbet-ry.''^  does  well  in 
Hawaii.  As  the  leaves  of  this  plant  are  the  favoi-itc^  food  o|'  the  worms,  it  is 
anticipated  that  silk  cultni-e  will  yei  flourish  in.  the  islands  as  one  of  the  home 
occupations  for  the  eiiq)loynient   of  women  and  children. 


«"  Co.swo/ihihi   xdhiilifcrn.  "'  PliLitu   rhnlritex.  •>-  Cri/jildjililcliid    ilh/'idii.         «'<  Bo)iiby.v  mori. 

^*  ilonis  alhn. 


xn 

> 


C-,        ^ 


;?; 


X 


--     o 


O     « 


C     o 


cc 
a; 


<; 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  399 

The  newly-hatched  larvit  of  tlie  silkworm  is  black  or  dark  gray  and  cov- 
ered with  long,  stiff  hairs.  But  as  the  worm  moults  it  becomes  lighter  and 
lighter  in  color  until  during  the  last  of  the  larval  period  it  is  creamy  white. 
The  cocoon  is  spun  by  the  worm  about  itself  as  a  protection  and  a  retreat  in 
which  to  pupate.  It  ranges  in  color  through  several  shades  of  white,  green 
cream  and  rose,  and  varies  greatly  in  size.  To  secure  the  silk  the  cocoons 
are  heated  in  water  or  in  an  oven  until  the  insect  is  killed ;  the  end  of  the 
thread  is  then  secured  and  the  cocoon  unwound.  The  adult  insect  is  a  beau- 
tiful creamy  white  moth  with  two  or  more  distinct  brownish  lines  across  the 
fore  wing,  and  with  the  abdomen  and  thorax  thickly  covered  with  wooly  scales. 

From  two  to  three  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era,  probably  five 
thousand  years  ago,  the  silkworm  was  well  and  favorably  known  in  the  Far 
East  where,  in  China,  silk  culture  was  a  well-established  industry. 

The  Cabbage  Butterfly. 

The  slender  green  cabbage-w^orm  in  due  time  becomes  a  cabbage-butter- 
fly,'^^ and  is  the  white  butterfly  commonly  seen  about  gardens  in  the  islands. 
It  was  doubtless  introduced  from  America,  wdiere  it  has  long  been  an  intro- 
duced pest.  It  was  first  observed  in  the  islands  about  1900,  and  is  therefore 
known  as  the  imported  cabbage  worm.  The  species  is  kept  under  control  in 
Hawaii  by  parasites,  among  them  a  very  ininute  fly.'^*' 

The  Sweet  Potato  ?Iorn-Worm. 

A  conspicuous  insect,  liable  to  attract  attention,  first  in  the  larval  state,  as 
the  large  green  or  brownish  horn-worm  on  sweet  potato,  and  certain  morning- 
glory  vines,  and  later  as  the  humming-bird  moth  that  flies  about  our  electric 
lights,  is  in  reality  the  sweet  potato  sphinx-moth  or  sweet  potato  horn-worm.^^ 
The  worm-like  caterpillars  often  attain  a  length  of  three  or  four  inches  and 
are  voracious  feeders,  stripping  the  leaves  from  the  plants  infested.  The  moth, 
by  reason  of  its  size  and  the  whirring  noise  produced  by  its  wings,  is  usually 
called  the  humming-bird  moth.  It  measures  about  three  and  a  half  inches 
across  the  extended  wings,  and  is  tlu^  largest  common  motli  in  the  islands. 

The  Cotton  Boll-Worm. 

The  cotton  plant  in  Hawaii,  if  it  successfully  survives  the  attacks  of  stem 
maggots,  wireworms,  cutworms,  aphids,  Japanese  beetles,  mealy  bugs,  scales 
and  leaf-rolling  caterpillars  is  liable  at  last  to  the  attacks  of  the  ])ink  cotton 


"^  Pieris  rapce.         '^'^  Tachimd.  ^''  Protopnrce  ■=  (Sphinx)  ronrolviiH. 


Descriptiox  of  Plate. 

1.  Spliiiix,  or  nuiiiiiung-bird  Motli  (Si'Jun.r  connilridi).  2.  Ddlrpltildlincata.  ,3.  Deile- 
■phila  caVida.  4.  Agroiis  crinitjera.  5.  Fi/raJis  niauritialis.  6.  Amorbia  emifjratclhi.  7. 
Liica'iui  hofiica.  8.  Lycwiia  hoetica  (inverted).  9.  Ellimia  colondla.  10.  Siphanta  acutd. 
11.  FerMnsiella  saccharicida.  12.  Pcregrinits  maidas.  IM.  Zelus  rennrdii.  14.  Qichalia 
grifica.  !'>.  Coleotichus  blarlhunnd:  Hi.  Slater  or  Pill-lnio;  (Porcellin  scaher).  17.  Ani- 
solahis  annidipr.s.  18.  Scorpion  {Isonwtrus  macidatus).  19.  Centipede  (Scolopendra  ra- 
pCHs).     eo.    .^rillilled(>    (Species  indet.). 


400  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

boll-worm, '^^  which  is  by  far  the  most  destructive  enemy  of  the  cotton  plant. 
There  seems  to  lie  no  doul)t  but  that  it  was  introduced  directly  or  indirectly 
from  India  within  comparatively  recent  times.  It  does  the  damage  in  the 
caterpillar  stage,  when,  as  its  name  implies,  it  attacks  and  feeds  on  the  lint  and 
seed  of  the  cotton  in  the  ball  before  it  is  open,  practically  destroying  the  boll 
so  far  as  its  lint  is  concerned.  The  moth  is  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
across  the  expanded  wings,  and  is  soft  gray-brown  in  color,  with  darker 
markings;  the  fringe  on  the  hind  wings  being  wider  and  paler  brown  than  on 
the  front  wings. 

Lice. 

The  various  flies  that  annoy  human  beings  and  their  domestic  animals  have 
been  briefly  mentioned  above,  but  other  introduced  niiimal  pests  occur  and  are 
as  troublesome  here  as  elsewhere.  Among  them  are  a  number  of  species  of 
lice.  The  term  "lice"  is  loosely  applied  to  representatives  of  two  orders  of 
insects.  Those  occurring  on  poultry  and  wild  birds  are  properly  called  bird- 
lice,*^^  although  some  species  infest  sheep  and  goats  also.  They  are  wingless 
parasitic  insects  with  biting  mouth-parts  enabling  them  to  feed  upon  and  live 
among  the  bird's  feathers.  The  turkey-louse'"  and  the  chicken-louse  ai-e 
examples  of  this  class.  The  family  Pedicuke,  including  the  true  lice,  belongs 
to  a  sub-order  "1  of  the  great  order  Heniiptera  and  includes  certain  parasites 
of  man  and  other  aninuds.  They  differ  from  the  bird-lice  in  having  sucking 
mouth-parts.  They  live  among  the  hair  of  their  host  aiiiina!.  feeding  on  its  IjIooI. 
Three  species  are  known  that  are  parasitic  on  man;  one  lives  in  the  hair  on  the 
head^-  and  two,  a  body  louse '-^  known  as  the  "gray-liack"  and  the  crab- 
louse,'^^  on  the  body.  While  the  more  common  species  elsew^here  are  those 
found  on  tlie  liorse  or  a  second  species  occurring  on  the  cow,  they  have  not  as 
yet  been  reported  in  Hawaii.  Almost  every  animal  has  a  species  of 
louse,  though  they  are  not  always  attached  to  all  host  animals.  The  hog-louse,'-'' 
for  example,  is  reported  as  occurring  here  in  limited  numbers,  while  other 
species  doubtless  to  be  found  licre  have  not  yet  been  taken. 

Ticks  and  INIites. 

It  should  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  that  ticks  are  often  confused 
in  the  popular  mind  with  lice,  although  they  more  properly  belong  with  a 
distinct  division  of  the  branch"''  of  the  animal  kingdcmi  which  includes  the 
insects,  spiders,  scorpions,  centipedes,  crabs  and  lobsters.  In  all  of  these  the 
body  is  composed  of  a  series  of  segments  joined  together,  with  some  of  the 
segments  bearing  jointed  legs.  In  the  order  ^"  to  which  the  mites  and  ticks 
belong  the  abdomen  is  unsegmented  and  is  united  to  the  thoi-ax,  giving  the 
body  a  sack-like  appeai'ance. 

The  ordei-  including  the  mites  is  represented  in  HaAvaii.  but  as  yet  only 


^>^  (jclerhifi    c/ossi/iiirthi.  "''  Mdlhiiiliiiiia.  '"  (i oniodi's  fiti/li/i-r.         '^  Pornxitii.  ''- Pcdirulds  cnjiitex. 

''^  Pedicidus    vestuitcHtii.         '*  Plifliinis  iiiihis.         '^  Ha'>notojnnii.i   in-iiin.  '^"  A  rflirc/Kida. 

"'''  A  carina. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  TTTE   GROIP.  401 

nine  species,  all  belonp-inp:  to  one  family,'''^  have  been  determined,  six  of  wliidi 
are  already  known  from  the  British  Isles.  Hnt  as  tlie  largest  species  '■'  is  hut 
a  millimeter  in  length  and  has  only  been  reported  fi-om  Kona.  on  Hawaii.  1h('\- 
are  too  small  to  attract  attention  from  collectors.  A,s  they  occur,  li()\vc\cr,  it 
is  well  to  know  that  the  common  species  •'^"  appears  to  l)e  generally  distributed 
throughout  the  mountains  of  the  group. 

]\Iost  of  the  ticks  are  small  eight-legged  creatures,  though  the  number  of 
legs  vaiy  with  age  and  the  mode  of  life  of  the  parasite.  The  chicken  mite  is  an 
example  that  occurs  in  Hawaii  on  poultry;  the  dog-tick  "^^  on  the  dog:  the  so- 
called  red  spider'^-  occurring  on  cottcm  plants,  and  the  true  itch  mite,*^-'  causing 
an  irritation  of  the  skin  of  liuman  beings  known  as  itch,  are  well-known 
examples  of  the  species  of  the  order. 

Fleas. 

The  ilea  is  a  tiny  insect  belonging  to  the  order  Siplioiiaph  ra.  and  is  sug- 
gestive of  the  household  pests  of  which  Hawaii  has  its  full  quota.  As  has  lieen 
the  case  with  the  insects  affecting  the  field,  forage  and  garden  plants  and  our 
domestic  animals,  the  household  pests  have  practically  all  been  introduced 
since  the  islands  were  discovered.  Fleas  wei'e  among  the  early  arrivals,  and 
may  be  said  to  abound  in  certain  localities,  especially  dry  elevated  places.  Tlie 
native  name  (Ukulele)  for  a  "jumping  louse"  was  (nirly  applieJ  to  this 
tormenter.  which  is  one  of  the  few  insects  it  is  not  necessary  to  see  in  order 
to  identify.  AVhile  they  occur  about  houses  and  l)ite  the  inmates  and  their 
pets,  the  species  most  commonly  captured  are  the  cat-flea  or  the  dog-Hi^a,'^-' 
though  the  comou  human  species'^''  doubtless  occurs. 

Plague  Carried  by  Fleas. 

One  of  the  many  jjrilliaut  medical  achieveinents  for  wliich  the  closing 
years  of  the  last  century  were  especially  noted,  was  the  discovery  that  the  flea 
that  lives  on  the  common  rat  is  resi)onsil)le  for  the  spread  of  the  di-ead  bubonic 
or  black  plagu(\  It  has  been  proved  over  and  over  again  that  rats  (li<'  of  this 
disease  and  tliat  the  fleas  which  infest  them  and  feed  on  theii-  blood  di-aw  the 
minute  organism  causing  the  disease  into  their  bodies  in  such  a  way  that  they 
can  communicate  the  plague  to  other  rats  and  to  other  animals,  amoni:  them 
man.  1)y  their  bite.  Cases  are  on  recoi'd  where  death  from  plague  has  l)een 
traced  to  its  origin  only  to  fiiul  that  it  came  from  ilea  bites.  Fleas  usually 
leave  the  carcass  of  a  rat  that  has  dunl  of  plagu(>  and  at  the  first  o]i]iortunity 
take  u]i  their  abode  on  some  living  animal,  as  the  c;it  oi'  doi;.  From  these  pets 
they  are  easily  transfei-red  to  their  mastei's.  with  the  I'esult  thai  tlieii'  bile  may 
convey  the  miiuite  )nieroseopic  organism^''  that  causes  plaiiue  in  the  human 
body.  Flague  has  appeared  on  more  than  one  occasion  in  Hawaii.^"  aiul  to  all 
appearances  has  been  successfully  slampiMl   out.     Xevertheless.   it   is  well  for 


"*  Orihatidce.         ""  Oribrifa  nrifnnnis.         s"  Neotiodes  thcli'pfocfiis.         ^'  Rhipicephaltis  xanniiineiix. 

"-  Tetraiiychus  sp.         "•''  Sarfoptt'x  xrabei.         >**  Ctenocpphalus  canis  =  Pule.r  ranis.         '^^  Pulex  irritatis-. 

^^  Bacilus  pestcs.  *"  Xotiibly  (hirinK  tile  winter  of  1900. 


402  NATUKAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

people  living  in  the  tropics  to  rid  their  premises  of  rats  and  to  keep  at  respect- 
ful distances  from  pet  animals  that  may  feed  npon  them. 

Cockroaches. 

]\Iosquitoes  and  flies  as  domestic  pests  have  been  mentioned  as  members 
of  the  order  Diptera,  and  have  been  discussed  in  another  connection.  Cock- 
roaches, of  Avhich  there  are  several  introduced  species,  are  annoying  pests. 
Two  species,  the  American  ^^^  and  the  Australian  ^'-^  cockroach,  are  both  found 
in  houses,  most  commonly  infesting  kitchens  and  pantries,  attacking  provisions 
of  all  kinds  besides  doing  much  damage  to  book  bindings  in  the  library.  They 
emit  a  disgusting  smell  and  are  otherwise  objectionable  to  everyone.  They 
resemble  one  another  very  closely,  but  vary  in  color  and  appearances  as  they 
develop.  The  American  species  is  about  two  inches  in  length,  the  latter  a 
trifle   smaller. 

Bedbugs  and  Other  Bugs. 

The  bedbug,^*^  as  everyone  knows,  is  a  nocturnal  insect.  It  occurs  the 
world  over  and,  therefore,  is  occasionally  found  in  HaAvaii.  It  seems  that, 
although  it  has  very  rudimentary  wings,  it  has  nevertheless  been  able  to  keep 
up  with  the  march  of  human  progress.  They  haA'e  certain  characteristics  that 
make  them  members  of  the  order  of  true  bugs.'^^  In  the  same  order  are  placed 
the  torpedo-bug,'^-  a  green-winged,  long,  pointed  leaf-hopper,  injurious  to 
mangoes,  guava  and  coffee,  and  the  more  attractively-named  Hawaiian  kiss- 
ing-bug.-'2  which  in  reality  is  the  common  assassin-bug  that  first  appeared  in 
the  islands  about  1897.  Since  then,  contrary  to  the  character  its  local  name  seems 
to  imply,  it  has  maintained  a  reputation  as  a  fierce  carnivorous  bug,  feeding 
among  other  things,  on  ladybirds,  leaf-hoppers  and  aphids,  without  discrim- 
ination between  the  beneficial  and  injurious  insects. 

White  Axts. 

The  termites,  more  commonly  termed  white  ants,'*^  that  at  certain  seasons 
fly  about  in  large  swarms  and  at  all  seasons  bore  into  the  timbers  of  houses, 
are  not  ants,  nor  are  they  more  than  remotely  related  to  the  true  ants.  They 
have  been  placed  by  many  entomologists,  by  reason  of  all  four  wings  being 
equal  in  size,  form  and  structure,  in  a  separate  order.^^  It  is  true  that  they 
have  certain  social  habits  that  are  similar  to  the  ant's,  but  their  structure  is 
very  different,  as  anyone  can  see  by  comparing  the  two  insects.  Their  com- 
munities are  made  up  of  many  individuals  that  have  a  definite  part  of  the 
colony  work  to  do.  Each  class  is  fitted  by  nature  with  special  reference  to  the 
task  it  must  perform.  Kings,  queens,  soldiers  and  workers  live  together  in 
their  many-chambered  nests.  Their  nests  are  hollowed  out  of  the  timbers  in 
which  thev  carefullv  eat   out  the  interior,  leaving  an   outer  shell  in  such  a 


f>»  Periplaneta  americana.         ^^  Periplnneta  aiistralamcr.  ^°  Cimex  lectularius.         ^'^  Hemiptera. 

*-  Siphanta  acuta.         "^  Zelus  renardii.         ^*  Calotermes  marginipennis.         *s  Isoptera. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  403 

manner  as  to  exclude  the  li^lit.  In  this  hidden  yvay  they  do  a  ^reat  many 
thousand  dollars'  worth  of  damage  to  houses  in  Hawaii  every  vear.  In  some 
cases  the  heart  of  the  timbers  that  formed  the  building  have  been  so  badly 
eaten  that  in  time  the  structure  has  actually  fallen  in  pieces,  leaving  only  a 
sad  heap  of  ruins  as  a  ni(Minmont  to  1lio  silent  industry  of  ihoso  dcslriu'tiv*' 
creatures. 

SiLVERFISH. 

►Silveriish,  lish-moths,  or  bristletails '■"'  are  everywhert'  houschohl  ]>esls, 
and  Hawaii  is  not  an  exception.  The  small,  flat,  silvery  object  without  wings 
that  scurries  out  of  sight  in  the  dresser  drawer  or  on  the  book-shelf  is  sure  to 
be  one  of  these  evildoers  that  cannot  I'esist  the  taste  of  starch,  ji<>  iiuilter 
whether  it  be  in  clothing,  book-bindings  or  wall-paper.  In  structure  the  silver- 
fish  represents  the  simplest  type  of  insects,  and  is  peculiar  for  the  reason  tliat 
it  does  not  go  through  any  marked  changes ''"  as  it  develops.  It  is  therefore 
placed  by  entomologists  in  the  loAvest,  meaning  the  oldest  and  most  simjile. 
order  '^^  of  insects. 

Ants. 

As  types  of  the  highest  development  and  specialization  in  the  insect  world, 
the  ants,  bees  and  wasps  are  placed  together  in  a  great  oi-dei- ''^  at  the  opposite 
end  of  the  scale  from  that  occupied  by  the  silverfish.  The  ants,  the  bees  and 
the  wasps  each  furnish  the  housewife  one  or  more  pests  to  annoy  her.  Of 
these,  the  ant  family  ^'^^  furnish  a  number,  the  most  troublesome  l)eing  the 
cosmopolitan  big-headed  ant^'"  that  invades  every  nook  and  coi-ticr  of  tlie 
house  and  considers  the  food-safe  and  iee-box  as  institutions  especially  pi-o- 
vided  for  its  comfort  and  convenience.  They  will  not  cross  AAatei-.  however, 
so  the  experienced  housewife  i)laces  the  legs  of  the  ice-box  in  slmllow  eui)s 
filled  with  water  and  takes  pains  to  keep  the  box  clear  of  the  wall.  'I'he  table, 
safe  and  sideboard  can  be  equally  well  protected  for  months  at  a  time  by  tying 
about  each  leg  a  narrow  strip  of  woolen  cloth,  which  has  been  soaked  with 
''ant  poison,"  a  preparation  sold  by  the  druggist  for  the  purpose.  Tlie  anjs 
respect  the  poisoned  string  as  a  dead-line  and  rarely  ])ass  beyond  it.  .Vnotliei- 
common  species  is  the  big  brown  ant  '"-  observed  swarming  on  warm,  still 
nights,  when  all  forms  issue  in  great  inunl)ers. 

Carpenter-Bees. 

Of  the  bees,  the  blue-black  carpenter-bee,^*'-^  which  resendiles  the  Itnmhle- 
bee  in  size  and  somewhat  in  appearance,  is  eonspicuons  and  ti-oublesome  in 
Hawaii  by  reason  of  its  liabit  of  building  its  cells  in  the  solid  wood  of  trees, 
po}-ch  posts,  fence  posts,  telephone  ]ioles  and  the  like.  11  often  excavates  a 
tunnel  a  foot  or  tAvo  in  length  in  which  it  lays  its  eggs.      I-lach  egg  is  contained 


^^  Lepisma  sacchaiiiin.         ""  Metamorplinsis.         ^^  Tlij/sdiiiird.  ""  UyiiuiKiptmi.       »»» /■'ori/iici'iin. 

'^"'^  Pheidole  megacepJxiiUi.       ^'>-  Camponotiig  maridaiiis,   var.   hawiiiii'nsis.       ''■"^  Xylocopa  brasilianorum. 


404  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

in  a  separate  compartment  provisioned  with  bee-bread — a  food  made  of  the 
pollen  from  flowers  mixed  witli  nectar.  It  has  been  observed  tliat  they  gather 
their  supply  of  pollen  principally  from  the  bean-like  plants.  This  bee  was 
introduced  long  ago  and  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  group. 

Wasps  and  ]\Iud-Daubers. 

Of  the  wasps,  the  species  known  as  the  mud-dauber.^"^  a  species  intro- 
duced from  America,  is  the  one  causing  the  most  annoyance  al)out  the  home. 
It  makes  its  nest  of  mud,  wliich  it  delights  in  plastering  under  the  eaves  of 
houses,  on  the  ceilings  of  lanais,  and  in  similar  places.  Their  nests  usually 
have  the  form  of  several  tubes  an  inch  or  more  long  placed  side  by  side,  which 
are  always  provisioned  with  spiders.  This  family  of  wasps  i*^'-""  is  known  as  tli*^ 
thread-waisted  wasps,  an  allusion  to  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  "hody.  They 
have  a  curious  habit  of  jerking  theii-  wings  freipuMitly  in  a  nervous  manner, 
which  is  also  (juite  characteristic. 

The  paper  wasps  i""  are  those  that  build  their  nests  in  a  single  circular 
comb  suspended  by  a  slender  central  support  from  the  under  side  of  the 
rafters,  or  from  under  the  leaves  of  bushes  in  the  yard  and  garden.  Three 
closely-related  species  are  ([uite  common  in  Hawaii,  but  the  bright  yellow 
species^"'  is  the  most  savage;  the  browner  species  ^"'^  is  said  to  be  less  so. 
Children  soon  learn  to  respect  the  rights  of  these  "yellow  jackets."  as  they 
are  commonly  called,  and  never  forget  the  lesson  usually  learned  at  first  hand 
from  disturlung  one  of  the  gray  paper  nests  that  ai-e  so  zealously  guarded  by 
the  wasp  iinnates  against  all  who  venture  to  intrude  on  their  domain. 

If  unmolested,  however,  the  little  colony  will  sit  for  hours  at  a  time  on 
their  paper  home  without  attempting  to  sting  anyone.  After  the  young  have 
grown  n\)  they  abandon  the  nest  but  remain  about  here  and  there  until  the 
following  Felnnunw.  when  tliey  organize  for  business  and  proceed  to  make  a 
new  nest,  securing  the  silver-gray  "pulp"  used  in  its  construction  from  fence- 
posts,  boards  and  dead  wood   generally. 

The  Honey-Bee. 

The  honey-bee, ^"^'  although  not  a  household  nisect,  is  so  intimately  asso- 
ciated Avith  our  domestic  life  that  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  direct  attention 
to  it  as  representing  the  highest  group  of  the  most  exalted  order  of  insects. 
As  an  example  of  social  life  among  insects,  bees  have  been  studied  by  natur- 
alists for  centuries,  until  there  is  probably  no  other  insect  of  wliich  man  has 
such  an  intimate  acquaintance.  They  furnisb  a  subject  of  interest  about  Avhich 
fascinating  volumes  have  been  written,  and  afford  an  ever-present  object- 
lesson  in  community  life  among  our  insect  friends.  By  reason  of  their  useful 
products  tbey  have  long  lieeu  of  great  economic  importance  to  man.  In  Ha- 
waii alone  tbe  annual  output  of  honey  is  valued  at  tens  of  thousand  of 
dollars. 


104  Scelipin  on  rtrnit'ntariinii.      i"^  Siilit'i/idd'.      ^o"  Tespidcr.         i""  Polixfcx  lii'br(riig.  '"*  Polixff.'!  auriier. 

109  opis  mvUifiea. 


THE  ANLMAL  LIFE  OF  TllF   (IKOFJ'.  405 

The  Clotiies-^Motii  and  Otjiek   JIoiskiiold  J'ests. 

The  clothes-moth'^"  is  the  dread  of  every  housewife,  jiikI  ;iiiy  h;inidess 
Jittk'  moth  th;it  ventures  indoors  by  accident  or  nthtM-wisc  is  usually  con- 
demned to  instant  destruction  lest  a  single  uuilty  (uic  should  escape.  Practical 
experience  has  proved  this  to  be  the  best  rule  to  follow.  Al  an.\-  i-ale.  a  moth 
that  seeks  out  the  dark  corners  of  the  closet  and  bureau  drawers  and  hides 
itself  away  in  clothing  is  not  to  he  trusted,  nor  should  such  places  of  conceal- 
ment to  l)e  long  neglected  for  fear  the  adull  moth  thai  is  killed  has  already 
deposited  her  eggs.  From  the  eggs  of  the  clothes-molh  in  due  time  \vill  eniei-ge 
the  characteristic  brownish-black  voracious  caterpillai-  tluit  feeds  on  the  I'ahi-ic 
and  also  uses  the  material  for  the  consti'uction  of  Ihe  husk-like  case  in  whicii 
it  assumes  the  chrysalis  state. 

Besides  the  clothes-moth  to  annoy  the  liousewife  there  is  the  closel^'-related 
angoumois  grain-moth  '^^  that  attacks  stored  rice.  Other  enemies  that  occur  in 
stored  products  and  supplies  in  Hawaii  ai-e  rice-weevils,"-  bean-weevils,"-' 
red-rust  tlour-beetles,"-*  ham  and  cheese  nuiggots.""'  bamboo  beetles,""  bone- 
meal  beetles,"^  bakery  beetles," "*  cigarette  beetles,"'^  and  the  cadelle  or  meal- 
worm,^-*' a  small  beetle  that  is  world-wide  in  its  distribution. 

Centipedes. 

While  discussing  the  more  familiar  household  insects,  allusion  should  he 
made  to  several  other  small  creatures  that,  although  they  are  not  insects, 
belong  with  the  insects  to  the  great  branch  Arlh ropoda — a  group  that,  as  we 
have  seen,  has  been  made  to  include  all  such  creatures  as  have  bodies  coini)osed 
of  a  linear  series  of  rings  or  segments  bearing  i)aired.  jointed  ai)pendages  that 
are  articulated  with  an  external  skeleton. 

The  common  venomous  centipede '-^  is  an  example  of  the  ('liiJopoda  that 
may  be  recognized  at  a  glance  by  the  fact  that  each  segment  of  the  hody  hears 
a  single  pair  of  legs.  The  poison  glands  open  through  the  claws  of  the  first 
pair  of  legs.  These  are  bent  forward  so  as  to  act  with  the  mouth  pai'ts.  While 
the  bite  of  a  centipede  in  Hawaii  is  extremely  painful,  as  many  can  testily,  it 
is  not  dangerous,  and  nmy  be  counteracted  by  the  use  of  anniioiiia.  or  it  is  said 
that,  in  the  absence  of  that  chemical,  relief  may  be  had  hy  pounding  the 
centipede  itself  into  a  jelly-like  mass  and  binding  it  onto  the  bite.  A  centipede 
bite  may  be  at  once  identified  from  the  sting  of  any  other  ci-eature  hy  the  fact 
that  the  pincer-like  legs  make  a  i)air  of  punclui-es  in  the  skin  of  the  |)eiNou 
"'bitten."  The  distance  Ix'tweeii  the  punctures  furnish  a  fair  index  as  tti 
the  size  of  the  specimen  inflicting  the  injury. 

Centiped(^s  are  predaceous  in  habit,  f(M^<ling  on  insects  c'eiierally.  hut 
especially  on  cockroaches.  They  usually  lixc  in  moist,  dark  jtlaces  under 
sticks,  boards,  stones,  and  in  crevices  in  the  hai-k  of  trees  dui'ing  the  daytime. 


^^'' Tinea  peUionella.        '"  silntrofia  cereatflla.       ^^-  Cala)i(lra  ori/za.       "■' /{n/c/ii/.«  ohtertii.i. 

^^*  Ti-ihntiuni   fi'rriuiineiini .        ^^■'  Piophila  rnsi'i.        ^^"  Diuodi'rtis  iiiiinitiix.       ^^'  Dermextes  vtulurfriiius. 

^^'^  Lvphiirtit,'i-,-,s  ini.sillii.      ^'^>  Lasioderma   >ierric(inif.       ^-'>  Tenebrioides  niauritaniciis. 

'-^  Hcolo/teiidra  n'/jcns. 


K     o 
^     I 


(25     .2; 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OE  THE  GROUP.  407 

but  at  night  they  become  active  and  race  about  rapidl,\'  in  search  of  i'lxxl. 
They  are  most  troublesome  in  houses  during  tlie  long  wet  spells,  for,  while  the\' 
naturally  prefer  moist  situations,  they  come  out  of  the  gi-ouiid  and  enter 
dwellings  and  outhouses  when  their  ordinary  hiding-places  become  water- 
soaked. 

Centipedes  five  inches  or  more  in  length  are  not  uncommon,  jind  larger 
specimens  are  occasionally  seen.  The  large  species  was  introduced  as  early  as 
1836,  and  there  has  been  at  least  one  other  small  species  introduced  since. 

The  young  centipedes  have  a  curious  habit  of  clinging  to  their  mother's 
side  when  alarmed.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  clusters  on  the  damp  ground 
in  some  obscure  place,  and,  coiling  herself  round  them,  remains  iinmovabJe 
until  the  young  have  hatched. 

The  largest  centipedes  known  come  from  the  East  Indies,  where  they 
grow  to  be  a  foot  in  length.  The  centipedes  i--  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  have 
not  been  exhaustively  studied  as  yet,  but  all  of  the  species  so  far  recorded 
belong  to  genera  that  occur  elsewhere.  Four  species  belonging  to  three  fami- 
lies were  collected  in  the  Hawaiian  mountains  by  Dr.  Perkins,  three  of  which 
are  described  as  new  in  the  Fauna  Hawaiiensis. 

Scorpions. 

At  least  one  introduced  species  of  scorpion  ^-^  is  quite  common  in  Hawaii, 
where  specimens  frequently  attain  a  length  of  three  inches.  The  large  species 
of  the  order  1--^  occurs  in  tropical  Africa  and  southern  India,  where  a  certain 
big  black  scorpion  may  attain  a  length  of  eight  or  nine  inches.  The  poison 
sting-  is  located  in  the  tip  of  the  long  slender  tail,  which  is  carried  curled  in  a 
menacing  fashion  over  the  back. 

AVhen  the  scorpion  comes  in  contact  with  any  creature  suited  to  its  taste  as 
food  it  will  seize  it  in  the  vise-like  gri])  of  th(^  pincer  claw.  The  tail  is  brought 
into  use  and  the  sting  on  its  tij)  is  plunged  into  its  prey.  Small  anini.-ils, 
insects  and  the  like  as  a  rule  quickl}'  succumb  to  the  paralyzing  effect  of  the 
poison.  As  the  scori)ion  has  no  anteniuv  to  use  as  feelers,  it  always  carries  its 
pincers  well  to  the  front. 

Scorpions  are  night  feeders  and  are  exclusively  carnivorous,  feeding 
mainly  on  small  insects;  silverfish,  moths  and  caterpillars  ])eing  among  tlieir 
favorite  food.     Unlike  the  centipede,  they  prefer  dry,  dai-k  jilaces.  and  for  Ihat 


''^-'■^  Chilopodd.        ^-''^  Jsometrus  maciilattis.       ^-^  Scoi-i/ionida. 

Description   of  Plati  . 

1.  Chalcolepidius  erytJiruloina.  2.  Illmhdocncmis  ^=^  {Sylicnophorus)  ohscurus.  .3.  Adon- 
tus  ienuimacidatus.  4.  Epitragus  dircmphus.  5.  Aramigus  fulleri.  6.  Bostrichm  miffra- 
tor.  7.  Cli/tiifi  crinicornin.  8.  Cryptorphynchus  manr/ifcrcF.  9.  Coptops  (rdfficator.  10. 
Xysirocera  globosa.  11.  S'nnodaciylus  cinnamomcus.  12.  JEgoRoma  reffe.ni.m.  1.3.  KcJitliro- 
■morplia  mandipennis.  14.  Pelopaus  ccrmcntarius.  15.  Policies  hcbriviis.  1(5.  Odynerus  ni- 
gripcnnift.  17.  Apis  mellifjca.  IS.  Xylocopa  brazdienfiis.  19.  Ch(Ftog(Fdla  monticola.  20. 
Vohicflla  obesa.  21.  Daciis  encurbita'.  22.  GnstrnjdiHus  eqni.  23.  Sarcophiiga  barbnia. 
24.  CUdliplinra  dux.  2.').  Lucdui  scricdUi.  2(i.  LiiciHn  ca'sar.  27.  Anihoniyia  sp.  2S. 
Megachdc    ddigens.     29.    Ccratitis   capitata.     30.    Canijionofus    wnndniiis. 


408  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    PIAWAII. 

reason  are  much  more  liable  to  be  found  in  bureau  drawers,  in  loose  papers 
and  litter,  in  empty  boxes  and  similar  places  about  the  house.  When  first  born 
the  tiny  scorpions  closely  resemble  their  parent.  They  eling-  to  her  body  and 
are  carried  about  for  a  long-  time  before  they  begin  to  shift  for  themselves. 
The  sting  of  the  species  occurring  in  this  group  of  islands  is  not  dangerous, 
though  it  may  be  very  painful  for  a  few  hours. 

The  false  scorpions  i--"*  are  also  represented  by  four  minute  species,  two  of 
which  are  described  from  Hawaii.  The  largest  species  i-'"  is  about  five  milli- 
meters in  length,  and,  as  the  name  of  the  order  implies,  it  bears  a  superficial 
resemblance  to  the  scorpion. 

^llLLlPEDS. 

The  naturfil  order, i-"  including  the  so-called  thousand-legged  worms  or 
millipeds,  is  w<dl  represented  in  Hawaii.  The  largest  species.^-'^  which  is  about 
two  inches  in  length  when  full  grown,  is  a  comparatively  recent  introduction, 
coming-  presumably  from  California.  So  far,  it  has  been  reported  only  from 
the  vicinity  of  Honoluhi,  where  the  sluggish,  dark,  reddish-brown  creature  may 
be  seen  curled  up  in  damp  places,  under  boards,  flower-pots  or.  less  frequently, 
crawling  along  the  road  in  the  early  morning.  They  differ  from  the  centipede 
in  having  the  body  round  instead  of  flattened  and  they  are  also  provided  with 
two  pairs  of  legs  for  each  segment  of  the  body.  However,  the  total  number  of 
legs  falls  far  short  of  a  million.  They  are  perfectly  harmless  and  may  be 
handled  without  fear.  Their  food  seems  to  be  vegetable  matter,  such  as 
tender  roots,  fruits  and  succulent  plants,  and  perhaps  any  decaying  organic 
matter. 

The  class  DipJopoda,  so  far  as  it  has  been  studied  in  Hawaii,  is  represented 
by  at  least  sixteen  species  lielonging  to  five  families  and  four  orders.  Of  this 
list  fourteen  are  described  as  new  and  about  one-third  of  the  number  recorded 
occur  on  Oahu.  Two  introduced  species,  one  the  large  worm-like  milliped  men- 
tioned above,  and  the  second  a  smaller  tan-colored  animal  with  two  brownish 
stripes  down  the  sides,  are  commonly  met  with.  They  have  the  power  of 
emitting  a  curious  characteristic  odor.  The  other  members  of  the  class  are 
usually  confined  to  the  mountain  forests,  and  are  probably  peculiar  to  Hawaii. 

Sow-BuGS  OR  Slaters. 

The  cui-ious  little  oval  silver-gray  creature  found  in  large  numbers  in 
damp  places,  under  boards  and  stones,  is  usually  an  introduced  species  known 
to  nuuiy  as  the  pill-])ng,  slater,  sow-bug  or  wood-louse.^-'-'  But  of  the  order 
Isopoda  there  are  nine  of  ten  species  belonging  to  five  genera,  in  the  islands,  sev- 
eral of  \vhich  are  native.  The  minute  armadillo-shaped  arthropods  of  this  order 
occurring  at  higher  elevations  on  the  islands  closely  resemble  the  more  common 
widely-distributed  species.  Their  positive  identity,  therefore,  requires  more 
than  casual  observation.     All  of  the  species  are  nocturnal  in  habit  and  unless 


\2-^  P.spiKhiscoriiiiiiifs.        ^-''  Clirlifi'i-   hinraiii'nsi.s       ^-'  Di/ilnj,„(lii.        12s  gj,    „„jpt         ^■-«  Pon-elUo  scaber. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  409 

disturbed  are  not  seen  in  tlie  daytime.     Decaying  vegetable  matter  is  supposed 
to  furnish  them  with  their  principal  sui)p]y  of  food. 

JSaxd-Hoppers. 

The  species  of  sand-hoppers  belong  to  a  faiiiil\- 1-'"  in  the  order  AmpJiipoda, 
to  which  order  also  belong  the  fresh-water  shi-iiiii)s.  By  some  tlii'v  nuty  be 
mistaken  for  the  pill-bug.  Though  they  are  distantly  allied  lo  tin-  i)ill-bug, 
since  they  are  true  Crustacea,  they  are  easily  identifietl  as  belonging  to  a  dif- 
ferent family,  as  they  have  the  body  narrowed  and  flattened  from  side  to  side, 
instead  of  broad  and  flat,  and  all  proceed  by  a  hopping  movement  when 
alarmed.  The  common  sand-hoppers  live  near  the  edge  of  the  sea  and  are 
aquatic  in  habit.  There  are  species,  however,  which  are  found  high  up  in  the 
mountains  in  damp  situations  and  in  tlie  cups  at  the  base  of  the  leaves  of  a 
number  of  plants  such  as  the  ieie  vine,  ki  plant  and  in  similai-  jihifcs.  Three 
species  belonging  to  two  genera  have  been  reported  from  the  moiinlains  of 
Oahu,  and  there  are  doubtless  species  occurring  on  all  the  islands  of  the  gronj). 

Spiders,  ]\1ites  and  Ticks. 

Zoologists  usually  place  the  spiders  togethci-  in  an  order '-'^  of  the 
Arthropods,  where,  with  certain  other  orders,  including  such  animals  as  the 
scorpions,  the  harvest-men  or  "daddy-long-legs,''  the  mites  and  ticks  and 
similar  creatures,  they  unite  to  form  a  class. ^•'-  This  class  is  made  np  of  sev- 
eral well-marked  orders,  but  the  spiders  are  generally  taken  as  the  l.\pe  for  the 
group,  as  they  show  clearly  the  difference  between  the  class  to  which  the 
insects  ^•^"  belong,  and  the  class  which  they  represent.  There  are  several  im- 
portant characteristics  common  to  the  spiders,  among  them  the  possession  of 
eight  legs,  the  absence  of  antenna'  or  feelers,  and  the  division  of  the  body  into 
two  main  divisions, ^•'^■^  that  at  once  separate  them  from  the  insects,  which  have, 
as  a  rule,  six  legs,  antenna^  and  the  l)()dy  divided  info  three  i)afts.  namely,  the 
head,  thorax,  and  abdomen. 

House-Spiders. 

While  there  are  nu)re  than  a  hundred  species  of  spiders  in  Hawaii,  many 
of  them  spinning  webs,  they  are  for  the  most  pai-f  so  small  and  inconspicuous 
that  they  rarely  attract  the  special  notice  of  the  housewife.  The  jumping- 
spiders  ^-^^  and  the  big  brown  house-spider. i-'^'  a  member  of  the  family  of 
hunting  spiders,!-'^  and  the  well-known  garden  si)ider  .should,  however,  be  men- 
tioned as  exceptions  to  the  rule. 

The  jumping-spiders  are  small  oi-  medium  size  with  a  short  hhiekish  l)ody 
and  short  stout  legs.  They  occui'  on  phints.  feiu'cs  and  about  houses,  aiul 
attract  attention  by  theii-  jxMMiliai-  a])pearanee.  l)i'iglil  mai-l^iiiL:'  ami  (piick- 
jumping  movements  that  differ  from   those  of  the  weh-\vea\inii   and    hunting 


^^°  Tulitrida'.        ^^^  Araneida.       ^^"  Arachnida.       "» //iserfo.       's*  The  (■(■phalothoriix  :ind  abdomen. 
^^^  Family  Attidte.  i^"  Heteropoda   ri'ijia.        ^^'  Cluhionidiv. 


27 


410  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

families.  Since  they  spin  no  webs  to  annoy  one,  their  comical  stare  and  know- 
ing ways  in  a  measure  make  up  for  the  stinging  bite  they  can  administer 
when  their  liberty  is  interfered  with. 

The  garden-spider  i'^"^  is  doubtless  an  importation.  It  is  the  large  species, 
with  the  al)domen  conspicuously  marked  with  creamy  yellow  and  black,  that 
occurs  in  the  shrubbery  about  the  house  and  garden,  where  it  makes  its  bulky, 
oddly-woven  nests.  It  is  common  from  sea-level  up  to  4()0(»  feet  elevation,  and 
is  also  found  in  America  and  Australia. 

The  big  brown  spider  i-^-'  or  house-spider  is  often  three  or  four  inches 
across,  and  to  the  tourist,  at  least,  they  present  a  most  formidable  appearance. 
They  are  common  in  houses  all  over  the  islands,  as  well  as  in  all  tropical 
countries,  and  are  often  looked  upon  as  household  pets.  They  are  perfectly 
harmless.  In  many  families  their  long  residence  and  evident  appreciation  of 
friendly  attentions  from  the  members  of  the  household  has  given  them  an 
enviable  place  among  the  domestic  pets.  They  feed  on  cockroaches,  moths, 
flies,  silvertish  and  other  insects,  in  an  evident  desire  to  be  useful  as  well  as 
interesting,  and  seldom  leave  their  accustomed  resting-place  during  the  day- 
time. At  night  they  become  alert  and  active  in  search  of  food.  As  they  never 
spin  webs,  the  mother  spider  is  forced  to  carry  the  wdiite  lozenge-shaped  egg- 
sack  about  with  her  lietween  her  leus  initil  her  eggs  have  hatched.  ]\Ir.  E.  ]\I. 
Ehrhorn  found  that  it  required  about  thirty-five  days  for  the  young  spiders  to 
hatch  and  leave  the  egg-sack,  and  that  1!)7  out  of  207  eggs  hatched. 

The  Hamakua  Spider. 

An  investigation  of  the  hal)its  of  spiders  found  in  the  cane  fields,  at  the 
time  of  the  leaf-hopper  outbreak  already  referred  to,  resulted  in  finding  that 
out  of  the  one  hundred  and  five  species  of  spiders  recorded  in  the  islands,  at 
least  twenty  occur  in  the  cane  fields.  However,  only  fourteen  species  were 
found  feeding  on  insects  infesting  the  cane.  The  most  useful  species  ^"'"  in  the 
cane  fields  is  variously  known  as  the  Kohala  spider,  the  Hamakua  spider  and 
the  Puunene  spider.  In  some  sections  it  is  very  abundant,  so  that  as  many  as 
fifty  of  its  roundish  white  nests  have  been  found  on  a  single  leaf  of  cane. 

Some  of  the  species  met  with  in  the  mountains  spin  very  large,  firm  webs. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  these  stretched  across  the  path,  suspended  on  strong 
stay  threads  twenty-five  feet  or  more  in  length.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  spe- 
cies peculiar  to  Hawaii  are  not  conspicuous  in  size  or  habit,  the  great  majority 
being  less  than  five  millimeters  in  length. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 
NATIVE  INSECTS. 


In  the  foregoing  chapters  some  of  the  more  important   injurious  insects 
have  been  passed  in  review.     We  now  tui-n  to  consider  some  of  the  salient  fea- 


^^»  Aryiope  arara.        ^'-^^  Iletero/iodn   reyUi.        ^^^  Patiiophnlus  afoniarhis. 


THE  ANIMAL   LIFE  OF  THE   GROFP.  411 

tures  of  the  native  fauna,  since  it  is  one  of  (•(iiisi(l('raV)le  >i('nt'ral  as  well   as  bio- 
loo-ic  interest. 


^t^' 


Character  ok  the  Native  Fatna. 

The  nnmlier  of  species  even  in  the  limited  and  |)i'('('inctive  area  of  the 
islands  is  so  great  that  it  is  not  possible  to  do  nioi-e  than  indicate  in  the  briefest 
way  the  character  and  extent  of  the  vaiious  orders  represented  in  the  firoup, 
and  to  assure  those  who  take  especial  interest  in  the  subject  of  entomology 
that  they  will  lind  in  Hawaii  an  extensive  literature  already  {)i-epai'ed  and  an 
interesting  field  befoi'e  them  foi-  study  and  investigation. 

The  stranger  in  the  islands,  with  only  a  few  days  to  sjjcnd  in  the  collect- 
ing of  specimens,  is  fortunate  in  that  two  of  the  most  favorable  localities  for 
gaining  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  native  insects  in  their  native  envirotunent.  are 
also  two  of  the  most  accessible.  They  ai'e  the  mountains  back  of  Honolulu, 
particularly  the  higher  slopes  of  Tantalus,  and  the  region  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Volcano  Kilauea,  on  Hawaii. 

Dr.  Perkins,  the  veteran  naturalist  of  the  islands,  whose  active  life  in  the 
field  of  ento)nology  has  been  largely  spent  in  bringing  together  the  material 
on  which  a  monumental  work,  in  three  volumes,  knoAvn  as  Fauna  llawaiiensis 
is  based,  has  published  short  papers  ^  setting  forth  briefly  the  more  important 
and  interesting  forms  that  may  be  met  with  in  the  localities  mentioned.  These 
succinct  papers  will  serve  the  collector  as  a  field  guide  to  each  locality  and  aid 
him  in  his  search  for  the  rarer  forms  to  be  found  in  these  favored  precincts. 

The  student  will  early  learn  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  careful  and 
intensive  study  of  circumscribed  localities,  since  each  island,  valley,  mountain, 
and  even  limited  areas  and  often  certain  {peculiar  plants,  have  tlieii-  peculiar 
forjns.  It  will  also  be  noted  that  such  infiuences  as  elevation,  moisture  and 
dryness  play  important  parts  in  the  distribution  of  sjx'cies  and  the  establish- 
ment of  their  vertical  and  horizontal  range. 

Insects  Occurring  on  ^Iamaki. 

The  work  on  tlie  life  histories  of  various  groups  of  Hawaiian  insects  that 
has  been  carried  on  by  the  individual  members  of  the  local  Entomological 
Society  has  added  material  of  the  greatest  interest  to  oiii-  increasing  stoi'c  of 
knowledge  concerning  the  habits  of  the  native  insect  fauna.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  grou[)  of  Lfpidoph  rd,  wherein  Professor  Otto  S\veze\-.  in  his  study  of 
moths  and  butterfiies,  has  done  much  to  clear  up  man\-  obscure  i-elations  exist- 
ing between  that  order  of  insects  and  tlu)se  insects  preying  ujton  them  in  their 
early  stages  of  development.  The  bearing  of  these  inter-i-elations  in  their 
effect  on  tlu'  native  vegetation  has  often  |)i'oved  to  be  of  gi'cal  biologic  interest. 

In  his  investigation  of  the  insects  associated  with  the  mamaki  (a  native 
Hawaiian   shrub,    fi-om    which   kapa    was   formerly    madei.    lie    has    iiiilic;itc(l    the 


■  Insects  of  Tantalus.   Perkins.    Proc    Haw.    Kntoni.   .Six-.,    Vol.    1.   i>t.   -.   \}\>.   :iS-.".l.        Ins.'.ts  nf   Kiliima. 
Perkins,    Proc.   Haw.    Kntoni.   Soc,    Vol,    I.   lit.   :!.    pp.   89-99. 


412  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

way  to  a  field  of  fascinating  and  practical  study  tliat  others,  not  wholly  con- 
sumed with  the  desire  to  add  new  species  to  the  fauna,  nor  equipped  for  serious 
systematic  research,  will  find  of  value  and  interest. 

During  a  period  of  two  or  three  years  in  connection  with  other  fiekl  col- 
lecting, mostly  confined  to  the  Island  of  Oahu,  he  gathered  and  studied  mate- 
rial from  which  he  reports  the  taking  of  more  than  seventy-five  insects  and 
their  parasites  from  this  single  species  of  plant.  He  enumerates  nine  species 
that  appear  to  be  found  on  mamaki  and  on  no  other  plant.  Thirteen  species 
feed  extensively  on  its  leaves,  one  bores  into  the  green  twigs  and  one  lives  on 
the  bark.  Of  those  attacking  the  dead  or  dying  shrub,  eighteen  occurred  in 
the  trunk  and  branches,  and  two  feed  on  fungus,  on  or  beneath  the  bark.  The 
insects  which  visit  mamaki  in  search  of  prey  w^ere  divided  into  five  species  of 
Coleoptera,  four  species  of  Heyniptera,  eight  parasties  besides  other  miscel- 
laneous insects,  as  ants,  earwigs  and  rove  beetles. 

The  problems  of  insect  life  are  so  interesting  and  so  varied  in  Hawaii  tliat 
the  repetition  of  the  investigation  referred  to  above  would  well  repay  any 
observer  on  Oahu,  while  the  insect  fauna  varies  to  such  an  extent  on  the  dif- 
ferent islands  that  the  work,  if  repeated  on  Hawaii  or  Kauai,  for  example, 
would  have  all  the  novelty  of  original  research. 

Some  of  the  more  minute  and  scarcer  groups  of  Hawaiian  insects  have  not 
as  yet  been  systematically  studied.  The  larger  and  more  important  orders 
that  have  been  reviewed  l)y  specialists  are  constantly  having  new  genera  and 
species  added  to  them  as  a  I'esult  of  more  detailed  study.  This  makes  general- 
izations based  on  the  data  available  less  accurate  than  one  could  wish.  Never- 
theless, some  of  the  main  facts  selected  for  a  popular  resume  of  the  orders  as 
discussed  in  the  Fauna  Hawaiiensis,  supplemented  by  the  papers  on  various 
phases  of  the  subject  that  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  since  their  publica- 
tion, may  be  of  general  interest. 

Ants,  Bees  and  Wasps. 

The  great  order,-  including  the  ants,  bees,  wasps,  small  four-winged  jnira- 
sites,  and  gall-forming  and  plant-eating  wasp-like  insects,  is  well  represented 
in  Hawaii.  The  order  is  divided  into  two  sub-orders,  one  the  boring,^  the 
other  the  ^iingm'g^  Hymc no pt era.  In  the  former  sub-order,  among  other 
characteristics,  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  in  the  females  is  provided  witli  an 
organ  suited  to  boring  the  hole  into  which  the  Q2.g,  is  deposited.  In  some 
species  this  instrument  is  used  to  drill  holes  in  trees,  in  others  it  is  used  to 
thrust  the  egg  into  the  body  of  some  other  insect  where  it  develops.  Many  of 
the  species  are  very  minute :  often  their  existence  is  accidentally  discovered 
during  the  process  of  rearing  other  insects  in  breeding  jars.  At  such  times  the 
tiny  parasite  often  emerges  from  the  body  of  its  host  and  appears  in  the  jars  as 
a  microscopic  insect  with  four  wings.  These  are  known  as  |)arasitic  Hijhk  imp- 
tem,   and   are   of   great   biologic   importance    in    keeping   tluMr   host   species   in 


-  Hymenojitem.  ^  Terehraittiit.  *  Acideata. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  4L3 

check.  Dr.  W.  II.  Ashmead,  in  liis  treatise  on  the  II;i\v;iiian  forms,  discusses  four- 
teen families  belonging'  to  this  suborder,  to  which  he  refers  one  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  species  as  belonging-  to  sixty-nine  genera.  P>ighty-seven  of  the 
species  were  described  by  him  as  new.  I'o  this  number  several  species  have 
since  been  added,  but  as  the  very  largest  Hawaiian  species  do  not  exceed 
twenty  millimeters,  and  by  far  the  greater  number  are  less  than  five  milli- 
meters in  length,  and  as  a  great  many  have  been  described  from  a  single 
s])eeimen,  we  may  infer  that,  in  spite  of  theii'  interesting  habits,  they  are  too 
small  to  attract  much  attention  from  the  layman. 

The  stinging  HijHicuopii ra  includes  about  two  lumdred  ■well -marked  spe- 
cies. Of  these  a  large  number  are  peculiar  to  the  islands.  As  the  majority 
of  the  species  are  fair-sized,  handsome  insects,  the.y  have  been  more  extensively 
collected.  The  group  includes  the  ants,  digger-wasps,  the  true  wasps  and  the 
bees.  To  the  twenty  species  of  ants  ^  listed  by  Prof.  A.  Forel  as  occurring  in  Ha- 
waii, six  species  have  since  been  added,  the  majority  of  which  are  new  arrivals. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  appears  to  be  but  one  or  two  endemic  species  of  ants 
in  the  islands.  Most  of  those  found  here  are  slightly-varied  forms  of  widely- 
distributed  species.  Only  one  species  (Poncra  perkiusi)  is  definitely  stated  to 
be  Hawaiian.  It  occurs  in  small  colonies  of  a  dozen  or  so  in  moist  localities 
high  in  the  mountains. 

Ants  occur  commonly  in  great  numbers  about  houses,  and  ever\'where 
attract  attention  owing  to  their  so-called  instinctive  powers.  They  invarial)l\- 
live  in  organized  comnumities  or  colonies,  and  exhibit  as  great  a  variety  of 
habits  and  customs  as  do  the  people  living  in  the  islands,  for  the  people,  like 
the  ants,  have  been  brought  together  in  Plawaii  from  many  foreign  lands.  The 
ants  found  here  live  under  boards  and  stones,  and  in  the  ground,  and  are  as 
industrious  and  thrifty  as  those  King  Solomon  observed,  to  find  that  they, 
having  no  guide,  overseer  or  ruler,  provided  meat  in  the  summer  and  gathered 
food  in  the  harvest. 

The  home  life  of  ants  for  obvious  reasons  has  not  been  as  fnlly  studied  as 
has  that  of  the  bees,  but  the  division  of  labor  in  the  colony  is  known  to  he 
even  more  complex.  Their  habits  furnish  an  interesting  and  ever-present  field 
for  study  and  observation  by  old  and  young. 

The  digger-wasps,  or  Fossores,*"'  may  be  I'eadily  disiingnished  IVom  the 
true  wasps  by  the  fact  that  their  wings,  when  at  i-est.  lie  tiat  o\'er  the  haeU  and 
the  legs  are  arranged  for  walking  or  digging.  There  are  about  thii-ty-five 
species  so  far  reported  from  Hawaii,  the  most  common  being  the  introduced 
mud-dauber'''  belonging  to  the  thread-wai.sted  wasp '^  family.  They  are  to  be 
seen  building  their  nests  about  lanais  and  outbuildings.  AVheii  the  nest  is  com- 
pleted the  eggs  are  deposited  and  the  cell  provisioiu'd  with  spiders.  The  truly 
native  species  are  reported  to  prey  entir(4y  upon  tlies.  '{'he  principal  genus, 
Crabro,  represented  by  fifteen  species,  is  disti-ibuted  in  the  mountains  of  the 
larger  islands. 


5  Furtiiicidfr.  "  Sphecina.  '  Piliijxcus  civtiieittariii.s.  *  Sphegidce. 


414  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

Of  the  true  wasps,-*  the  family  i"  inchidiiiii'  the  social  wasps  is  represented 
])}'  two  or  three  species,  one  of  which  '^   is  widely  distributed  about  the  islands. 

The  family  embracing'  the  solitary  wasps  ^-  is  rei)resented  by  a  large  num- 
l)er  of  species  belonginji'  to  the  genus  Odijiierus.  Eighty-six  species  were  re- 
ported in  the  P^iuna  Ilawaiiensis.  and  a  dozen  or  more  species  have  been  added 
since.  Excellent  keys  to  the  species  occurring  on  the  different  islands  have 
been  jn-ej^ared  by  Dv.  Perkins,  who  reports  sixty  species  from  Oahu,  eighty- 
four  from  Maui,  Molokai  and  Lanai,  and  thirty-two  from  Kauai.  Fourteen 
species  have  been  found  on  Tantalus,  including  some  of  the  rarest,  while 
Kilauea  as  a  locality  has  yielded  twenty-one  species.  On  a  single  day's  col- 
lecting in  lao  Valley,  Prof.  Swezey  secured  eleven  out  of  sixteen  species  known 
to  occur  in  that  particular  locality,  which  is  about  half  of  those  so  far  reported 
from  the  Island  of  ]\Iaui. 

In  this  genus  the  abdomen  is  .joined  to  the  thorax  by  a  very  short  peduncle. 
The  shape  of  the  body  and  the  coloration  of  the  abdomen  of  many  species  so 
closely  resemble  those  of  the  social  wasps,  known  elsewhere  as  yellow-.jackets, 
and  hornets,  that  it  is  (|uite  common  to  hear  these  names  applied  to  the  con- 
spicuously-marked species.  l>ut  as  a  rule,  the  Hawaiian  Odyperus  are  much 
more  somber  in  color  than  are  species  from  elsewhei'e. 

The  habits  of  the  Hawaiian  species,  like  those  of  the  genus  occurring  in 
other  lands,  varies  greatly.  Some  species  buri-ow  into  the  stems  and  pithy 
parts  of  plants,  others  into  dead  wood,  while  a  few  build  single  cells  of  mud, 
which  they  attach  to  leaves  of  trees.  Many  of  the  species  build  their  nests  in 
the  porous  cavities  in  the  lava  rock;  others  make  their  nests  in  the  ground. 

The  black  rock-wasp.^-'  one  of  several  species  common  about  vertical  ledges 
of  rock,  attaches  its  e^g  by  a  slender  thread  at  the  back  of  s(mie  small  hole  in 
the  rock.  It  then  fills  the  hole  with  caterpillars  that  have  been  paralyzed  by  its 
sting'.  In  storing  the  food  for  its  young  it  is  usually  particular  to  select  only 
the  young  caterpillar  of  a  single  species.  Many  of  these,  as  we  shall  see,  are 
leaf-rollers  in  that  they  protect  themselves  from  their  enemies  and  the  sun  in 
the  caterpillar  stage  by  folding  the  leaf  together  about  them.  The  wasp,  after 
locating  the  young  caterpillar  in  its  hiding-place,  alights  on  the  leaf  nearby. 
The  young  caterpillar  then  becomes  excited  and  creeps  out  of  its  hiding-place 
and  falls  to  the  ground,  whereupon  the  waiting  wasp  will  pick  it  up,  sting-  it, 
and  carry  it  away  to  its  storehouse  cell.  When  the  cell  cavity  is  full,  the 
ingenious  insect  plugs  up  the  end  of  the  hole  with  mud,  through  which  in  due 
time  the  young  wasp  will  emerge.  The  habit  of  storing-  their  cells  with  the 
larva'  of  moths  and  butterflies  is  very  common  among  the  solitary  wasps,  and 
as  they  are  active  during  the  year  they  do  much  to  keep  these  insects  in  check. 

The  keyhole  wasp'-*  is  a  black  wasp  with  dull-blue  iridescent  wings 
clouded  with  brown,  that  is  common  about  houses,  where  it  employs  at  least 
a  part  of  its  time  in  plugging  up  keyholes.     They  are  interesting  and  intelli- 


^  Dijilojiti'm.  ^"  Vespidce.  "  I'nJixfi'x  anrifer.  ^-  E inin-tiichr.  ^'^  Odi/iwnis  spp. 

*  Odynerus  niyriperiMS. 


THE  ANIMAL   IJFK   OK  TIIK   GROUP.  415 

gent  ei-eatures,  and  ai-e  excelli'iit  inatci'ial  foi-  the  stiitlciit  wlio  lias  tin-  lime 
and  a  taste  for  experimenting  \villi  animals.  For  example,  they  art'  gi-eatly 
disturbed  by  a  eliange  in  the  color  of  objects  near  whei-e  they  are  working.  If 
a  piece  of  red  cloth  is  tied  over  the  door  knob  they  have  great  trouble  in 
finding  the  keyhole  when  they  i-cturn  ^\■ith  mud,  Ijut  if  the  clutli  is  removed  in 
their  absence  they  have  no  tr()ul)le  in  locating  it. 

The  Hawaiian  solitary  bees,  of  which  there  are  at  least  sixty  species,  be- 
longing to  the  genus  \( soprosopis,  are  not  readily  identified  t)\'  the  layman, 
nor  are  they  easily  separated  in  the  field  from  the  wasps.  Like  the  genus  of 
wasps  just  discussed,  they  vary  greatl.N'  in  habits.  Some  nest  in  Hie  ground, 
some  in  dead  standing  timber  and  various  unusual  places,  and  arc  disti-ibuted 
from  the  coast  to  above  the  up])er  forest. 

Of  the  typical  or  long-tongued  bees.^'^  we  find  five  species  so  far  occurring 
in  Hawaii.  Of  these  the  conspicuous  carpenter  bee  ^"  and  the  useful  honey 
bee^'^  have  already  been  mentioned.  The  three  remaining  species  behnig  to  a 
single  genus  ^^  and  are  characterized  as  leaf-cutting  bees.  The  common  name 
is  given  them  owing  to  their  curious  habit  of  making  the  thimble-shaped  nests 
for  their  young  out  of  neatly-cut  circular  pieces  of  fresh  leaves,  which  they 
pack  away  in  cells,  often  in  holes  in  the  woodwork,  or  in  curled-up  leaves  of 
the  cocoanut  palm.  Leaves  when  mutilated  by  these  bees  look  as  though  small 
gun  wads  had  been  cut  from  them.  The  work  of  the  wad-cutting  bee  is  often 
mistaken  for  that  of  the  Japanese  beetle,  which,  while  it  feeds  on  the  leaves, 
does  not  cut  out  the  leaf  in  a  regular  pattern. 

The  Beetles. 

Coming  to  the  great  order  of  beetles,^"  we  find  it  represented  in  tho  Ha- 
waiian insect  fauna  by  more  than  forty  families,  embracing  hundreds  of  pre- 
cinctive  and  introduced  species.  All  of  the  members  of  this  extensive  order 
are  easily  recognized  in  the  adult  stage,  as  they  have  a  pair  of  horny  wings 
that  meet  in  a  straight  line  down  the  back,  beneath  which  is  a  single  paii-  of 
membraneous  wings  neatly  folded  away.  The  earwig-*^  is  the  only  other 
order  occurring  in  Hawaii  that  at  all  closely  resembles  them,  and  the  eai'wigs 
are  easily  recognized  by  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  forceps-like  appendages  at 
the  posterior  end  of  the  bod.v. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  a  i:reat  i)er  cent  oi'  the  beetles  found  in 
Hawaii  are  species  that  occur  in  no  othci-  jtlace.  .Most  of  the  species  are  small, 
many  of  them  being  almost  microscopic  in  size,  and  as  a  nde  the  indivaduals 
of  a  species  are  not  numerous,  hence  they  ai-e  difticult  to  obtain.  Tlir  colleetor 
soon  learns  that  their  habits  vai-y  greatly  in  the  (iifCt'i-eiit  families  and  even 
among  the  species  of  the  same  genera,  so  that  in  searching  for  specimens  every 
possible  situation  must  be  examined.  The  water,  earth,  sand,  crevices  in  the 
solid  rock,  under  deca\ing  animal  and  vey-etable  imitter.  under  stones,  in  the 


^''Apiihr.  ^<>  Xi/luciiiHt  hninilinnonnii.         ^'  Apis  mi'Uijirn.  '»  Megachile.  ^*  Coleoptern. 

-"  E II  pie. I  opt  era. 


416  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

wood,  stems  and  bark  of  trees,  on  the  leaves,  flowers,  and  in  the  seeds  of 
plants,  in  moss,  in  fnn^i,  in  fern  stems — in  fact,  a  thousand  possible  places  are 
all  liable  to  be  inhabited  by  some  rare  and  interesting  beetle. 

That  many  species,  especially  among  the  long  list  of  those  introduced  since 
commerce  was  established  with  Hawaii,  are  injurious  to  man  and  to  his  inter- 
ests, has  been  touched  upon  in  a  former  chapter.  That  many  forms  work  to 
man's  economic  benefit  has  also  been  hinted  at.  Of  most  of  the  peculiar  native 
species  little  is  really  known  of  the  place  they  occupy  in  the  economy  of  nature. 

The  larvff",  commonly  called  grubs,  seldom  display  conspicuous  character- 
istics, and  exhibit  nothing  to  indicate  the  diversity  of  form  assumed  by  the 
adults.  They  are  mostly  dingy -white,  brownish  or  occasionally  even  black  in 
color.  The  head  is  always  horny  and  usually  provided  with  jaws  suited  to  bit- 
ing and  grinding  their  food.  The  pupa  stage  follows  the  larva  and  varies 
greatly  in  length  of  time.  Whether  it  is  passed  in  a  cocoon  or  not,  the  embryo 
beetle  lies  inactive  with  the  appendages  all  plainly  shown,  each  enveloped  in 
its  own  peculiar  covering.  From  this  they  emerge  in  due  time  to  take  up  the 
active  life  of  the  adult. 

Passing  to  a  consideration  of  a  few  of  the  more  interesting  or  more 
important  families,  we  find  that  of  the  great  division  knoAvn  as  the  predaceous 
beetles,  the  ground  beetles,-^  with  legs  suited  to  running  and  with  thread-like, 
tapering  antenna^,  are  represented  by  more  than  two  hundred  small  species, 
many  of  them  belonging  to  genera  peculiar  to  the  islands.  They  vary  greatly 
as  to  habits,  the  most  of  them,  however,  undoubtedly  feeding  on  insects.  They 
are  found  under  stones,  beneath  dead  wood,  in  moss,  in  trees,  under  bark,  at 
the  base  of  leaves  and  on  the  ground,  scurrying  about.  Two  small  species  of 
predaceous  diving-beetles--  belonging  to  this  division,  but  to  diiferent  genera, 
occur  in  fresh  water  all  over  the  group ;  they  appear  to  be  nowhere  abundant. 

The  diving-beetles  can  be  distinguished  at  once  from  the  six  species  of 
water  scavenger-beetles,^^  some  of  which  occur  in  pools  and  I'unning  water, 
and  some  in  rotten  wood  and  decaying  vegetation.  The  water  scavenger- 
beetles  all  have  club-shaped  antenna?  (which  are  often  concealed  beneath  the 
head)  and  very  long  palpi.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  these  aquatic  scavenger- 
beetles  belong  to  the  extensive  division  of  the  beetle  order  known  as  clavicorn 
beetles,  in  which  the  antenna^  are  club-shaped — that  is,  they  grow  gradually 
thicker  towards  the  top.  Hawaii  has  twenty  oi-  more  families  belonging  to  this 
group,  including  such  v/ell-known  families  as  the  carrion-beetles,--^  with  but  a 
single  introduced  species  so  far  found :  and  the  rove-beetles,--"^  with  upwards 
of  one  hundred  species.  They  may  all  be  faii'ly  well  recognized  by  their  short 
wings  and  long,  narrow  abdomen.  They  are  mostly  carnivorous,  and  rove 
about  in  search  of  food.  Insects  constitute  a  large  part  of  their  food,  espe- 
cially insect  larva\  but  many  feed  on  rotton  wood,  some  on  fungi  and  others  on 
flowers. 

The  twenty  species  of  small  hemispherical  lady-bugs,  or  ladybird  beetles,-" 


21  Carabidw.  --  Dytiscidcv.  -^  Hydrophilidcp.  -*  ,Silphid(V.         ""  Stiiiilii/tiuidce.  -'^  Corrinfllidd-. 


THE  AXDIAL  LIFP:  OF  TIIK   GROrP.  417 

discussed  elseAvliero.  at'c  pi-acticjilly  ,ill  iiiti'odnccd  si)e('ies,  hronght  to  llMwaii 
on  aeeoiint  of  their  well-known  pi'edaceous  ha  hits.  The  dermestes,-^  the  eoni- 
nion  forms  introduced  and  Avhich  destroy  lioiisdiold  stores  and  p'oods,  have 
also  native  species  of  small  size.  The  hislcrid  lu'ctles-"*  have  several  intro- 
duced species  and  an  important  Hawaiian  ^cnns  with  thirty  or  foi'ty  sjjccies 
of  very  small  square-shaped  hectics  that  occnr  ahoiit  (h'cayiny  matter  in  the 
mountains.  The  nitidulids,-'-'  a  fainil_\-  eonipctsed  of  small  Hattened  beetles  with 
the  wing  covers  more  or  less  truncate,  exposing  the  ahdomen,  suggesting  the 
rove-beetles  which  have  a  much  h)nger  ahdomen,  are  (jnite  common:  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  species,  all  of  which  feed  on  decaying  animal  and  veizctahle 
matter,  and  are  often  found  about  flowers,  occur  in  the  mountains. 

Several  other  families  made  up  of  small-sized  individuals  and  a  limited 
number  of  species,  belong  in  this  division,  and  may  occasionally  he  captured  by 
the  careful  collector. 

The  group  known  as  the  serricorn  beetles,  since  the  antennae  are  usually 
saw-like,  is  well  represented  by  three  families,  the  most  extensive  and  comnion 
■being  the  click-beetles,^*^  snapping-bugs  or  skip-.iack  beetles.  If  disturbed 
they  curl  up  their  legs  and  apparently  drop  dead,  usually  landing  on  the 
ground  on  their  backs.  With  a  sudden  click,  they  will  si)ring  \\\)  in  the  aii- 
and  turn  over.  If  they  strike  the  ground  on  their  feet  they  Avill  run:  if  not. 
the  clicking  performance  is  repeated  again  and  a^aiii.  The  adults  are  usually 
dull-colored,  but  some  are  of  fair  size  and  quite  common.  The  larva'  are  com- 
monly known  as  wire-worms.  Eighty-five  species  or  more  belong  to  the  genus 
Eopriilhrs,  a  genus  that  includes  some  beautiful  irridescent  species  that  num- 
bers among  them  some  of  the  most  attractive  beetles  in  the  islands.  The 
checkered  beetles, ^^  with  three  widely-distributed  species,  and  the  metallic 
wood-borers,"^-  inclndinL:'  two  introduced  species,  conclude  tliis  part  of  the 
order. 

Beetles  with  the  antennjv  arranged  so  that  the  outer  joints  are  pi-olonged 
internally  in  a  manner  to  present  flattened  surfaces  to  each  otluM-.  are  grou]ied 
under  the  lamellieorn  beetles,  and  are  represented  in  Hawaii  by  such  well- 
known  families  as  the  stag-beetles  ^^  or  pinch  bugs,  so  called  on  account  of 
their  large  niandil)les.  The  rare  genus  Apfrrocuclus.  includiiiL;  the  seven 
species  of  the  family  occurring  in  Hawaii,  is  found  only  on  the  Island  of  Kauai. 

All  of  the  eight  or  more  species  of  Scarabu-ids  •'*  belonging  to  the  fore- 
going section,  and  including  such  widely-dist  ril)uted  forms  as  the  -lapanese 
beetle,-'"'  have  been  introduced.  Othei'  nuMnbers  of  this  extensive  family,  in- 
cluding such  classic  forms  as  the  May  beetle,  tuiiible-bugs,  dung-beetles,  skin 
beetles  and  the  like,  may  accidentally  gain  aduuttance  here  from  tim.'  to  time, 
as  two  dozen  species  of  beetles  were  prevented  from  landing  in  liU'J  oidy 
through  the  rigorous  insect  inspection  in  force  in  Hawaii. 

The   grou])  ■'•'■'    including  the    long-horiu'tl    beetles-'"    is   well    i-epresented    by 


^-  Drrmfstidw  ^'' Ilisteridir.         -»  Mtidiilida:  ^o  Elatfrida:  3i  cieridn:  '^'^  Biipiriitidd: 

■■^^  Liiriinula-.  '■>*  Sc(trab(vid(P.  »'■  Adoretim  trunimactilatiiti.  «"  P  hi/to  phnrja.  ^-  (fiambyctdcc. 


418  NATURAL   HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

more  than  sixty  species  of  that  family-  alone.  Tlie  list  of  species  includes  some 
of  the  most  highly-colored  as  well  as  striking  forms  of  Hawaiian  beetles.  As 
these  are  all  wood-boi'ing  l)eetles  in  their  larval  state,  many  of  the  species 
most  commonly  seen  have  been  introduced,  liut  in  the  group  including  the 
three  genera  Chjtarlus,  Callithrnijsus  and  PlagitJintysiis  we  have  several  species 
that  are  peculiar  to  single  islands  and  some  that  apparently  occur  only  on 
certain  kinds  of  trees.  Such  habits  indicate  the  long  establishment  of  the 
famil}'  in  the  group. 

The  division  of  the  beetle  tribe  embracing  the  darkling-beetles,^'*  which 
includes  among  other  common  species  the  red-rust  flour  beetle  ;-^'"^  the  oede- 
merids,^*^  with  one  species,  and  the  anthicids/^  with  two  coast  and  salt  marsh 
species,  is  made  uj)  of  representatives  of  introduced  families,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  cistelid  family.'-  a  family  nu-luding  ten  species  belonging  to  two  genera 
that  are  regarded  by  entomalogists  as  certainly  indigenous. 

The  family  Cioidce  is  of  doubtful  position,  but  is  represented  in  Hawaii 
by  forty-two  species,  twenty-nine  of  which  belong  to  the  genus  C/s-,  the  remain- 
ing fourteen  to  Apterocis.  A  few  of  the  species  are  found  on  the  large  fungi 
common  on  koa  trees,  but  the  majorit\-  occur  attached  to  dead  limbs  or  \uuler 
dead  bark.  As  the  very  largest  species  does  not  exceed  two  and  a  half  milli- 
meters in  length,  they  may  easily  escape  detection. 

The  family  Anobiida,  with  the  introduced  cigarette  beetle  ^'^  and  the 
book-worm, ^■'^  has  upwards  of  134  species  occurring  in  Hawaii.  One  genus"*-'' 
has  at  least  fifty  species  in  the  Hawaiian  fauna.  Another  genus-"'  has  at  least 
seventy  Hawaiian  species.  ]\Iost  of  the  species  in  tlu^  family  are  black  or 
fuscous  and  none  exceed  five  millimeters  in  hMigth.  The  family  Lyctidce 
includes  two,  and  the  Bosfri/cJiidce  several,  connnon  introduced  species.  The 
bamboo  beetle  ■''^  belongs  to  the  latter  family  and  is  rai'e ;  but  a  similar  beetle  *^ 
is  fairly  abundant. 

The  division  of  the  Colcoptera  known  as  snout-beetles  ■^•*  is  one  in  which 
the  head  is  prolonged  into  a  beak.  The  largest  and  most  important  family  of 
this  division  is  the  curculios,''"  or  weevils,  of  which  there  are  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  species.  The  great  majority  of  them  are  peculiar  to  the 
islands.  The  antenmi^  are  placed  at  or  beyond  the  middle  of  the  snout,  and  are 
curiously  elbowed,  each  terminating  in  a  solid  club.  All  parts  of  plants  are 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  the  maggot-like  bii-va\  and  in  many  instances,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  the  introduced  species,  they  do  considerable  damage.  The 
snout-beetle,'"'^  found  on  rubber  trees,  sisal,  etc.;  the  bean  Aveevil,^^  rice 
weevil,''-^  the  sweet-potato  weevil,''^  all  are  excellent  examples  of  the  family,  l)ut 
a  native  genus  •"'•"'  has  several  larger  luit  rare  species,  the  largest  being  fourteen 
millimeters  in  length.  The  large  genus  Oo(l(ni(is  has  upward  of  forty-five 
species,    all    of   which    are   rare.        The    family   AnthrihUhi    ami    the    engraver 


^'^  Tenebrionid(T.  ''^  Trilxiliinn  fi-rnii/iiit'inn.  *"  Oedemi't-idtr.  ^^  Axthiridw.         *- CiMelidee. 

*^  Lasioderma  sfi-rironit'.  ■'^'^  A  nobiuin   paniceiim.         *^  Xi/lftohiii.s.  ■>"  Mir(t!<ti'nui.i. 

*'  Dinodernus  niiniifus.  *>*  .ScliUfoci'ro.s   coniutus.  *"  Hbjinch(ii)hiira.  '''"  Ciirruliotiidfe. 

SI  Pseud(jlus  longuUtn.  ^-  linirlnis   ohti'cftis.  =»  Cahiiidrii    oviizii*'.  "*  Ci/lnx  f<iniiirariiis. 

^^  Rhyi>co(jonus. 


THE   AXBIAL  LIFE  OF  TTTE   OROFP.  419 

beetles -"^'^  are  associated  with  the  weevils.  The  latter  family  is  represented  bv 
a  limited  number  of  rare  speeies.  These  arc  small  beetles  that  live  under  the 
bark  of  forest  trees.  It  is  said  that  with  the  engraver  beetles  the  female  lays 
her  eo'iis  in  the  side  of  the  channel  which  she  cuts  in  the  wood  under  the  bark, 
and  that  the  larva'  when  hatched  cut  channels  at  ri^ht  anoles  to  those  of  the 
mother,  thus  forming  the  curious  engraver's  ]>atlei-ii. 

We  come  now  to  the  remarkable  Hawaiian  snout-beetle  family.'''  which, 
so  far  as  known,  is  peculiar  to  the  islands.  The  186  species  so  far  described 
are  all  referred  to  a  single  genus.*'^'^  None  of  the  species  exceed  four  milli- 
meters in  length.  They  may  be  at  once  recognized  as  members  of  this  family 
and  ditt'ering  from  the  weevils,  owing  to  their  long  many-jointed  anteinite, 
which  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the  beak  and  close  to  the  eyes. 

^lost  of  the  speeies  are  found  about  dead  and  dying  forest  trees,  but  some 
occur  in  fei'n  stems,  and  one  or  two  are  found  in  the  stems  of  the  maiden-hair 
feru,^^  while  one  species  was  found  by  Prof.  Swezey   to  be  a  leaf  miner. 

The  Two-Winged  Insects. 

Passing  over  the  order  including  the  fleas,""  as  they  have  been  mentioned 
in  another  connection,  the  next  order  embraces  the  two-winged  insects  ''•  of 
which  the  house  fly,  the  fruit-tiy,  the  melon-tiy,  the  lantana-tiy  and  the  mos- 
quito may  be  taken  as  conspicuous  introduced  examples  that  play  important 
roles  on  both  sides  of  the  balance  sheet  of  insect  economy  in  the  islands.  The 
life  histories  of  any  of  the  foregoing  species  may  be  easily  and  lu-ofitably 
worked  out  in  the  class-room. 

The  larva*  are  usuallj'  footless,  whitish  creatures  called  maggots  that  revel 
in  all  sorts  of  filth,  as  stable  manure,  decaying  fruit,  in  fresh  and  stagnant 
w^ater,  in  the  earth,  about  roots  of  plants  and  a  variety  of  unsuspected  places. 
The  larvfe  and  the  pupae  of  the  mosquito  are  known  as  wrigglers,  and  in  this 
stage  are  a  favorite  food  for  certain  species  of  fish  introduced  for  the  express 
purpose  of  preying  on  them. 

The  list  of  Hawaiian  Hies  prepared  liy  Mr.  P.  H.  Grimsham  in  1901-2  indi- 
cated 188  species  as  belonging  to  the  fauna.  Since  then  a  number  of  species  have 
been  added,  so  that,  native  and  introduced,  there  are  more  than  two  hundred 
kinds  of  flies  known  to  occur  in  the  islands.  Some  of  them  are  beneficial, 
others  are  troublesome,  but  the  great  majority  of  them  are  rare  mountain 
forms  seldom  met  with. 

]\Iore  than  twenty-five  families  are  repi'esented  by  fi-om  one  to  several 
species,  among  them  the  fungus-gnats,'"'-  the  moth-like  flies,'"'^  the  mosipiitoes,"^ 
the  window  tiies;"'"  the  long-legged  flies.*"'  of  which  thei-e  are  a  few  interesting 
native  species;  the  big-eyed  flies.''*"  parasites  on  leaf-hopjiers :  the  syrphus 
flies, "^^  the  flesh  flies.'"*  the  typical  flies,""  including  the  horn  tly,  blue-bottle 
fly,    house    fl\',    sheep-maggot    tly    and   stable    tly    (the    lattei'    now    believed    In- 


^^  Scolytidce.  ^'  Proterhiiiiihr.  -'^  I'rotrrhiinix.  '•«  Pterin.  '^o  Siphounpt^ra. 

^1  Diptera.  "=  Mi/refiipliiliilir.  "•'  Pxi/chaditUr.  "*  Ciiriilidir.  '^  Scei)opii>idtr. 

*"'  Dolichopodida'.         "'  Pipininilidii'.  "s  Si/rphidw.  ""  Sarcophagidw.  '"  Musiridtr. 


420  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

certain  investigators  to  be  the  carrier  of  infantile  paralysis)  ;  the  horse  and 
ox  bot-flies,"^  the  frnit  and  vegetable  flies;"-  bnt  by  far  the  most  nnmerons  in 
point  of  pecnliar  species  are  the  small  vinegar  flies  or  pomace  flies. "•'^  Of  these 
there  are  at  least  forty-five  species  peculiar  to  the  islands.  They  are  attracted 
to  decaying  fruit  and  vegetable  matter  in  great  numbers,  especially  to  pine- 
apples, where  the  species '-^  is  mistaken  by  many  ])en])lo  for  fruit-flies  on  that 
account. 

The  curious  louse-flies,'"'  which  have  very  flat  lx)dics  and  live  like  ticks  on 
the  bodies  of  birds "''  and  occasionally  on  mammmals.  are  represented  in  the 
islands  by  species  that  are  sure  to  arouse  the  curiosity  of  anyone  observing 
them. 

Butterflies  and  ]\Ioths. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  possess  very  few  butterflies,  but  have  a  very  large 
luimber  of  moths.  The  moths  and  butterflies  are  all  included  in  one  order, 
Lepidoptera,  owing  to  the  fact  that  all  of  the  members  of  this  order  are  alike 
in  having  all  four  of  the  wings  covered  with  minute  scales.  They  all  pass 
through  complete  metamorphosis ;  that  is,  the  e^iii  when  hatched  becomes  a 
caterpillar,  the  caterpillar  changes  to  a  pupa,  and  the  pupa,  after  a  quiet 
period,  turns  into  the  adult  winged  insect.  The  mouth  parts  of  the  adult, 
when  fully  developed,  are  fitted  for  sucking  nectar  from  flowers,  but  the  mouth 
parts  of  the  caterpillar  are  fitted  for  chewing,  and  it  is  in  this  stage  that  they 
do  great  damage  to  various  kinds  of  plants.  The  amount  of  damage  done  in 
Hawaii  is  considerable,  luit  a  great  part  of  it  is  done  by  introduced  species, 
as  has  already  been  pointed  out.  However,  the  moths  and  butterflies  have 
many  natural  enemies,  and  enemies  have  been  introduced  to  aid  in  keeping 
them  in  check. 

Without  doubt  the  struggle  for  existence  here  had  much  to  do  with  the 
production  of  forms  that  are  protectively  colored  with  reference  to  their 
enemies  and  their  surroundings.  When  we  realize  that  the  order  is  repre- 
sented in  Hawaii  by  more  than  seven  hundred  species.""  the  great  majority  of 
which  '^  are  peculiar  to  the  islands,  w'e  can  realize  the  length  of  time  and  the 
amount  of  specialization  involved  in  the  production  of  this  interesting  portion 
of  our  fauna.  With  so  large  a  list  of  species  the  collector  is  surprised  to  find 
so  few  individuals  of  a  species  and  that  the  majority  of  those  found  are  so 
minute. 

For  convenience  the  Lepidoptera  have  been  divided  into  the  Macrohpi- 
doptcrei  and  the  MicroJepidopfera.  To  the  Macrolepidejptera  belong  the  few 
species  of  butterflies,  (all  with  club-shaped  antennaO.  and  the  larger  moths, 
making  fifteen  families"''  in  all.     Of  this  list  but  few^  are  sufificientlv  marked 


"1  eEstridfP.  '-  Trypetichc.  "■'  Drosophilidtv.         "*  DrofKi/iliild  aiiijiejojihila.         '^  Hippoboscidce. 

'"  As  the  pueo   and  iwa.  ""  733  according  to  Prof.  Meyrick  and  J.in-d  Walsingham  in   1907. 

'^^  661  species. 

''^  According  to  Meyrick.  the  Hawaiian  Macrolepido])tera  Ijolu)!?  to  four  sujier-  families,  and  fifteen 
families,  as  follows:  (a)  Caradrinina — e'drndrinidfr,  Pliixindw ;  (b)  Xotodontina — Selidoseitiidff.  Spliin;/- 
idcB.  Eydriomenidtv ;  (c)  Papilionina — Pirridfr.  Xyinpluilidir.  Liirci'iiidrr.  (d)  Pi/rnlidiiia — Phiicitidir, 
Galleriid(e.  Crambidw.  Pi/rniixtida'.  Pi/riiUdiihr.  Ptertipliorida/  and  Orneddidiv.  These  families  are  again 
divided  into  more  than  sixty  genera. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROll'.  421 

as  to  habit  or  appearance  to  make  their  recognition  at  all  easy  or  certain,  even 
by  the  professional  entomologist,  without  reference  to  cabinet  specinit'iis, 
schemes  of  classification  and  tables,  based  often  on  minute  and  obscure  char- 
acteristics. Some  of  the  species,  however,  warrant  notice  on  account  of  their 
size  or  abundance,  though  the  very  largest  island  species  of  the  order — a  beau- 
tiful green  sphynx  moth  ^" — does  not  exceed  three  and  a  half  inches  in  expanse. 
It  has  four  dull-colored  cousins  occurring  on  the  different  islands  th;it  are 
almost  as  rare.  Like  the  foregoing  species,  the  humming-bird  moths  ai-e  also 
members  of  the  hawk-moth  ^"^  family.  Two  species  occur  here.  Tlie  one  with 
the  rosy,  spotted  abdomen,"^-  known  as  the  sweet  potato  horn-worm,  is  fairly 
abundant  from  September  to  December,  while  tlie  species  with  the  yellow- 
spotted  abdomen  is  rarer,  though  both  species  are  widely  disti-ihuted  in 
America.  The  commoner  species  has  been  mentioned  among  the  economic 
insects. 

Coming  to  the  typical  butterflies  with  knobbed  antenna?,^^  we  have  the 
so-called  four-footed  butterflies,^^  represented  by  at  least  five  species.  Only 
one  of  them,  however,  the  Kameliameha  butterfly,"*"'  is  native.  Fortunately  it 
is  the  most  common  species,  especially  in  the  lower  forest  zone.  It  can  be 
recognized  as  differing  from  the  three  introduced  species  of  the  angel-wings, 
or  vanesseds,  by  its  larger  size  and  having  the  body  reddish-brown,  whih'  the 
body  of  a  similar  species  ^'^  is  black. 

These  bright  butterflies  with  their  winus  of  varied  rustv  brown,  i-ed.  rose, 
black  and  white  add  a  welcome  touch  of  color  to  the  forest  green  that  is  sure 
to  delight  every  mountain  rambler.  The  larva?  are  conspicuous  caterpillars 
found  principally  on  the  mamaki.  They  fold  the  margin  of  a  leaf  together  to 
form  a  shelter,  crawling  out  of  it  to  feed.  As  they  grow  in  size,  they  are 
known  to  form  new  retreats  from  time  to  time. 

The  monarch  or  milkweed  butterfly'*'  is  represented  by  an  introduced 
species,  identified  by  its  having  the  upper  surface  of  the  wings  light  tawny- 
brown,  with  the  border  and  veins  black,  and  two  rows  of  white  spots  on  the 
outer  borders  of  all  four  wings.  It  is  much  the  largest  butterfly  found  in 
Hawaii.  It  is  fairly  common  on  the  lower  levels,  where  it  feeds  in  the  larval 
stage  on  the  introduced  milkweed. 

The  family  of  gossamer-winged  butterflies^'^  are  re[)resented  by  four 
species  of  the  "blues,"  one  of  which,  Blackburn's  ])nttei'fl\-,"*'*  is  peculiar  1o  the 
group  and  is  ({uite  plentiful  at  proper  seasons  in  the  mountains  on  all  tlie 
islands  up  to  4000  feet.  All  of  the  species  are  al)out  an  inch  across  the  ex- 
panded wings.  The  native  species  can  be  identilied  at  once  by  the  light  hluish- 
green.  unspotted  under-surface  of  the  wings,  and  by  the  uppei'-snrface  being 
dark  colored,  edged  with  blue.  One  of  the  inti'oduced  species''"  is  very  abun- 
dant, its  larva'  feeding  on  Crotalaria  and  other  bean-liUe  plants  growim:  on  the 
hnver  levels.      The  two   i-eniaining  species  of  Lijcaini    have   recently   been    pui'- 


'*"  Deilephilri  sinarnffditi-s.  '''^  Si)liiii!/i<l(r.  ^"  Si)lnii.v   coti  rohuili.  ''^  Pai)ilii)>iia.         ^*  yi/iiiphaliJir. 

^^  Vanessa   tamiiifdiiifa.  ■'*«  Tk/m'.vav;   atlanta.  ^~  Anosia  erippiis.  '*"  Lyc(Vtiid(V. 

^"  Lyra'na  blackburni.         *"  Lycwna   ha-tira. 


422  XATUEAL    HISTORY   OP^    HAWAII. 

posely  introduced  from  Mexico  to  feed  on  the  flowers  and  leaves  of  the 
Lantana. 

The  white  cabbage  butterfly''^  is  the  representative  of  the  third  family^- 
of  the  l)ntterflies  occnrring  in  Hawaii.  Here,  as  in  America,  they  are  an  in- 
troduced species,  and.  as  elsewhere,  they  are  common  in  gardens,,  especially 
about  cab])age,  where  their  larva\  as  cabbage-worms,  bore  into  tlie  cabbage 
heads  and  devour  the  leaves. 

In  the  genus,  to  which  the  introduced  black  cut-worm  '*•"'  found  feeding  on 
garden  and  farm  crops,  sugar-cane  and  weeds  belongs,  there  are  enumerated 
at  least  two  dozen  native  species.  They  are  for  the  most  part  fair-sized, 
somber-colored,  night-flying  moths.  Fortunately,  the  native  species  i)refer  to 
inhabit  the  higher  forested  areas,  rather  than  the  lower  agricultural  zone. 
However,  there  are  several  species  belonging  to  the  genus  Agrotis  as  well 
as  species  of  such  genera  as  Leucania,  Heliothis,  Spodoptera,  belonging  to  this 
extensive  family'*-^  and  to  the  related  family""'  that  furnish  a  number  of  forms 
that  infest  the  grass  and  the  crops  of  cultivated  lands  on  the  lower  levels. 
One  species,"*'  with  silver  commas  on  the  forewings,  is  an  introduced  trouble- 
some general  feeder  that  is  liable  to  attack  almost  any  useful  plant. 

The  super-family  Xofoclrnifiiid.  with  its  three  families  and  ten  genera,  fur- 
nish a  number  of  species  of  considerable  economic  importance.  One  genus  "'^ 
in  this  division  has  perhaps  thirty  species  that  are  among  the  more  abundant 
and  showy  moths  met  with  in  the  islands.  Their  caterpillars  of  difl:'erent 
species  often  occur  in  large  numbers  on  guava.  koa,  ferns  and  various  other 
plants  and  trees. 

Coming  to  the  fourth  super-family,'"^  with  seven  families  and  thirty-two 
genera  in  the  Hawaiian  fauna,  we  And  the  various  species  of  the  genus 
Omiodes  represented  by  the  cocoanut  palm  leaf-roller,''-*  among  the  most 
troublesome  native  moths.  A  genus  i'^"  belonging  to  the  same  family'"^  is 
represented  by  at  least  fifty-six  native  species  of  attractive  moths  that  have 
the  forewings  very  naiTow  and  often  conspicuously  marked  with  spots,  blotches 
and  wavy  designs  of  various  colors.  As  the  range  of  the  genus  seems  to  be 
between  two  and  ten  thousand  feet  in  the  mountains,  species  are  usually 
secured  from  high,  moist  regions.  They  feed  almost  exclusively  on  moss  and 
lichens,  in  which  the  larvtv  are  said  to  spin  curious  silken  tunnels  for  them- 
selves. 

Up  to  the  time  Dr.  Perkins  began  his  work  in  the  islands  but  thirty-five 
species  belonging  to  the  grand  division  of  Microhpidoptera  were  known  from 
Hawaii.  Loi'd  Walsingham,  after  working  over  the  material  assembled  by 
Dr.  Perkins,  recorded  four  hundred  and  forty-one  species.  The  labor  involved 
in  adding  so  many  species  of  insect  life  to  the  fauna,  by  the  eft'orts  of  a  single 
naturalist,  can  be  appreciated  better  when  we  realize  that  the  great  majority 
of  these  minute  creatures  do  not  exceed  a  half  inch  in  length. 


"1  Pii'ci.s-   rayxv.  ^- Pieri(ht'.  ^^  Afirotis  ypfiUiiii.         ^*  Cnradrinidfv.  "^  Plusiada. 

"'^  Ph/fiia  rhalritcs.  "'  Scotori/tlirn.         ^^  Pyralidinii.  ""  Omiodct  hlaclhnnii.        ^oo  Scopnria. 

101  Piirtii).stid(e. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  423 

On  the  wing  these  tiny  moths  fly  witli  a  rai)id,  confused  tliulit  and  alii^ht 
with  the  wings  folded  closely  together  over  the  body.  As  a  lade  they  are 
protectively  colored  and  secrete  themselves  in  crevices  in  the  l)ai-l\.  and  beneath 
the  dead  leaves  in  the  forest,  with  such  skill  as  to  defy  detection  even  by  the 
practiced  eye. 

While  their  habits  vary  greatly,  many  of  the  species  develop  to  the  adult 
stage  within  the  tissue  of  leaves,  and  in  this  way  come  to  be  called  leaf- 
miners. i*'-  Usually  each  species  of  the  leaf-miner  gi-oup  infests  some  par- 
ticular kind  of  plant  or  at  least  closely  allied  plants.  So  constant  are  these 
creatures  in  their  leaf-mining  habits  that  an  expert  entomologist  can  often  tell 
the  species  of  insect  infesting  the  plant  by  the  characteristic  mine  that  it 
makes.  Some  species  produce  galls  on  certain  plants,  others  feed  on  fruits, 
live  in  silken  tunnels  in  dead  grass  and  leaves,  on  the  bark  of  dead  trees;  some; 
produce  webs  in  koa  trees,  and  so  on  until  it  has  been  found  that  almost  every 
imaginable  habitat  has  been  occupied  by  them. 

Although  the  great  majority  of  the  species  belonging  to  the  Mivroh  pidoptera 
are  found  in  the  mountains,  there  are  many,  both  native  and  introduced,  that 
may  be  seen  about  residences,  in  gardens  or  doing  damage  to  field  crops  of 
various  kinds.  Perhaps  the  species  most  liable  to  attract  the  attention  of  ordi- 
nary observers  are  the  morning-glory  leaf-miners/*^^  both  of  which  are  intro- 
duced in  Hawaii.  The  destructive  cotton  boll-worm  ^^-^  is  also  an  abundant 
introduced  species  that  bores  into  the  seeds  of  the  cotton.  The  clothes 
moth;^*'-''  the  tobacco  leaf-miner,^ "*^  boring  into  potatoes  and  into  fruits  and 
stems  of  tomatoes,  are  two  common  species  in  Hawaii.  The  corn  moth/"" 
feeding  in  the  kernels  of  corn  stored  in  cribs,  and  in  rice,  is  also  a  common 
pest.  Thus  the  list  might  be  indefinitely  extended  and  made  to  include  uuuiy 
species  of  more  or  less  interest  or  importance.  The  species  are  so  minute, 
however,  and  are  so  much  like  one  another,  that  their  determination  is  neces- 
sarily the  work  of  a  specialist.  But  from  the  standpoint  of  the  luitive  fauna, 
especial  mention  should  be  made  of  the  large,  variable  Hawaiian  genus  Hypos- 
mocoma,  in  which  more  than  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  native  species  have 
been  identified  by  Lord  Walsingham.  This  list  has  since  l)een  extended  by 
local  entomologists.  The  larvie  make  for  themselves  many  styles  of  cases  or 
cocoons  which  are  located  in  such  places  as  on  the  bark  of  trees,  on  rocks,  dead 
twigs,  or  dead  wood.  A  peculiarity  of  the  genus  is  tlie  varia})le  form,  size, 
color  and  construction  of  the  cases  which  ai-e  made  by  the  ditTereiit  species. 

The  Dragon-Flies  and  the  Nerve- Winged  Insects. 

The  dragon-fly  may  very  properly  be  taken  as  a  lype  of  llie  order  includ- 
ing the  nerve-winged  insects,^"''  in  which  all  t'oiii-  wings  are  ineniliranous  jind 
furnished  with  numerous  veins  and  usually  with  many  ci'oss-veins.  Hnto- 
mologists   have   differed   among   themselves   as   to   just    what    the    limits   of   the 


^^-  lineidw.        ^"^  Bedfllia  siiwiiiilciifcUa   and  B.   minor.        ^o*  Oflerhia   f/oxsi/pit'lla.        '<*■•  2'i»icn  pvUinnrUa. 
^'"■'  Phthoi-iiitcen  operriil<-U(i.       ^o"  .Sifotrooa  cereab'Uu.      ^"''  yctiroiiteia. 


424  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

order  should  be,  but  in  the  ease  of  the  Hawaiian  fauna  the  order,  as  treated 
l)y  Dr.  Perkins,  has  been  made  to  include  insects  familiarly  known  as  lace- 
winged  tlies  or  hemerobians.^"^'  the  dragon-tly,!!*^'  the  book-lice  ^^^  and  the 
white  ants  or  termites.^ ^- 

To  this  super-order  have  been  referred  at  least  116  species  of  insects. 
About  one-half  of  this  number  is  made  up  by  the  lace-Avinged  tlies.  They  are 
slender-bodied,  delicate  insects  of  small  size,  the  largest  measuring  scarcely 
more  than  an  inch  in  length.  They  all  have  dainty  membranous  wings  of 
various  colors  as  gray,  brown,  yellowish-brown,  hyaline,  iridescent,  and  often 
])ale  green,  the  last  color  being  the  one  most  liable  to  attract  attention. 

The  lace-winged  flies  are  forest  dwellers  and  nocturnal  in  habit.  The 
common  lace-winged  Hy  ^'•'  is  quite  frequently  met  with  in  gardens  and  shady 
localities,  and  may  be  easily  captured. 

Of  the  dragon-fiies,^!-^  at  least  one  genus, ^^-^  with  twenty-six  endemic 
species,  may  be  regarded  as  of  very  long  standing  in  the  islands.  The  mem- 
bers of  this  genus  are  all  fond  of  the  mountain  forests  and  seldom  occur  at 
lower  levels.  They  have  very  slender  bodies,  with  both  pairs  of  wings  shaped 
nearly  alike.  So  extraordinarily  fragile,  delicate  and  dainty  are  their  wings 
that  they  are  often  called  Hawaiian  damsel  flies.  Their  gentle  and  airy  man- 
ner as  they  flit  from  leaf  to  leaf  make  them  among  the  most  attractive  of  the 
Hawaiian  forest  insects.  There  are  from  seven  to  ten  species  on  each  island, 
but  at  least  two  of  them^^'^  occur  throughout  the  group.  As  a  nuitter  of  fact, 
the  species  of  the  genus  are  related  to  one  another  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate 
that  they  all  have  originated  from  a  single  ancestral  species  that  doubtless  came 
to  Hawaii  in  ver\-  remote  times. 

The  nymphs  of  some  if  not  all  of  the  species  belonging  to  this  genus 
develop  in  the  cups  formed  at  the  base  of  certain  leaves  in  the  forest,  and  can 
live  with  a  very  scant  supply  of  water.  Living  specimens  conflned  in  collect- 
ing bottles  continue  active  for  several  hours. 

They  are  ac^uatic  and  predaceous  in  hal)it  in  every  case,  and  are  sure  to 
attract  attention  with  their  rapid  darting  movements,  their  strong  legs  and 
jaws,  and  conspicuous  eyes.  The  adults  often  flock  to  mountain  pools  during 
dry  seasons,  as  they  prefer  moist  localities.  As  a  result,  their  dead  bodies  are 
often  seen  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Of  the  three  other  genera  of  ()do)iafa  found  in  Hawaii,  the  l)ig  ijlue  dragon- 
fly ^^^  is  the  most  conspicuous  and  abundant  through  the  allied  species;  the 
strenuous  dragon-fly  ^^^^  is  common  enough,  but  so  strenuous  indeed  that  it  is 
difficult  to  capture  specimens.  The  yellow  dragon-fly  i^-'  is  the  common  species 
seen  in  the  open  country  everywhere,  but  nota])ly  in  the  streets  and  gardens  of 
Honolulu.  At  the  proper  season  as  nuuiy  as  twenty  may  be  seen  at  one  time 
hoveling  over  a  s(juare  rod  of  lawn. 

Another  si)ecies  of  piiiau.i-'"  as  all  dragon-flies  are  called  by  the  Hawaiiaus, 


io«  IJemernbiidw.       ^^'^  Odoniita.        ^^^  Psocida'.       '^^-  T<>niiitid<f.        ^^'-^  Cliri/nopa  microphi/a. 
'^''■^  Odoudta.        ^^^  Affrinii.        ""  J,fn'to*i   xantho}iielas  and  A.   ixicifiriiin .        ^^'  Anax  jwiius. 
^^^  Anax  strenuus.      ^^^  Pantala  jiavescvns.       ^-^  Tramea  lacerata. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  425 

are  common  in  the  oiien  country  on  the  lowlands.  Still  another  species  ^-^  is 
found  in  the  forest  and  deep  valleys  and  has  doubtless  long  been  a  i-esident  of 
the  islands. 

The  three  genera^--  above  mentioned  are  strong  tliers  and  liable  lo  luive 
been  natural  immigrants  at  a  less  remote  time.  The  nymphs  feed  voraciously 
on  the  larva-  of  mosquitoes,  and  ai-e  of  value  in  the  struggle  to  keep  them 
under  control. 

The  small  common  white  ant,^^-^  found  about  buildings,  w;is  doubtless 
introduced.  This  species  and  the  peculiar  Hawaiian  species'-^  found  in  the 
native  forests  are,  so  far,  the  only  representatives  of  the  white  ant  family  i-"' 
in  the  islands.     But  as  indicated  in  a  previous  chapter,  they  do  much  damage. 

Quite  recently  two  species  belonging  to  the  ant-lion  family^-"  have  been 
found  in  the  islands.  One  of  the  species  i-'  occurs  on  Oahu;  the  other,  and 
by  far  the  more  common,  on  Hawaii. 

The  remaining  families  ^-"^  are  so  small  as  to  hardly  attract  attention  at 
all,  though  the  Psocids,  or  "book-lice,"  are  represented  by  twenty-five  or 
more  species,  and  the  list  of  species  could  easily  be  extended  by  further  s^'ste- 
matic  study. 

The  True  Bugs. 

The  order  Hemiptera  includes  many  well-known  insects  with  mouth  parts 
fitted  for  sucking  the  juices  from  fresh  vegetation  and  blood  from  animals. 
They  are  well  represented  by  the  true  bugs,  plant-lice,  scale  insects,  aphids 
and  a  number  of  allied  families. 

^Ir.  G.  W.  Kirkaldy,  who  devoted  much  time  to  the  portion  of  the  Hawaiian 
fauna  belonging  to  this  order,  estimated  that  there  were  at  least  five  hundred 
endemic,  migrant  and  introduced  species  in  the  islands,  of  whicli  uumbei-  about 
three  hundred  and  sixty  Avere  peculiar  to  the  group. 

As  a  rule  they  are  represented  by  small  and,  in  many  cases,  by  rar(^  and 
inconspicuous  species,  but  as  many  are  well-known  ])ests,  the  families  of  great 
economic  importance  have  been  studied  by  entomologists.  As  the  more  im- 
portant economic  species  in  the  various  families  have  been  dealt  with  in 
another  connection,  it  only  remains  to  mention  a  few  representative  examples 
distributed  among  the  eighteen  families  recorded  from  the  group,  ami  to  uote 
that  but  twelve  of  these  families  have  species  belonging  to  the  endemic  oi- 
native  fauna. 

In  the  STd)-order,  including  the  Inu'  bugs.^-"'  Ilu'  fii'st  ])air  of  wings  are 
thickened  at  the  base,  ending  with  thinner  extremities  that  overlaji  on  the 
back.  In  this  division  are  found  insects  that  live  on  the  land,  in  llu'  water, 
and  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  nuirshy  places. 

Of  the  laud  species,  two  re])i"esenta1iv(^s  of  the  chinch-buL;'  family  '•'"  are 


'^-^  SympetriiDi   hl(ickb>n}u.       ^--Aiia.c.  Trann-d  ;)ud  l'(nif<itii.       ^-^  Calotermes  margitiipeirnix. 
^^*  Calotermex  ciisfaiiciis.       '^""  Tcniiilidn'.        ^-'^  ^f!/r^l><'U'onilla^.        ^'-'  Formirah'o  perjiirus. 
^-'^  Psocidce  and  E)iibiidic.       ^-'>  Heteroptera.        ^■^'>  Li/!/a'id(v. 


28 


426  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

of  recent  introduction.  The  red-bug  family  ^-^^  has  a  single  introduced  species; 
the  family  Myodochida'  has  a  number  of  species,  among  them  the  several  mem- 
bers of  the  Hawaiian  genus  Xysius — insects  less  than  six  milimeters  in  length. 
The  curious  Lantana  bug,^^-  purposely  introduced,  is  the  only  representative 
of  its  family  i-'-"  in  the  islands.  The  damsel-bugs,^-^-'  so  called  for  want  of  a 
better  name,  are  well  represented  by  several  Hawaiian  species  belonging  to 
a  large  genus. ^"^'  The  assassin  bugs'-^"  have  won  their  popular  name  on  ac- 
count of  their  predaceous  habits.  A  dozen  species,  most  of  them  of  fair  size, 
and  usually  of  wide  distribution,  occur  in  the  islands.  The  large  assassin 
]r,^g^i37  QY  kissing  bug,  is  thirteen  millimeters  in  length,  and  is  doubtless  an 
American  species  that  first  appeai'ed  in  Hawaii  about  1897.  The  minute, 
slender-bodied  Miridce  are  represented  by  several  species  of  small  insects, 
belonging  to  a  number  of  genera,  none  of  which  are  liable  to  be  seen  by  casual 
observers. 

Conspicuous  among  the  few  species  of  insects  that  live  on  or  within  the 
Avater  in  Hawaii  is  the  representative  of  the  family  of  water-boatmen.i'*'^  It 
is  represented  by  a  small  oval,  gray  and  black  mottled  species  ^^'^  that  has  the 
body  flattened  above  and  swims  on  the  ventral  surface.  This  peculiar  habit 
IS  of  value  to  the  novice  in  identifying  them,  since  in  this  they  differ  from  the 
next  family,  in  which  the  various  species  all  swim  on  their  backs. 

When  the  water-boatmen  swim  through  the  water  they  are  almost  com- 
pletely enveloped  in  air  which  gives  them  a  silvery  appearance.  If  they  stop 
swimming  or  lose  their  hold  on  the  bottom  they  quickly  come  to  the  surface, 
as  their  bodies  enveloped  in  air  are  much  lighter  than  the  water.  They  occa- 
sionally float  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  or  slowly  paddle  about  with  their 
oar-shaped  legs.  When  they  choose  they  can  leap  from  the  water  into  the  air 
and  fly  away.  They  feed  principally  on  other  insects  and  lay  their  eggs  upon 
water  plants. 

The  back-swimmers,^ ^1  like  the  foregoing  family,  are  represented  by  a 
single  species  ^^^  that  happens  to  be  one  of  wide  distribution.  The  favorite 
attitude  of  the  back-swimmers  is  floating  on  the  surface  of  tlie  water  back 
down,  with  their  long  oar-like  legs  stretched  outAvard  and  forward  read}'  for 
making  a  stroke.  When  disturbed  they  will  dart  out  of  the  way,  usually  by  going 
rapidly  to  the  bottom,  there  to  remain  hidden  for  some  time.  Other  minute 
bugs,!^-  with  minutely-spotted  wings  in  the  adult  and  Avith  a  red  edge  to  the 
abdomen  in  the  immature  stage,  that  walk  about  on  the  water,  especially  in 
stagnant,  w^eedy  pools,  are  very  common.  They  belong  to  a  totally  different 
family  1^3  ^f  insects  from  either  of  the  two  species  just  described,  and  in  turn 
may  be  easily  confused  wath  rarer  species  of  bugs  and  flies  that  frequent  sim- 
ilar places. 


i«^  Pprrhocoridie.       ^"- Teleotniiia  lantana;.       ^^^  Tingvido'.        ^^*  Xabidtr.       ^''^  Rediiriohis. 

^^"  Rrdiiriidrp.        ^^~  Zebix  reiiardii.       '^^^  Corixidm.        ^^^  Arctoeorisa  hlarkhurni.       ^*'>  Notonertidce. 

1*'  Biienon  fiaUipes.        i*-  Mir  ran'}  in    ra(/ans.       i*^  Gerridw. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  427 

Plant-Lice. 

The  sub-order  i-*^  to  wliicli  tlie  plant-liee,  the  jumping'  plaut-licc  ilic  hiii- 
tern-tlies  and  similar  insects  belong,  is  made  to  include  a  number  of  odd  Ijugs 
with  suctorial  mouth  parts.  Though  they  differ  widely  in  form,  they  usually 
agree  in  that  when  the  wings  are  present  they  are  of  the  same  thickness 
throughout.  When  at  rest  their  Avings  are  held  slanting,  roof-like,  at  the 
sides  of  the  body. 

Leaf-Hoppers. 

The  tree-hoppers  I'*"  if  represented  in  the  fauna  are  included  only  as 
recent  introductions;  one  species^*"  was  taken  as  long  ago  as  1908.  The  leaf- 
hoppers,'^'  better  known  as  jassids,  are  slender,  minute,  inconspicuously-colored 
insects  which,  like  the  lantern-tly  family  i^"*  and  closely-allied  families,  are 
represented  in  the  Hawaiian  fauna  by  a  very  few  species.  The  sugar-cane 
leaf -hopper  1^''  is  by  far  the  most  destructive  member  of  a  family'^*'  to  which 
have  been  referred  ten  genera,  including  thirty  species  of  Hawaiian  insects. 
They  are  arboreal  in  habit,  favoring  the  higher  elevations.  They  average 
about  four  millimeters  in  length  and  are  extremely  difficult  to  identify  spe- 
cifically. 

In  a  synopsis  of  the  family  of  Aphids  or  plant-lice,' -^^  Prof.  D.  T.  Fullaway 
enumerates  twenty-one  species  belonging  to  eight  genera  as  occurring  in  the 
Hawaiian  fauna.  A  large  number  of  these  are  of  economic  importance,  and 
have  had  notice  in  a  chapter  devoted  to  that  phase  of  the  local  insect  life. 

The  Alcjjrodidie,  which  formerly  were  included  with  the  scale-bugs  and 
mealy-bugs/'^-  are  represented  by  six  known  species,  whih'  the  coccids  have 
close  to  one  hundred  species  in  the  fauna,  almost  all  of  Avhicli  have  been 
brought  to  Hawaii  within  the  last  one  hundred  years.  Of  this  number  only 
tAvo  are  thought  by  specialists  to  belong  to  the  native  insect  fauna. 

Thrips. 

The  thrips '•"'•^  are  microscopic  insects  so  small  that  they  i-iitIv  jitlract  tbe 
attention  of  even  observant  persons.  Under  a  hand  lens  oi-  the  microscope  the 
adults  show  their  four  long  narrow  wings,  of  nearly  ecpial  si/c.  to  be  fringed 
with  long  hairs.  These  are  laid  horizontally  on  the  Itack  when  at  n^st.  How- 
ever, in  many  of  the  Hawaiian  species  the  wings  liave  been  i-educed  to  func- 
tionless  pads.  Thrips  are  to  be  found  in  various  places,  as  in  flowers,  lichens 
and  moss,  and  on  the  underside  of  stems,  leaves  and  stalks  of  grass.  |)liints  and 
shrubs.  Their  mouth  parts  show  tlieiii  to  he  iiilcriiii'<li;ite  between  tlie  suck- 
ing and  l)iting  insects,  and,  as  one  would  ('Xjx'cl.  llicy  are  known  to  \'viH\  on 
other  insects  and  upon  vegetation.  Four  families  arc  I'cpresented  by  twenty 
or  more  species,  the  most  of  which  arc  black,  bi'own  oi-  ciu'stnnt-brown  in  color. 


^^*  Ilomopft'i-a.       ^^^  Mi'}iihracida'.       ^"^  Cetitroli/iiiis  sp.        ^*' Teltigoniidce.        ^*^  Ftd<iorid(c. 
1*"  Perkinsu'lla  media ririda.        ^^o  Asiracidiv.        i^^  Aphida;.      i"-  Coccidce.         i^'  Ilninnnoptera. 


428  NATURAL    HIST(3RY   OP    HAWAII. 

One  species  1'^  found  here  in  the  mountains  is  common  in  greenhouses  in 
Europe  and  America.  The  mango  thrip,i"'"'  occurring  in  Hawaii,  is  a  species 
belonging  to  the  same  genus.     Other  species  occur  on  cultivated  plants. 

Grasshoppers.  Crickets,  Cockroaches  and  Earwigs. 

The  order  Orihopii  ra.  as  treated  in  the  Fauna  Hawaiiensis.  is  made  to 
include  such  well-known  insects  as  the  grasshoppers,  crickets,  cockroaches,  ear- 
wigs, and  other  forms  with  conspicuous  mouth  parts  formed  for  biting,  and 
with  the  lower  lip  divided  in  the  middle.  The  mode  of  growth  in  each  indi- 
vidual is  by  increase  in  size  without  any  alirupt  change  in  form  except  that  the 
wings,  when  present,  are  only  developed  in  the  final  condition  of  growth.  In 
several  forms  the  wings  are  rudimentary  and  not  suited  for  flight. 

The  OrtJioptem  are  all  insects  of  comparatively  large  size,  and  many  of 
them,  on  account  of  their  voracious  appetites,  are  very  destructive  to  culti- 
vated plant  life. 

The  earwigs  i-^*^  are  elongated,  dark-colored  insects  bearing  at  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  body  a  pair  of  curious  pincer-shaped  organs.  They  are 
common  insects  in  Hawaii,  occurring  commonly  in  gardens  and  cultivated 
ground,  as  well  as  far  up  in  the  mountains.  They  are  fond  of  concealing  them- 
selves in  jjlaces  difficult  to  enter.  1'he  name  ''earwig''  is  said  to  be  due  to  a 
belief  that  the  creatures  are  fond  of  creeping  into  the  ears  of  persons  while 
asleep.  This  curious  and  apparently  groundless  superstition  is  current  in 
Hawaii,  as  well  as  in  almost  every  other  country  these  creatures  inhabit.  They 
are  mainly  caniivorous  in  habit  and  generally  regarded  as  beneficial  insects. 

Ten  species  belonging  to  four  or  five  genera  are  reported  as  occurring  in 
the  islands.  Most  of  the  species  are  of  undoubted  recent  introduction,  some 
of  them  very  recent,  while  one  which  inhabits  the  mountain  forests  of  Kauai,^^''' 
and  a  rarer  species  ^•'^■*  from  Oahu,  may  have  developed  from  early  natural 
immigrants. 

The  cockroaches.^''''  with  at  least  sixteen  species  belonging  to  thirteen 
genera,  are  well  known  in  Hawaii,  where  certain  species  are  abundant  house- 
hold i)ests.  They  are  all  easily  recognized  by  the  common  characteristics  of 
the  order  that  are  well  exhibited  by  familiar  species.  They  all  feed  at  night 
and  fiy  from  the  light  with  a  rapid  scurrying  gait  which  is  peculiar  to  them. 
Only  one  species  i""  is  believed  to  be  truly  endemic.  It  is  found  only  in  the 
moTUitains  among  the  leaves  of  native  plants.  'The  other  species  fre(pient  the 
inhabited  areas  to  such  an  extent  as  to  |»reclude  the  possibility  of  their 
belonging  to  the  native  fauna,  even  though,  as  in  one  oi-  two  instances,  they 
have  never  as  yet  been  taken  outside  of  the  islands. 

The  two  larger  common  house  roaches.^'''^  of  which  the  American  species  is 
the  larger,  have  already  been  mentioned;  but  six  or  seven  species  are  liable 
to  occur  about  buildings,  often  in  company  with  them. 


^^*  Heliotlirips  luvmorrhoidali.i.       '^^^  Helinthrips   riibroriiirfiis.        ^^^  Dermnjitcra.       ^^'  Anisolahis  /xicificn. 
i  =  »  AtiisdldhiK  Uttorea.       i^"  Blattodea.         i""  Phyllodroiiiia   ohtusata. 
161  Peri/dfiiutii  (iiiiericana  and  P.  aiistrnUisite. 


THE  AXLMAL  LIFp]  OF  TTTE   OROi:P.  429 

Two  species  of  i)i'aying'  inanles,"'-  or  inulc-killers.  bt'l()ii<4iiig-  to  two  tlif- 
ferent  g'enera,  have  been  introduced.  One,  the  Australian  mantis, ''•■*  occurs 
on  Kauai;  the  other,  known  as  the  Chinese  praying'-niaiilis."''  on  Hawaii,  where 
it  was  first  taken  in  1900.  These  curious-looking  insects,  with  pious  faces  and 
front  legs  clasped  meekly  together,  ai"e  not  so  i)ious  as  tlu-y  a|)pear.  They  are 
insect  feeders  with  a  desire  for  food  that  is  seldom  satisfied.  The\-  arc  harm- 
less to  man  and  beast,  though  the  cvu'ious  form  of  theii-  body  gives  them  a 
formidable  and  menacing  appearance. 

The  short-horned  grasshoppers^"'"'  or  locusts  are  now  i-epi-esented  by  two 
or  three  introduced  species.  In  these  the  antenme  are  shorter  than  the  body, 
and  the  ovipositer  of  the  female  is  made  up  of  four  short  separate  parts. 

The  green  species  with  the  long,  sloping  head,  suggesting  a  dunce-cap, 
which  is  known  as  the  Australian  grasshoppei'.^*'"  Avas  accidentally  introduced 
from  that  country  about  1887  and  has  since  become  conunon  on  Oahu  and 
Kauai,  and  ])erhaps  other  islands.  A  more  typical  species  with  a  s(iuare 
head^''''  Avas  introduced  probably  from  Australia  also,  and  has  since  become 
quite  conunon  al)out  Honolulu. 

The  long-honu^d  green  hoppei's  "■''  always  attract  attention  b\"  reason  of 
the  extreme  delicacy  and  great  length  of  their  antenmv,  which  always  exceeds 
the  body  in  length. 

The  common  meadow  grasshopper  i''-'  is  well  established  all  over  the 
islands  in  open  pasture  land  and  on  mountainsides,  and  serves  as  a  common 
type  of  a  group  of  insects  represented  by  at  least  thirteen  species  and  fonr 
genera.  Tavo  of  the  genera — the  one  mentioned  above  and  one  with  a  sinule 
species,^'"  also  common  on  the  {)lains.  about  rice  fields,  and  the  low<'r  moun- 
tains— are  introduced.  The  otlier  two  genera,  one  a\  ith  ten  species'"'  an:l  one 
with  a  single  species,^ '-  are  endemic.  As  the  single  large,  green  native  species, 
belonging  to  the  last  genus,  has  only  been  secured  from  Olaa,  any  rare  green 
or  brown  grasshoppers,  with  long  antenna-,  taken  elseAvhei'e  in  the  mountains 
of  the  group  can  with  safety  be  referi-ed  to  the  larger  genus  by  the  novice. 

The  crickets  i^-'  all  differ  from  both  the  long-lioi-ned  and  the  shoi-f-hoi'iied 
grasshoppers  in  having  the  wing  covei-s  flat  above  and  bent  shai'|)l\-  down  at 
the  edge  of  the  body,  suggesting  the  lid  of  a  box,  instead  of  meeting  in  a  ridge 
above  the  body  like  a  roof.  As  a  rule,  the  males  have  a  very  different  appeai-- 
ance  fi-om  tlie  females — a  difference  so  marked  that  in  one  instance  the  sexes 
w<'re  placed  in  separate  genera.  There  are  in  Hawaii  aboul  foiiy  species  of 
crickets  belonging  to  ten  genera.  Of  that  nunibei-,  three  dozen  oi'  more  are 
recognized  as  peculiar  to  HaAvaii.  and  foi'  the  most  part  conline  theii'  i'an<:'e  to 
the  native  forests  on  the  diffei'cnt  islands.  Sixteen  of  the  native  species  ai-e 
placed  in  a  single  geiuis  Avith  a  l)i-own  mountain  cricket  '''  as  the  most  widely- 
distri])uted,   a])nndanf   and   casily-caiilni'ed   species.       They   ai'e   fond   of   the   wet 


1"-  Mantoidea.        ^"^  Oi-thiidi-i-n  iir"xiiiii.        i"*  Teiwdera  siin'uxis.        i""  Acridindea. 
^"'^  Atrartoniorphn   cri'iirticfjis.        ^"'  Oxi/a   rrlo.r.  ^<^>*  Locii.stnid,-a.        ^"«  Xii>hidiiim    ron>f lux-. 

^'"  FliiiKvn   (iii/ii'ndiriihitn.       ^'^  Bidclii/iitrtupa.        ^'- Conocephatuidi'n   liairaii'iisis.         ^'-Hl ri/lltniea. 
174  I'(iratri[i<>nkUinu    iiin-ificinn. 


430  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

woods  and  damp  "idches.  and  are  nsually  found  on  the  ground.  They  sing  all 
day  long  and  most  of  the  night,  with  a  plaintive  chirp  that  is  an  audible  sign  of 
the  moist  virgin  forest.  Their  chirp  can  usually  be  heard  a  long  way,  and  as 
they  occur  in  localities  frecjuented  by  tree  snails,  their  song  is  often  spoken  of 
by  the  layman  as  the  chirp  of  these  tree-dwelling  animals. 

The  leap  of  these  insects  is  worthy  of  remark,  as  during  the  ilrst  leaps 
they  can  cover  several  feet  in  a  single  bound.  But  after  a  few  jumps  they 
lose  their  strength  and  make  for  cover  on  a  run.  The  habits  and  appearance 
of  the  remaining  species  of  the  genus,  and  of  the  remaining  mountain  genera 
varies  greatly,  some  being  arboreal,  some  hiding  beneath  the  bark  of  trees, 
and  some  frequenting  peculiar  species  of  trees  or  plants. 

The  introduced  species,  including  the  curious  mole-cricket.^'-''  elsewhere 
referred  to,  and  two  species  of  the  true  crickets,  one  of  which  ^'''  is  common  and 
well  established,  the  other  i""  a  more  recent  introduction,  occur  about  houses 
and  gardens,  especially  in  Honolulu.  The  familiar  chirp  of  the  true  crickets 
adds  a  homely  note  to  the  music  of  the  soft  tropical  evening  in  Hawaii,  and 
all  agree  that  their  song  more  than  repays  the  slight  damage  they  may  do  to 
vegetation  and  to  stored  food. 

Wingless  Bird-Lice. 

The  wingless  bird-lice  ^'"^  ai'e  minute  parasitic  insects  with  biting  mouth 
parts  that  live  among  the  feathers  of  ])irds.  They  are  to  be  found  on 
both  the  native  and  introduced  birds  of  Hawaii.  The  list  includes  upwards  of 
twenty  species  taken  from  a  dozen  species  of  the  common  birds  and  doubtless 
falls  far  short  of  a  complete  enumeration  of  the  bird-lice  to  be  found  in  the 
group,  since,  of  the  twenty  species  recorded,  seventeen  are  described  as  new  to 
science.  While  the  rule  is  for  each  species  of  birds  to  have  its  own  peculiar 
form,  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  several  species  of  bird-lice  infesting  a  single 
bird.  The  beautiful  red  iiwi.^"''  for  example,  is  infested  with  three  genera 
representing  three  species,  and  the  Chinese  dove  with  two. 

SiLVERFISH  AND   SpRING-TaILS. 

The  spring-tails  i"^*'  are  included  in  an  oi'der  of  insects  that  are  entirely 
wdthout  wings  in  all  stages  of  growth.  FIac  species  so  far  reported  from 
Hawaii  are  minute  silvery,  yellowish  or  pale-colored  creatures  usually  less 
than  two  millimeters  in  length.  They  are  provided  with  a  curious  tail-like 
organ  which  is  bent  under,  when  the  insect  is  at  rest,  that  reaches  almost  to  the 
head.  This  organ,  when  suddenly  straightened,  throws  the  insect  into  the  air 
like  a  rocket  to  land  several  feet  away,  presumably  in  a  place  of  safety.  The 
species  so  far  secured  have  been  taken  from  the  high  mountains  under  bark 
and  from  other  sheltered  places,  but  their  general  habits  are  unknown. 

Coming  to  the  most  primitive  order  of  living  insects,!'*^  familiarly  known 
as    bristle-tails,    fish-moths    oi-    silverfish,    we    find    the    order    represented    by 


^'^  Gryllotalpa  ufricana.      '^''^  GryUiis  innntahilix.      ^''  Gryllus  sp.     '^'^  MaUvpliayn.     ^'"  Tegtiaria  coccinea. 
^^''  CoHembola.        i^i  Tln//t(iniir(i. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  TILE   GROUP.  431 

several  species  peculiar  to  the  islands.  At  least  one  or  two  ainonji'  them, 
especially  the  common  silverfish.'^-  were  introduced.  They  are  all  active 
insects  that  live  in  obscure  places  and,  like  the  sprinji-tails,  they  never  exhibit 
any  trace  of  Mnngs.  The  silverfish  has  a  distinctly  segmented  body,  covered 
with  minute  hairs  or  scales,  which  terminate  in  two  or  three  bristle-like  appen- 
dages. The  four  native  species  so  far  reported  belong  to  two  families  and 
have  all  been  described  from  specimens  collected  in  the  native  forest.  The 
native  species  from  Oahu^'^-^  occurs  also  on  both  Mani  and  Kauai,  and  is  al)out 
thirteen  millimeters  in  length.  Doubtless  there  are  other  species  to  ])e  dis- 
covered, as  the  mountains  of  the  islands  mentioned  are  the  only  ktealilies 
from  which  these  interesting  insects  have  as  yet  been   reported. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
LAND  AND  FRESH  WATER   SHELLS. 

The  land  shells  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  have  l)een  more  extensively  col- 
lected and  minutely  studied  than  any  other  group  of  animals  in  the  islands, 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  any  single  group  of  animals  in  the  w^orld  has  contributed 
more  really  striking  material  for  systematic  study  or  received  more  attention 
from  students  of  evolution. 

Land  Shells. 

The  first  Hawaiian  land  shells  to  be  examined  by  Europeans  were  speci- 
mens secured  by  Captain  Dixon  from  a  shell  lei  or  necklace  which  Avas  ])ro- 
cured  in  the  islands  on  the  occasion  of  his  memorable  visit.  He  carried  the 
specimens  back  to  England  and  described  the  first  species  as  Turbo  apcx-ftilva 
in  the  report  of  his  voyage  round  the  world,  which  was  published  in  17S!». 
From  that  time  to  the  present  land  shells  from  Hawaii  have  been  eagerly  col- 
lected by  almost  every  one  with  a  taste  for  general  natural  history. 

Almost  every  boy  in  Hawaii  has  at  one  time  oi-  another  made  his  collec- 
tion of  land  shells,  and  a  long  list  of  scientific  men  and  energetic  collectors, 
past  and  present,  have  given  much  time  and  thought  to  the  collection  and 
study  of  this  most  interesting  group  of  mollusks. 

While  there  are  perhaps  fifteen  well-established  families  with  as  many  as 
thirty-five  genera  represented  in  the  entii-e  hind  and  fn'sh-water  shell  I'aiina 
of  the  islands,  it  is  the  beautifully  and  ('ons])i('U(Misly-(M)h)i'ed  trfc-dwclling 
forms,  commonly  known  as  "tree  siuiils,'"  lliat  arc  most  genci'ally  soui^ht  for 
by  the  shell  enthusiasts.  Moreover,  they  ai'c  the  foi'ins  upon  which  most  of 
the  important  systematic  and  philosophic  work  of  the  i)ast  has  been  l)ased.  Ac- 
cording to  ^Ir.  E.  R.  Sykes.  who  j)ublished  an  extensive  paper  on  the  sul>.iect  of  the 
Hawaiian  jMollusca  as  late  as  1 !)()().  at  least  three  hundred  and  twentv-two  of 


^^"  Lepisma  saccharinn.        i^-' J/f(<'A(7('.v  lirlfroiJiiK.  '  AcIkiI iitiUidtv    (st'o  page  433). 


4,   ^   A 

"9  90 


I  i  4  4 1 


B4 


PLATE  100.     COLOR   A'ARTETTES   EXTTTBTTED   BY   TWO   COMMON   .SPECIES   OF 

LAN])   SHELLS. 

1.     AchniciKiHusirHnt    rarid   ami    varieties.     2.    Apex   muslcliim   and   varieties. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROFP.  433 

the  approximate  tivc  hundred  species  and  varieties  of  Hawaiian  land  and 
fresh-water  shells  then  known,  were  placed  in  the  one  t'aiiiil.\'  '  whicli.  accord- 
ing to  his  view,  was  made  up  of  nine  genera.  Of  that  numbei-  the  four  genera, 
Achatinella,  Amastra,  Leptachatina  and  Auriculella,  contain  the  great  bulk  of 
the  species.  These  names  occur  so  often  in  the  literature  on  the  siielis  of  the 
group,  and  are  represented  by  such  extensive  and  liandsome  series  in  the 
various  noteworthy  collections  in  the  islands,  that  the  remaining  genera  of 
the  family  and  the  long  list  of  genera  belonging  to  other  Hawaiian  families 
too  often  appear  to  be  lost  sight  of. 

Variations. 

The  super-genus  AcJtafiiK  (la,  for  example,  is  represented  l)y  upwards  of 
one  hundred  species,-  the  majority  of  which  grade  through  such  a  perplexing 
variety  of  shades  and  forms  that  it  is  usually  impossible  to  fix  the  exact  limits 
of  the  species.  Indeed,  Rev.  E.  W.  Thwang  collected  from  various  sources 
and  published  no  fewer  than  three  hundred  and  fifty-eight  descriptions  that 
have  been  applied  l)y  different  authors  to  the  various  forms  in  the  above 
genus  alone. 

With  so  long  a  list  of  names  founded  on  such  variable  characteristics  as 
size,  shape,  locality,  color  pattern,  banding  and  other  variable  mai-kings  to 
be  considered  for  the  most  part  as  synon>'ms,  the  amateur  collector  although 
he  may  be  provided  with  the  literature  on  the  subject — a  literature  which 
includes  more  than  two  hundi'ed  titles — finds  himself  involved  in  an  almost 
endless  confusion  of  names.  AVhat  is  worse  there  is  such  a  diversity  of  o])inion 
among  the  authorities  on  the  minute  points  involved  in  the  classification  of 
the  shells  in  this  important  genus,  that  for  the  present,  at  least,  the  student  in 
desperation  is  reduced,  as  a  rule,  to  simply  keeping  his  shells,  gathered  from 
various  localites  carefully  separated — usually  labeling  them  l)y  valleys,  i-idges, 
side  ridges,  spurs  and  in  some  cases  indicating  the  pai-ticular  bush  or  tree 
from  wdiich  they  were  taken,  in  the  hope  tliat  some  day  the  subject  of  iioiiirn- 
clature  will  be  definitely  settled. 

Nevertheless,  this  tendency  to  wide  divergence  in  form  and  cobu-  in  the 
vai'ious  groups  and  species  fiu'nishes  to  the  tnu^  shell  collector  liis  chief  soui'ce 
of  interest  and  relaxation  at  home  and  a  w^orthy  excuse  for  any  nuinlici'  of  all- 
day  rambles  in  the  mountains.  This  ])oint  can  better  be  appreciated  by  taking- 
one  or  two  fairly  typical  examples. 

Color  \\\rieties. 

Extending  over  Ijoth  sides  of  the  mountains  hack  of  Honolulu,  iVoiii  .\iu 
Valley  to  and  including  Makiki  Valley,  are  disti"il)uted  the  species  ;nid  varie- 
ties of  what  for  convenience  is  known  to  some  authors  as  the  Fidgens  group. 
To  this  group  seven  described  species  have  been  i-eferi'ed.  IJut  each  of  the 
so-called  species  ranges  through  a  series  of  varieties  sufficient  in  the  ojunion  of 


The   exact   mimbei-   varviiig'   witli   rliffi-i-cut   autliorities. 


434  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

some  to  unite  it  vei-y  nicely  with  other  species  in  the  group.  Under  one 
species^  are  described  no  fewer  than  forty-two  color  varieties!  Some  are 
bluish-gray,  others  ashy-chestnut  wnth  black  bands.  Some  are  with  two  bands, 
others  have  three.  Others  are  white  or  yellowish  at  the  base,  reddish-gray 
above,  with  a  dark  spiral  line  between.  Others,  again,  are  smaller  and  more 
elongatedly  ovate.  Still  others  are  thinner  than  the  typical  varieties.  Some 
have  the  spire  more  convex  and  colors  less  streaked,  and  so  on.  to  the  end  that 
almost  every  specimen  collected  is  found  upon  close  examination  and  compari- 
son to  vary,  much  or  little,  from  its  next  neighbor.  But,  unfortunately  for 
the  collector,  this  remarkably  variable  species,  name  and  ;i]l,  in  the  opinion  of 
a  second  authority,  is  reduced  to  the  rank  of  a  synonym  under  the  name  of 
one  of  the  other  species  ■*  in  the  Fulgens  group  of  our  first  authority,  and  in 
company  with  a  species-"'  from  Waimea  Valley,  at  the  extreme  opposite  end 
of  the  Koolau  range  that  has  been  carefully  referred  by  our  first  authority  to 
an  entirely  separate  group,  the  range  of  the  species  is  thus  made  to  extend 
over  this  chain  of  mountains  from  end  to  end ! 

AVith  such  confusion  in  almost  every  species,  it  is  little  wonder  that  all 
those  who  collect  Hawaiian  land  shells — and  there  are  those  in  Honolulu  who 
have  private  collections  numbering  into  scores  of  thousands  of  specimens — 
are  looking   patiently   forward   to   the   completion    of   the   work*    by   the   more 

Note: — Since  the  nianuscript  for  this  chapter  was  written,  Vohinies  XXI  (1911)  and 
XXII  (1912-1914),  and  a  more  recent  su2:)plenient  to  Vohime  XXT,  of  the  Manual  of  Con- 
chology  have  appeared.  Both  volumes  are  splendidly  illustrated  with  colored  plates  and 
include  syuonomy  and  descriptive  text  treating  fully  the  Hawaiian  terrestrial  Amastridte  and 
the  tree-dwelling  Aehntinellid(e.  This  review  of  these  interesting  families  of  land  molhisks  by 
Dr.  Henry  A.  Pilsliry,  with  the  assistance  of  a  num])pr  of  h)cal  collectors,  has  been  anxiously 
awaited  by  students  and  conchologists  generally.  The  volumes  are  in  every  way  praiseworthy, 
and  are  indispensable  to  those  who  are  interested  in  this  section  of  the  Hawaiian  fauna. 

Volume  XXI  is  devoted  to  the  sub-family  Amasirince,  which  in  the  subsequent  volume  is 
elevated  to  full  family  rank  (Amastridae).  It  is  made  to  include  seven  Hawaiian  genera, 
namely:  Leptachofina,  with  117  species  and  a  number  of  sub-species;  Carelia,  with  eleven 
species  and  nine  sub-species  and  varieties;  Pterodisciis,  seven  species,  two  sub-species;  Plana- 
mastra,  two  species;  Armsia,  one  species;  Amastra,  114  species  with  numerous  sub-species  and 
varieties;  LamineUa,  fourteen  species  and  six  sub-species  and  varieties,  the  last  genus  being 
arboreal  in  habit. 

Volume  XXII  treats  fully  of  the  true  Achatinellidse,  recognizing  three  well-defined  genera, 
namely:  Newcombia,  Pariuliiid  and  Acliaiitiella.  The  Partulina  are  further  divided  into  four 
(Pcrdwella,  Partulina,  Boldiriiiiana,  EunieUa),  and  the  Ac]>atnielki  into  three  (Bidiniella, 
AchatineUastntm,  Acliatinella)  sections.  The  genus  Neiccomhia  includes  nine  species  and 
three  sub-species;  Partulina,  fifty-one  species  and  a  number  of  sub-species,  varieties  and 
forms;  and  AcJtatinella  forty-one  species  with  a  very  large  number  of  sub-species  and  minor 
forms.  In  the  appendix  to  Volume  XXII,  and  the  sup]dement  mentioned,  as  many  as  two 
score  of  species  an<l  sub-species  are  described,  in  addition  to  the  large  numbers  of  new  S])ecies 
described  in  the  text  of  the  volumes.  They  are  divided  quite  equally  among  the  various 
genera  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  forms  already  known,  and  represent  graphically  the 
progress  made  during  the  period  (1911-]9]o)  of  puldication  towards  a  more  comidete  syste- 
matic knowledge  of  the  land  shell  fauna  of  the  group.  The  rajiid  increase  in  new  species 
indicates  that  the  possibility  of  collecting  new  forms  is  by  no  means  exhausted.  A  comparison 
of  the  text  and  synonomy  of  these  later  volumes  with  the  earlier  (1900)  work  of  Mr.  E.  R. 
Sykes  will  show  the  sweeping  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  nomenclature  during  the 
period  of  fifteen  years. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  remaining  families  of  Hawaiian  air-breathing  molhisks  (Pul- 
monata)  may  receive  a  similar  review  by  the  author  of  these  epoch-fixing  volumes  at  an 
early  date. 


Arhatitielln   )iluiii(it<i.  *  Arhnfuiflln  hiiddii.  ^  AchathirUti  ctpsia. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   OROrP.  433 

recent  and  most  painstaking-  anthorities,  the  renowned  [)v.  11.  A.  Piishi'v.  of  the 
Academy  of  Xatnral  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  and  the  local  specialist,  Ur.  C. 
Montague  Cooke,  of  the  Bishop  ^Iiiseum.  It  is  hoped  that  their  conclusions 
as  published  from  time  to  time,  since  they  are  based  on  extensive  field  collec- 
tions and  the  examination  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  shells  now  in 
museum  collections,  will  at  least  settle  once  and  for  all  the  (jviestion  of  '"whicli 
is  which"  in  the  shell  fauna  of  these  islands. 

But  we  cannot  afford  to  jkiss  without  comment  in  this  connection  the 
interesting  investigation  of  my  friend  and  colleague,  Dr.  Cooke,  on  the  distri- 
bution and  variation  of  a  single  species"  of  Achatinella  from  Xuisanu  Valley, 
published  by  the  Bishop  Museum. 

For  his  purpose  he  selected  a  shell  from  Nuuanu  Valley  that,  as  a  recog- 
nizable species,  seemed  to  be  fairy  abundant  and  is  commonly  regarded  as  oc- 
curring- only  in  that  single  valley.  The  northwest  side  of  the  valley  was  care- 
fully explored  and  about  three  thousand  shells  collected,  over  half  of  Avhich 
belonged  without  question  to  the  single  species  under  investigation.  Begin- 
ning at  the  upper  end  of  the  valley,  at  the  famous  Nuuanu  Pali,  the  habitat 
studied  included  the  main  ridge  on  the  left  and  the  sub-ridges  and  valleys  that 
extend  into  the  main  valley  of  Nuuanu  from  one  hundred  to  three  hundred 
yards  at  almost  right  angles  to  the  main  ridge.  On  account  of  the  sedentary 
habits  of  the  land  snails,  these  ridges,  owing  to  the  deep  valleys  that  separate 
them  one  from  another,  form  isolated  habitats.  Of  the  twenty-three  sub- 
ridges  the  upper  seventeen  were  all  found  to  ofifer  a  very  uniform  environ- 
ment as  far  as  food,  moisture  and  elevation  were  concerned.  All  were 
found  to  be  inhabited  by  the  particular  species  of  land  shell  being  studied.  In 
some  instances  the  sub-ridges  were  further  sub-divided  into  special  localites 
so  that  the  area  of  none  of  the  localities  was  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards 
in  diameter.  Specimens  were  found  to  favor  the  more  open  localities  between 
one  thousand  and  fourteen  hundred  feet  elevation. 

With  the  data  and  material  at  hand  Dr.  Cooke  was  able  to  describe  twenty- 
live  well-marked  color  varieties,  all  of  which  were  more  or  less  closely  con- 
nected by  intermediate  specimens.  When  we  remember  thai  the  species  in  its 
various  forms  is  distributed  over  an  area  only  a  few  hundred  yat-ds  wide  at 
most,  by  two  or  three  miles  in  length,  it  is  clear  that  much  scientific  interest 
must  attach  to  such  studies.  Among-  many  other  interesting  facts  it  Avas 
found  that  the  shells  varied  not  only  from  one  ridge  to  another,  luit  from  one 
colony  to  another.  In  fact,  the  specimens  secured  from  a  given  limited  locality 
often  varied  among  themselves  to  a  remarkable  degree. 

It  was  the  early  appreciation  and  observation  of  facts  such  as  these,  and 
a  desire  to  find  the  law  that  underlies  such  facts,  that  led  my  friend,  the  dis- 
tinguished evolutionist.  Rev.  John  T.  Gulick.  in  his  early  youth  to  begin  a 
systematic  collection  of  land  shells.  Later,  tlii-ough  the  inspiration  of  Dar- 
win's great  book  on  "The  Origin  of  Species."'  he  set   to  woi-k  in  eai-nest.  with 


^Achatinella   iiiiiltizonafn.  "Published  in   1859. 


<  ° 

—        K 


&:    2 


<; 


THE  ANLMAL  LIFE  OF  TILE   (iROFP.  4.v 

the   result   tluit    he   soon    published    ;i    coiisidci-jihlc    jiiiKUiiit    ol'    valiiahh'    data 
based  on  Hawaiian  hind  shells,  the  objeet  of  which  was  to  show  that  isolation, 
segregation   and   variation   were   exceedingly    important    and    until    then    almost 
neglected  factors  in  the  theories  advanced  in  efforts  to  <'xp|;iiii  ihc  formation 
of  natural  species. 

In  the  study  of  so  small  and  apparently  uninipoi-lant  a  subject  as  a  land 
snail,  Dr.  Gulick's  philosophic  mind  found  abundant  material  for  the  elucida- 
tion of  such  profound  subjects  as  the  variation  of  species  as  related  to  tlieii' 
geographical  disti-ibution  illustrated  by  the  A(h(tU)i(lli<Ja'  (1872)  ;  diversity  of 
evolution  under  one  set  of  external  conditions;  divergent  evolution  thi-ough 
cumulative  segregation;  intensive  segregation;  divergent  evolution  and  llie 
Darwinian  theory;  the  inconsistencies  of  utilitarianism  as  the  exclusive  theoiy 
of  evolution,  and  lastly  the  preservation  and  accumulation  of  cross-infertility 
(1890-97).  All  of  these  were  contributions  to  knoAvledge  of  the  most  far- 
reaching  significance. 

Important  Families  Represented. 

Scarcely  less  in  numerical  importance  when  compared  w'ith  the  genus 
Acliatinella  are  the  one  hundred  and  fifteen  or  more  species  of  the  genus 
Amastra,  representatives  of  which  are  distributed  over  all  the  large  islands 
of  the  group.  The  Leptachati)ia,  with  an  equally  extended  list  of  species,  is 
likewnse  distributed;  and  so  the  enumeration  could  be  extended,  but  it  is  not 
the  intention  in  this  place  to  attempt  more  than  to  encourage  the  beginner  to 
enter  this  fascinating  field  of  study,  where  so  much  has  already  been  accoiii- 
plished  and  where  yet  so  much  remains  to  be  done  befoi-e  this  i-emaikably  I'icli 
and  varied  fauna  will  be  completely  understood. 

In  the  gathering  of  these  "jewels  of  the  forest"  the  collector  will  find 
many  forms  occupying  a  great  variety  of  habitats,  so  that  bushes,  grass,  ti-ees 
^^ including  their  leaves,  trunks  and  limbs),  the  ground,  tlead  leaves,  the  rocks 
in  the  streams,  the  streams  themselves — in  short,  almost  every  coiu'eivable 
place,  but  particularly  the  moist  regions  of  the  mountains — is  liable  to  have  its 
shell  inhabitant.  The  great  majority  of  those  species  found  on  llie  gi-oinid. 
however,  are  more  lial)le  to  belong  to  some  of  the  foui-teeii  families  othei-  tlian 
the  AcluiiineUidce,  but  they   will   not    l)e   found  entirely   devoid   of   interest   for 


DESCRII'TION'     of      I'l.ATK. 

1,  2,  3.  Chinese  Snail  {J'iripdnis  clinicnsi.s).  4,  5.  Mclmiia  (Mclania  mamensis).  (i.  7. 
Melania  mdidrnsis  (Badly  eroded).  S,  9,  10,  11.  Mdaiim  luucomhii.  VI.  Xeritina  icsi>cr- 
tina.  13.  Neritina  cario'sa.  14.  Pijiipi  (Nerita  iiicca)  on  rocks  at  low  tide.  15.  Opercu- 
lum from  Vjviparus  cMnensis.  16.  Limmea  (Limnmi  oahuensis).  17.  Slirimji  fOpae]  (Ma- 
crobrachium  pr  audi  man  us).  IS.  Dragon  Fly  [Pinauj  nymph  (Introduced).  10.  Brackish 
water  Crab  (Mctocjnip.su.s  nu.'^sor).  20.  Native  Dragon  l"ly  |  Pinauj  nympli.  21.  Siirimji 
{Alacrobrachium  (/randimanu.'i) .  22.  Water  Beetles  (II !iilrt>bim  .<iemict/li)u1ricu.^).  23.  Li.n- 
nspa  (Lunnaa  binomhiis) .  24.  Fresh  water  Clam  {Spharinm  .sp.).  2.1.  Water  Beetles 
(Ehanthus  pacificus).  26.  Sowdiug  (PorccUio  .scabcr).  27.  Waterboatmau  (Arctocorisa 
bhiclbiinii) . 


438  NATURAL   HIST(3RY   OF    HAWAII. 

that  reason.  As  many  of  them  are  scarcely  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length, 
they  require  that  careful  search  and  much  patience  be  expended  in  collecting 
them. 

Among  the  more  conspicuous  of  the  various  families,  not  included  in  the 
extensive  divisions  of  the  AcJiati)iellidce,  are  the  Sticcineidce.  There  is  but 
the  single  genus  "*  in  the  family,  with  perhaps  thirty  species  known  from  the 
islands :  the  larger  number  being  found  on  the  Island  of  Hawaii.  They  are 
delicate  thin-shelled  mollusks  with  a  slightly  spiral  shell,  the  last  whorl  of 
which  is  large  and  flattened,  giving  the  empty  shell  the  appearance  of  a 
twisted  finger-nail.  The  majority  of  the  species  prefer  damp  situations,  usually 
under  luxuriant  foliage,  though  there  are  species  that  vary  their  habitat 
somewhat.  Another  family  ^  with  very  fragile  spiral  shells  is  represented  by 
perhaps  a  dozen  species  of  the  genus  Limnaa.  At  least  half  the  known  species 
are  from  Oahu.  The  best  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  small  shell  ^^ 
found  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  taro  and  rice  ponds  about  Hono- 
lulu. Other  forms  occur  in  the  cool  mountain  water  at  high  elevations;  a 
horn-colored  species  ^^  found  on  the  rocks  beside  the  -waterfalls  at  the  head  of 
Manoa  Valley  furnishing  a  good  example.  Eriinta  neiccomhia  is  the  only 
known  Hawaiian  species  of  this  related  genus ;  it  was  reported  only  from  the 
Hanalei  river,  on  Kauai,  until  the  author  collected  specimens  from  the  Lima- 
huli  stream. 

A  very  minute  cap-shaped  shelP-  found  in  various  streams  on  the  under 
side  of  decaying  leaves,  especially  the  leaves  of  kukui  and  hau.  also  belongs  in 
this  group,  although  there  is  little  in  the  shape  of  the  tiny  paper-like  shell  to 
suggest  such  a  relationship.  While  tliey  are  fairly  common  and  are  quite 
generally  distributed,  on  Oahu  at  least,  they  are  very  seldom  seen  even  by 
expert  collectors. 

The  conspicuous  and  abundant  long  spiral  fresh-water  shells  common  in 
the  lower  portion  of  the  streams  on  Kauai,  Oahu,  Maui  and  Molokai  are  sure 
to  belong  to  one  family.^-'  The  six  known  species  are  all  placed  in  one 
genus. ^^  The  species  ^^  wnth  the  entire  surface  roughened  is  the  more  widely 
distributed,  being  taken  on  all  of  the  islands  mentioned.  The  smooth  species  i" 
has  so  far  been  collected  on  Oahu  and  Kauai,  but  both  species  often  occur 
together  in  the  same  stream. 

Some  years  ago  the  Chinese  introduced  an  edible  snail  ^'  which  has  become 
firmly  established  in  the  taro  and  rice  ponds  of  Kauai,  Oahu,  ]\Iaui  and  ^lolokai, 
and  doubtless  on  the  other  islands.  Large  specimens  may  be  collected,  often  two 
inches  or  more  in  length,  but  as  a  rule  they  are  seldom  so  large.  They  are, 
however,  easily  tlu'  largest  .species  of  land  or  fresh-water  shells  in  the  group 
and  belong  to  a  family  ^"^  without  other  representatives  in  the  islands. 

The  small  globular  snails'''  Avith  short  spires  occurring  in  damp  woods 
have  as  many  as  a  dozen  or  more  known  species.  They  are  the  only  repre- 
sentatives  of  the    operculate   shells   in    the   land   fauna ;    but    as   the    largest 


^  Sureineti.  ^'  LiiiiiKcidif.  ^"  LinnKca  oalnifioiix.         ^^  Liinncea   hinnininis.         ^-  Ancyliis  sliarpi. 

^^  Melaniidfc.  >*    Melnuin.  ''■'  Mehtnia  man  ten. sis.  i"  j/c/ajua  iiewcombia. 

1"  Tiviparus  chiiiesis.         ^^  Tin/iaridce.  ^^  Helicinidce. 


THE  AXLAIAL   fJFK  OF  TIIH   r.ROrP.  439 

examples  are  less  than  h  ({luii'tci-  oj'  nii  inch  in  dijiiiicliT,  tlicy  ;n-c  seldom  taken 
by  other  than  a  specialist  witii  a  taste  for  collectniu  iIk  small  "pin  head" 
groups  of  Hawaiian  niollusks. 

Occurring  in  similar  localities  witli  the  species  mentioned  ai)()ve  are  found 
the  beautiful  spiral,  translucid.  shinin<:'  Opeas.  A  connnon  species-"  occurs 
on  all  the  islands,  but  as  there  are  hut  four  species  belonging  to  the  two  genera 
in  the  family.-'  they  are  not  re-^arded  is  i!ti|)or1ant. 

The  streams,  i)articularl\'  towards  their  mouths,  ai-e  liable  to  he  inhal)ited 
by  one  or  more  of  the  five  or  six  s])eeies  of  Xerifliia  found  in  the  islands.  A 
large  tiat  black  species  with  an  oi'ange  mouth  and  roughened  shell  --  is  found 
higher  up  in  certain  sti'eams,  ailhering  to  stones.  They  are  gathered  for  the 
markets,  the  finest  specimens  perhaps  coming  fi-om  Pelekunu  Yalley.  on  Mo- 
lokai.  All  of  the  species  are  liable  to  be  foiuid  on  any  of  the  islands,  their 
occurrence  apparently  depending  on  the  habitat.  The  several  fresh  and 
brackish-water  members  of  this  family  -■"■  adhere  to  stones  and  other  objects 
in  the  water,  and  all  are  eaten  l)y  the  Hawaiians. 

A  very  common  coiled  snail  shell -^  that  grows  to  he  lhi-ee-foui-ths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  is  common  all  over  the  island,  but  especially  plentifid  about 
Honolulu,  where  they  occur  under  boards  and  flower  |)o1s,  oi-  in  moist  weather 
may  be  found  sk^wly  creeping  about  over  the  grass,  fences,  walks  ami  shi-ub- 
bery.  They  are  the  largest  representatives  of  the  TTelix  family-'  in  Hawaii. 
and  as  this  species  is  widely  distributed,  it  is  doubtless  an  inii'odu<-ed  foi'iii. 
Specimens  are  abundant  in  scattered  and  isolated  ]ilaces  on  Oahn,  indicatinL;- 
that  it  is  by  no  means  a  new  arrival. 

During  a  period  of  drought  the  animal  draws  i)ack  into  the  coils  of  the 
shell  and  secretes  a  whitish  paper-like  false  operculum  ovei-  the  aperture.  They 
will  live  in  this  condition  for  many  months,  bttt  in  the  rainy  season  they 
become   active   again. 

The  curious  black  slug,-*'  about  two  inches  in  length  with  a  i)ale  line 
down  the  center  of  the  back,  is  also  an  introduced  species  that  at  tinn-s  is  vei'y 
plentiful  about  Honolulu.  They  are  noctui-nal  in  habit,  coming  out  at  inght 
from  moist  places  where  they  remain  hidden  dui'ing  the  day.  Slugs  often 
leave  a  trail  of  slime  or  nnu'ous  behind  them  as  they  creep  along.  Tliey  are 
supposed  to  feed  tipon  decaying  vegetation.  Although  an  iidi"oduced  species,  it 
serves  very  well  to  represent  the  family  of  ti-ue  sluizs.-"  of  which  thevo  are  fivi' 
or  six  species  known  from  the  inountains  on  the  dilVerenl  islands.  They  are 
not  abundant,  however,  the  most  common  nati\e  slug-''  on  ()ahu  lie'iig  a  small 
species  that  occasionally  occurs  in  the  mountains  of  Kauai  ami  ]\raui. 

While  the  species  of  several  families  of  Hawaiian  sliells'-''  are  too  minute 
to  be  often  seen  or  to  admit  of  a  bi'ief  cliaraeterizatioti,  ihey  ai-e.  ne\  friiu'less. 
sure  to  occur  in  the  matei'ial  gathered  hy  a  carci'ul  collector.  Trobalily  be- 
tween sev(Mit\-ti\-e  a!i(l  one  Inuulred  species  of  lla\\aiian  shells  ai'c  placed  in  the 


-0  Opeas  jiinreus.  21  stfiio(/!/rid(V.  "-  Xeritina  grnnoxn.  -^  Xeritid(V.  "*  F.iilntn   sinnhiiis. 

'-°  Helividir.  ^'^  Yeroiiirelhi  sp.  -'  LimacidtF.  ">*  A  urioliniax  bevruoti. 

-"  ZoiiifiKlii'.    PliiIoi)i[)ridir.    E iidodnfid'C.    I'liiudiv.    Tdrnnti'llitiidip. 


440  THE   ANBIAL   LIFE    OF   THE   GROUP. 

various  families  here  grouped  as  being  too  small  to  be  illustrated  or  to  receive 
notice  in  a  book  of  this  character. 

The  tiny  fresh-water  clams  ^^  are  represented,  so  far  as  known,  by  a  very 
minutes  species  ^^  and  a  still  smaller  form  •■-  on  Oahu,  ^lolokai,  Kauai,  and 
perhaps  other  islands  of  the  group.  Both  of  these  forms  are  very  small,  the 
larger  being  less  than  two-tenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Earthworms. 

The  worms  of  the  islands  have  never  been  exhaustively  studied.  A  dozen 
species  of  earthworms  •'•"'  representing  three  genera  are  enumerated  by  Dr.  F.  E. 
Beddard,  who  examined  and  reported  on  the  material  collected  by  Dr.  Per- 
kins. The  species  occurring  in  cultivated  grounds  appear  to  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  islands  by  man.  The  leeches  ^^  have  not  been  studied.  Two 
species  are  quite  common  in  the  streams  of  Oahu,  and  there  are  doubtless 
other  species  on  the  different  islands.  But  in  general  the  fresh-water  streams 
of  Hawaii  have  received  but  little  attention  from  zoologists,  doubtless  owing 
to  the  fact  that  they  are  known  to  be  very  sparingly  inhabited  by  animals  of 
any  considerable  size,  save  a  few  fish  and  fresh-water  shrimp.  Of  recent 
years,  however,  frogs,  tadpoles,  moscpiito  fish  aiul  dragon-fly  larva^  have  added 
a  welcome  touch  of  life  to  the  streams. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 
SHELLS  FROM  THE  SEA-SHORE:      PART  ONE. 

Pleasure  or  Collecting  Shells. 

A  ramble  by  the  sea-shore  usually  results  in  gathering  shells,  seaweed, 
fragments  of  coral  jind  such  odd  remnants  of  life  as  are  cast  up  by  the  waves, 
and  it  is  from  the  desire  to  know  more  of  the  natural  history  of  such  objects 
that  many  a  person  has  been  led  into  the  systematic  study  of  the  life  of  the 
sea  and  thereby  become  a  life-long  student  of  nature.  To  one  with  a  taste 
foi"  such  pursuits,  the  sea-shore  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  furnishes  a  never- 
failing  and  ever-changing  lure.  "Winter  or  summer,  day  or  night,  one  may 
wander  up  and  down  the  beach  or  wade  in  the  shallow  water  for  miles,  know- 
ing that  he  can  never  grow  too  old  nor  become  too  full  of  knowledge  to  enjoy 
nature's  open  school  by  the  sea-shore. 

The  class  of  objects  most  liable  to  attract  the  novice  are  the  dead  shells 
sti-ewn  here  and  there  along  the  sandy  beach.  Little  by  little  one  comes  to 
realize  that  there  are  nmny  different  kinds  of  shells,  and  that  realization 
usually  is  the  starting  point  of  the  collection  of  shells,  for  one  soon  appre- 
ciates the  necessity  of  specimens  for  comparison;  and  the  pleasure  of  adding 
littk  by  little  to  the  storehouse  of  one's  treasures  by  one's  own  efforts  is  a 
pleasure  that  has  in  it  all  of  tlic  joys  of  discovery,  knowledge  and  possession. 


^"Cyrenidw.  ^^  SiilKiriinii    sp.  ^-  Pisidiuiit.  ^^  Terrirahr.  ^*  II inidimn. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  441 

Persons  coming  to  Hawaii  imbued  Avitli  tlie  idea  that  the  shores  of  all 
coral-wreathed  islands  in  the  tropics  are  piled  high  with  large  and  showy- 
shells,  such  as  adorn  the  curiosity  dealers'  windows  throughout  the  country, 
and  that  are  often  labeled  "from  Hawaii,"  or  more  often  the  "Sandwich 
Islands,"  are  sure  to  be  disappointed.  Such  shells  are  usually  gathered  from 
islands  far  to  the  south  of  Hawaii.  They  are  labeled  "from  Hawaii,"  not 
so  much  from  a  desire  to  give  their  proper  locality,  a  thing  the  collector  soon 
learns  to  appreciate  as  a  matter  of  very  great  importance,  as  to  make  of  them 
mere  "curiosities,"  something  rare  and  strange  to  sell  to  the  vuisuspecting. 
For  that  reason  it  is  better  to  collect  such  specimens  as  one  can  gather,  even 
though  they  are  not  as  large  or  ])i'illiant  as  those  one  can  buy,  and  exchange 
such  duplicates  as  are  gathered  with  associates,  be  they  schoolmates,  traveling 
companions  or  professional  collectors. 

The  first  expedition,  perhaps  a  stroll  along  the  bathing  beach  ,it  Waikiki, 
is  an  aiLspicious  one  if  two  dozen  different  kinds  of  small  beach-worn  shells 
are  gathered;  for  with  shells,  as  with  almost  all  forms  of  life,  only  the  most 
resistant  types  can  withstand  the  grinding  action  of  the  waves.  If  the  same 
beach  is  visited  the  following  day,  a  week  later,  or  when  opportunity  offers, 
without  doubt  other  species  will  be  found :  thus  the  little  collection  grows. 

The  enthusiast  soon  learns  that  different  environments,  as  sandy  beaches, 
rocky  coasts,  coral  reefs,  sheltered  bays  and  the  open  coast  line,  are  inhabited 
by  different  groups  of  mollusks  and  that  in  due  time  their  shells  are  cast  upon 
the  shore.  The  pleasure  and  the  profit  in  visiting  the  same  localities  and  dif- 
ferent localities  under  varying  conditions  at  different  seasons,  again  and  again, 
soon  comes  to  have  a  fascination  that  only  those  who  have  become  enthusiasts 
themselves  can  understand  in  others. 

Three  Types  op  Mollusca. 

So  far  as  the  writer  knows,  no  one  has  ever  succeeded  in  gathering  a 
complete  collection  of  all  the  shells  that  may  be  collected  from  the  waters 
about  the  islands,  or  even  from  the  shore  of  a  single  island.  A  complete  col- 
lection would  number  many  hundreds,  if  it  were  made  to  include  all  of  the 
many-celled  animals  without  a  backbone  and  with  unsegmented  bodies,  with- 
out paired,  jointed  appendages  and  with  or  without  a  hard  shell,  that  are 
included  in  the  great  phylum  IMollusca. 

Such  a  group  would  include  three  widely  different  types  of  animals.  The 
squid,  the  octopus  and  their  kind,-  in  which  the  head  is  well  developed  and  in 
which  the  front  part  of  the  foot  sui-i'ounds  the  mouth  and  is  remarkable  for 
its  bearing  a  series  of  lobes  or  tentacles — called  the  "arms"  in  the  octopus — 
form  one  class. 

The  snails,  slugs,  whelks  and  periwinkles  form  a  second  class  and  are 
called  Gasteropods.  They  are  usually,  though  not  always,  willi  spiral  shells, 
but  they  may  be  without  shells  at  all.     The  7iame  gastei'0|)O(l  means  stomacli- 

^  Ct'/ilifiloiioda. 

29 


ti 


r^ 

- 

\^ 

tt 

c 

^ 

r 

_ct 

!Xl 

cs 

< 

K 

Tfi 

*~ 

^ 

< 

ci 

y— 

u^ 

*^ 

^ 

— 

J^ 

.^ 

< 

~ 

^ 

~ 

r^ 

— 

^ 

PH 

pq 

o 

-*^ 

C 

-^ 

K 

7t 

GC 

,_ 

1 — ' 

r 

■jc 

rn 

*■/* 

y. 

x 


c 

^ 

ri 

■^ 

C 

'^ 

t* 

c 

^^ 

^" 



o 

ci 

^— 

^" 

^_ 

t: 

^ 

E 

v3 

.-;;: 

h— 

C    ffl 

f^^.'H 

X     O 

-  5 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  443 

foot,  and  is  an  allusion  to  the  fact  that  the  entire  lower  portion  of  the  body  is 
thickened  and  flattened  to  form  a  broad  muscular  foot  adapted  to  tlieir  cling- 
ing and  crawling  habits.  In  tlie  common  and  more  tyi)ical  forms,  the  aper- 
ture, which  is  the  opening  into  the  spiral  shell,  is  closed  when  the  animal  is 
retracted,  by  a  small  horny  or  shelly  plate  called  the  operculum,  but  ])()tli  the 
spiral  shells  and  the  operculum  are  absent  in  certain  gasteropods. 

The  third  division  -  includes  such  creatures  as  the  mussels,  clams,  scallops 
and  oysters,  in  Avhich  a  right  and  left  valve  or  shell  can  be  p]aiiil\-  recog- 
nized. For  this  reason  they  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  bivalves.  'I'hc  Jiving 
animal  has  broad,  flat  gills  on  each  side  of  the  body  to  which  water  is  brought 
through  a  tube  called  the  siphon.  The  food,  consisting  of  minute  plants  and 
animals,  is  strained  out  of  the  water  as  it  passes  through  the  incurrcnt  and  cxcur- 
rent  tube.  The  bulk  of  the  soft  i)ai-t  of  the  animal  is  called  tlie  foot  and  is 
suited  for  digging. 

Mussels,  Clams^  Scallops  and  Oysters. 

While  there  are  a  number  of  species  of  bivalves  in  the  waters  about  the 
islands,  perhaps  not  more  than  fifteen  or  twenty  species  are  common  on  Oahn. 
Of  these  the  one  most  frequently  met  with  is  the  common  mussel,-'^  which  in 
many  places,  as  at  Diamond  Head  and  Pearl  Harbor,  almost  pave  the  shore 
below  the  low-tide  mark.  They  are  from  an  inch  to  two  inches  in  length  :  \he 
right  and  left  valves  are  equal,  slightly  ridged,  and  are  covered  with  an  epi- 
dermis which  varies  from  black  to  light  yellow.  The  hinge  has  miinitc 
teeth,  and  the  beak  is  at  one  end  of  the  hinge-line.  They  live  attached  to 
rocks,  shells,  piles  or  other  objects  by  a  number  of  threads  called  the 
byssus.  A  species  occurring  in  Europe  is  much  esteemed  as  food.  The  Ha- 
waii ans  use  the  nahawele,  as  they  are  called,  but  so  far  as  the  writer  knows  they 
have  never  been  gathered  for  market. 

A  method  formerly  employed  hy  the  natives  in  preparing  this  conniion 
mollusk  for  food  should  be  of  interest  to  sea-shore  campers.  A  spot  was  found 
where  the  mussels  were  exposed  at  low  tide,  and  over  the  bed  of  shells,  drift- 
wood was  piled  and  a  fire  lighted.  The  heat  caused  the  shells  to  open  and  at 
the  same  time  roasted  the  fleshy  part  within,  rendering  it  very  palata])le.  The 
natives  also  gathered  them  from  the  shallow  water  and  placed  them  in  wooden 
calabashes  in  which  water  was  heated  by  means  of  hot  stones.  In  a  few  min- 
utes the  animal  would  be  thoroughly  cooked.  The  water  was  tln-n  drained  off 
and  a  pinch  of  sea  salt  added  to  bring  out  the  flavor  of  the  food. 

The  Mytilus,  or  edible  mussel,  is  readily  separated  IVoni  tlir  two  or  thi-ee 
common  species  of  Perna,  especially  a  small  black  form  ^  whicli  il  somewhat 
resembles,  by  the  more  compressed  form  of  the  shell  and  by  the  several  tooth- 
like notches  along  the  straight  hinge-line.  Tln'  Perna  arc  fui'tbo-  marked  by 
conspicuous  flaky  lines  of  growth  whit-h  arc  imj^ortant  characters  in  tlie 
various  common  forms.     One  species,  the  ])ai)aua   of  the  natives,  common   at 


^  Pelecypoda  or  LaiiielUbniiK-hialii.  ■'■  M i/tihis  I'li-hrisl ridtiis.  *  M-li„a  =  (Perna)   californica. 


444  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

Kiwalao,  is  cream  color  with  black  teeth.  A  third  species  is  dark-brown  in 
color,  with  the  hinge-line  somewhat  elongated  and  marked  with  fan-like  lines 
radiating  from  the  beak. 

A  species  of  the  pearl  oyster  family  ^  occurs  at  Pearl  Harbor.  The  com- 
mon species  "pa"  is  often  three  or  four  inches  or  more  across.  The  hinge-line 
in  the  common  pearl  oyster  ^  found  here  is  long  and  straight,  without  teeth, 
and  is  produced  to  form  wing-like  projections  of  the  shell  at  either  side  of 
the  beak,  which  is  much  nearer  the  middle  of  the  hinge.  Without  doubt  it  was 
the  presence  of  this  shell  with  the  iridescent  interior,  occurring  at  Pearl  Har- 
bor, on  Oahu,  that  gave  that  sheet  of  water  its  name,  i^ilthough  they  belong  to 
the  same  sub-family,'^  they  are  not  the  famous  pearl  shell  '^  of  the  South  Pacific 
islands.  However,  a  pearl-bearing  species  is  found  in  Pearl  Harbor  and  at  cer- 
tain other  places  about  the  group  in  the  deeper  water  offshore,  and  pearls  were 
found  to  some  extent  by  the  natives,  but  the  pa  was  chiefly  used  by  them  for 
making  fishhooks  and  to  some  extent  in  making  the  curious  shell-eyes  for  their 
wooden  gods. 

Fine  specimens  of  the  chest  or  ark  shell,°  locally  know^n  as  kupukele,  are 
to  be  found  living  in  the  water  and  bedded  in  the  solid  rock  in  certain  locali- 
ties in  the  uplifted  coral  reef  about  Pearl  City.  They,  in  common  with  other 
species  of  the  famih^^*^  have  the  beak  near  the  middle  of  the  hinge.  The 
hinge-line  is  strong  and  straight  and  is  furnished  with  fine  interlocking  teeth. 
The  outside  is  fluted  with  jDronounced  squarish  riblets.  A  second  species  ^^ 
found  w^ashed  up  on  the  sand  beaches  is  oblong  in  shape,  and  in  the  dead  shell 
the  wdiitish  surface  is  marked  with  many  fine  riblets  which  in  old  age  become 
broken  up  into  squarish  points  by  the  lines  of  growth.  The  inside  of  the  shell 
within  the   pallial  line   is   also   roughened   liy   lines   radiating   from   the   beak. 

The  true  oysters,  the  scallops  and  the  saddle  03'sters  differ  from  other 
bivalves  in  that  they  have  but  one,  instead  of  two,  adductor  muscles  for  pulling 
the  shells  together.  They  lie  on  their  sides  instead  of  standing  on  edge  as  other 
bivalves  do,  and  the  under  valve  becomes  flattened  or  otherwise  modified  in 
consequence. 

There  is  a  large  species  of  extinct  oyster  ^-  to  be  found  in  the  uplifted  beds 
about  Pearl  Harbor,  but  there  also  occurs  a  smaller  living  species  ^^  seldom  more 
than  two  inches  in  length.  On  account  of  its  sharp  edge  it  is  called  pioeoe  by 
the  natives.  It  makes  a  rough,  rude,  irregular  foliated  shell,  the  edge  inter- 
locking by  numerous  notch-like  folds.  They  are  too  small  and  scarce  to  be 
used  extensively  for  food.  Nevertheless,  they,  and  their  extinct  cousins,  indi- 
cate that  a  commercial  species  could  be  grown  in  the  islands  if  the  proper  kinds 
were  introduced  and  proper  care  taken  in  their  planting,  despite  the  fact  that 
efforts  in  this  field  have  so  far  proved  unsuccessful. 


°  ArictiUdif.  ''■  Mmiinritifera   fitiihritita.  '  AvicuUncp.  ^  Avirula   inari/aritifera. 

°  Area.  ^^  Arcidcc.         '^^  Area  Candida.  ^- Ostrea  reta.ia.  ^^  Ostrea  rosacea. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  445 

Attempts  at  Oyster  Culture. 

lu  1871  the  first  attempt  was  made  to  iiiti'oducc  the  Eastci'ii  oystci-^^  into 
Hawaii.  Again  in  1883,  Mv.  Allen  Herbert  purchased  three  hundred  Eastern 
oysters  in  San  Francisco  and  planted  them  in  Kalihi  Bay.  but  heavy  freshets 
in  the  stream  covered  them  with  mud.  In  October,  1893,  another  attempt 
was  made.  This  time  one  thousand  Eastern  and  three  thousand  California 
oysters  1^  were  secured  in  San  Francisco  and  planted  in  ponds  at  Ewa  in 
shallow  water.  In  a  very  short  time  the  California  oysters  died.  The  Eastern 
oysters  thrived  better,  and  by  1895  ]Mr.  J.  F.  Colburn  undertook  a  more  exten- 
sive planting.  More  than  thirty-eight  thousand  oysters  were  planted  in  that 
year,  but  they  did  not  thrive,  and  by  1901  only  a  few  living  shells  could  be 
found. 

Next  to  the  oysters  come  the  pretty  scale-like  golden  saddle  oyster  (pipi) 
or  Anomia  shells.  The  common  species  i*'  are  irregular  in  form  and  the  valves 
are  unequal.  The  lower  and  usually  the  flatter  valve  is  remarkable  for  the 
hole  near  the  hinge  through  which  a  plug-like  peduncle  passes  by  which  the 
shell  is  attached  to  other  shells  or  rocks.  Fine  specimens  occur  about  Ford's 
Island,  at  Pearl  City,  and  are  to  be  found  in  suitable  places  in  other  locnlities. 

The  scallops  or  pectens,^'  of  which  two  or  three  species  are  quite  common, 
as  well  as  a  related  genus, ^'^  are  more  regular  and  symmetrical  in  the  growth 
of  the  shell.  They  are  usually  flushed  with  rose  color  and  ornamented  with 
radiating  ribs.  The  wing-like  ears  together  with  the  symmetrical  outline  of 
the  shell  renders  the  genus  ^'^  an  easy  one  to  identify,  and  as  the  species  are 
fond  of  sandy  bottoms  and  shallow  water  their  shells  are  scattered  here  and 
there  along  our  beaches.  The  shell  of  Ilinnites  is  irregular  in  growth.  As  they 
are  usually  attached  to  some  submerged  object,  they  are  less  commonly  found 
on  the  shore. 

Coming  to  the  clam-like  mollusks  of  the  islands,  first  place  sliouhl  l)e 
given  to  the  olepe  -*^  by  reason  of  its  being  the  most  important  shell-bearing 
food  mollusk  of  the  group,  though  the  present  day  Ilawaiians  ai)ply  flic  same 
name  indiscriminately  to  a  number  of  edil)l('  l)ivalves  that  are  in  no  wax- 
closely  related  to  the  common  species.  Full-grown  specimens  of  the  olepe  are 
two  inches  or  more  in  length  and  are  creamy  white  in  color.  'I'hcy  arc  slightly 
flattened,  but  are  rounded  in  front  and  angnlar  and  slightly  folded  posteriorly. 
The  shell  is  beautifully  sculptured  witli  wavy  lines  which  become  more  and 
more  jn-onounced  as  the  shell  advances  in  age.  They  are  fond  of  Imrying 
themselves  in  tlie  soft  mud  at  the  mouths  of  i-ivei-s  and  ha\c  long  been  an 
article  of  food  especially  prized  by  the  Ilawaiians.  A  snuiller.  smoother,  more 
delicate  milk-white  species  ^^  known  ])y  the  s.-mie  name  by  the  natives  is  often 
found  in  large  numbers  on  the  sandy  beaches  on  the  windwai'd  side  of  Oahu. 

A  small,  round,  white  clam  --  also  occurs  in  Pearl  Harlioi-.  Ixitli  as  a  living 


^*  Ostrea  virgiyiica.         '^^  O.strea  liirido.         ^'^  Aiiumia  nohiiis.  ^~  Pectinidce.  ^^  Ilitnntes  ffigantetis. 

'»  Pecten.  -°  Tellina  ruyosn.         -'  Tellina  disixn-.         --  Cadokia  =  (Lucina)   ramtilosa. 


446  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

and.  a  fossil  species.  It  has  its  firm  shell  sculptured  with  a  large  number  of 
radiating  riblets,  and  the  margin  minutely  roughened  or  crenulated. 

The  genus  CytJierea  is  represented  by  a  heart-shaped  clam --^  that  is  sim- 
ilar to  the  Venus  clam  but  is  much  rounder  and.  thicker.  Like  it,  the  hinge 
has  three  strong  teeth,  but  the  species  has  its  surface  beautifully  marked,  with 
radiating  blotches  of  brown.  These  markings,  however,  often  disappear  from 
beach-worn  specimens,  or  in  old  age,  leaving  the  pure  white  shell  slightly 
roughened  with  minute  hair-like  growth  lines.  The  markings  are  responsible 
for  the  common  name  tent  or  encampment  shell. 

In  Hawaii,  as  elsewhere,  one  of  the  commonest  forms  of  clam  shell  everywhere 
along  the  beach  is  a  species  of  Venus  -^  or  round  clams.  Its  stout  Avhite 
shell  is  beautifully  roughened  by  prominent  concentric  bands  which  are 
broken  up  into  numerous  rectangular  spaces  by  the  radiating  ril)-like  lines. 

The  typical  species  of  Cardium  or  heart  shell  -•''  found  on  Oahu  is  easily 
identified  by  its  heart  shape  when  both  valves  are  joined,  and  by  the  strongly 
convex  valves,  which  are  deeply  ribbed,  the  ribs  interlocking  on  the  margin  of 
the  shell.  In  addition  to  the  center  teeth  there  is  also  a  strong  tooth  at  the 
extreme  end  of  the  hinge  line.  The  inner  surface  shows  the  furrow^s  of  the 
rib  lines,  and  even  in  l)eaeh-worn  specimens  it  is  of  a  delicate  pink  color. 

Several  species  belonging  to  the  family  of  rock  oysters  -''  are  found  on 
the  beaches,  as  they  are  fond  of  attaching  themselves  to  various  objects, 
especially  the  dead  and  growing  coral.  At  first  glance  they  may  be  mistaken 
for  oyster  shells,  but  their  thick,  heavy,  solid,  foliated  shell  is  somewhat  spiral 
at  the  tip  and  the  unequal  valves  are  united  by  teeth,  two  in  the  left,  or  at- 
tached valve,  and  one  in  the  upper,  or  lid  valve.  The  name  of  the  genus  -" 
has  reference  to  their  gaping  appearance.  Some  of  the  specimens  are  four 
inches  in  length  and  the  tw^o  valves  together  often  weigh  a  pound.  The  inside 
of  the  shell  may  be  white  or  colored,  especially  about  the  margin,  with  rose, 
lavender  or  brown.  As  they  are  very  thick  and  strong,  they  long  withstand 
the  grinding  of  the  sea  and  sand,  and  fragments  lie  along  the  shore  which  are 
worn  down  perfectly  smooth.  Other  specimens  are  much  roughened  by  nu- 
merous small  holes  drilled  in  the  shell  by  various  worms  which  enter  them  for 
protection.  They  are  sometimes  used  as  food  by  the  natives,  either  cooked  or 
raw,  and  are  known  to  them  as  kupakala. 

Gasteropods,  Including  Snails,  Slugs,  Whelks,  Cowries,  Etc. 

In  a  book  of  this  character  it  is  obviously  impossible  to  give  more  than  the 
briefest  mention  of  some  of  the  more  common  and  interesting  of  the  several 
hundred  species  of  gasteropod  mollusks  that  have  been  reported  from  the 
Hawaiian  Islands.  However,  it  is  hoped  that  by  reference  to  the  accompanying 
figures  and  the  brief  description  given  of  the  more  common  species  occurring 
in  the  waters  about  the  islands,  that  many  of  the  shells  found  along  the  shore 


^'■^  Lioronclia  hirr(i!/h/iiliira.  -*  Voixs  relicul'ita.         -"Cardium  arbiter.  "^  Chamidce. 

2"  Chama. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  447 

may  readily  be  placed  in  their  pro])ei'  .ueiiera  by  those  who  do  not  luive  access 
to  more  minute  description.  To  make  the  ilhisti-ations  more  useful  to  those 
whose  collections  are  made  mainly  from  the  l)eacli.  the  majority  of  the  speci- 
mens shown  are  in  the  Ix'ach-worn  condition  in  which  they  arc  liahh:"  to  occni-. 
They  were  selected  from  material  collected  on  foui-  holiday  excursions,  oiu'  to 
Waikiki  and  Diamond  Head,  one  to  the  dredger-dumped  material  fiom  Hono- 
lulu harbor,  one  to  Pearl  Harbor  and  one  to  Kahana  Bay.  Ninety-two  species 
belonging  to  forty-one  genera  were  collected  in  this  way.  Of  this  number  six- 
teen species  belonging  to  fifteen  genera  are  included  in  a  list  of  foi-ty-five 
species  reported  by  ^Ir.  D.  Thaanum  as  commonly  found  on  shore  and  in  the 
shallow  water  about  Hilo.  ]Mr.  Tluianum's  collection,  which  includes  tlie  land 
and  fresh-water  shell  collection  made  by  the  Kiduis  brothers,  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  systematic  private  collections  in  the  islands.  The  marine 
collection  numbers  upwards  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  species  belonging  to 
ninety  of  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  or  more  genera  commonly  included  in 
a  list  of  Hawaiian  gasteropods. 

As  an  example  of  the  unusual  reward  to  be  had  for  more  exhaustive  col- 
lecting in  a  given  locality  for  a  single  group  of  shells,  it  is  interesting  to  report 
that  Mr.  J.  ]\I.  Ostergaard  has  been  able,  in  a  few  years,  to  secure  from  the 
dredging  from  Honolulu  harbor  and  other  sources,  thirty  of  the  forty  species 
and  sub-species  of  the  beautiful  Cijprcea,  or  cowry  family,  so  far  listed  in  the 
literature  of  the  subject  as  occurring  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

The  univalve  or  gasteropod  mollusks  are  by  far  the  largest  division  of 
the  Mollusca.  Some  are  free  swimming  animals,  living  far  from  land  out  in 
the  open  seas,  but  the  greater  number  inhabit  shallow  water,  usually  about  the 
low-tide  mark;  while  others  dwell  in  brackish  water,  in  fresh  water  and  on 
the  land.  The  typical  gasteropod — and  it  is  only  this  division  that  can  be 
considered  in  any  detail  here — is  lun'mally  a  crawling  animal  beai-ing  a  coiled 
shell.  They  all  move  slowly  by  the  continual  contraction  and  expansion  of 
the  muscular  foot.  Many  of  the  common  marine  forms  have  interesting  habits, 
and  may  be  kept  alive  with  very  little  trouble  in  a  simple  salt-water  aquarium. 
In  a  small  aquarium  one  should  be  careful  not  to  overstock.  Two  of  three 
healthy,  happy  specimens  are  less  trouble  and  far  more  interesting  for  the 
purposes  of  observation  and  study. 

In  general  it  will  be  found  that  the  si)ecies  that  have  the  base  of  the  aper- 
ture rounded  as  in  Littoriiia,  Crcpidiila,  Xcrifa  and  the  like,  are  herbivorous  in 
habit,  feeding  on  seaweed,  moss  and  minute  acpiatic  plants.  Shells  in  which 
the  aperture  is  deeply  notched  or  prolonged  into  a  caiuil,  as  in  Xassa, 
Stromhus,  Mitra  and  Cypraa.  are  usually  carnivorous  or  tlesh-eatinu'  species 
and  are  perhaps  more  difficult  to  supply  with  their  accustomed  food  on  that 
account. 


xn 


rji 


<      « 


Ah 


<1 

O 


O       o 


<11 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  449 

Spiny  Rock  Sttet.i.s. 

The  extensive  family  -"^  kiioMu  as  the  sjjiiiy  rock  shells  is  represented  in 
Hawaii  by  ten  genera  with  i)erhaps  twenty-eiuht  or  iiioi-e  species.  The  typical 
genus  Murex  is  seldom  found  on  the  shore,  but  the  genus  J'to-pura.  namcil  in 
allusion  to  a  purple  dye  formerly  secured  from  certain  species,  has  three 
species,  one  of  which  is  quite  common.  These,  together  with  the  castor  bean- 
pod  shells,-''  the  banner  shells  •'^'^  and  tlu>  )-attle  shells''^  shown  in  the  jilates, 
will  be  sufficient  to  give  an  idea  of  the  more  common  fonus  belonging  to  this 
family. 

Of  the  rattle  shells  there  are  several  small  species  known  from  Hawaii. 
The  mulberry  shell  ^-  is  appropriately  named  from  its  appearance.  It  is  ciuite 
generally  distributed,  but  is  not  conspicuous,  since  it  is  less  than  an  inch  in 
length.  To  these,  and  in  fact  to  the  great  majority  of  shells  of  the  same 
general  shape,  the  Hawaiians  gave  the  class  name  ])ui)u.  It  seems  that  the 
number  of  species  was  so  great  that  the  natives  applied  specific  names  to  only 
a  few  of  the  more  important  ones. 

Tritons. 

The  triton  family  ^^  is  represented  in  the  islands  by  a  dozen  or  more 
species  belonging  to  the  typical  genus -'^^  and  as  many  as  eight  or  more  of  the 
frog-shell  •''•''  group,  which  differ  from  their  cousins  in  having  a  pronounced 
ridge  or  varix  on  each  side  of  the  shell,  which  forms  a  thick  ridge  on  the  oppo- 
site sides  making  the  shell  distinctly  two-edged.  They  live  on  the  coral  reef, 
and  all  but  one  of  the  species  has  been  taken  from  Honolulu  harbor. 

The  fine  triton  trum})et  ■'''  is  seldom  taken  on  shore,  l^ut  as  they  grow  to 
splendid  proportions  and  are  the  largest  shell  that  occurs  in  Hawaii  and  were 
used  by  the  ancient  Hawaiians  as  a  war  trumpet,  they  are  worthy  of  special 
mention.  They  are  said  to  attain  a  length  of  eighteen  inches,  but  specimens 
a  foot  in  length  are  more  commonly  seen.  Such  shells  are  treasured  as  a  i-eal 
possession  by  the  old  Hawaiian  fishermen,  foi-  they  know  how  scarce  they  are 
and  how  hard  they  are  to  secure,  living  or  dead. 

The  hard  shell  has  a  peculiar  resonant  (|ualit\-.  When  the  tip  of  the  spire 
is  cut  or  ground  away  and  the  shell  used  as  a  bugle  (pu),  it  emits  a  peculiar 


-^  Miiricidcv.  "^  Ririnula.  ^"Ve.vilhi.  '^'^  Si.stnitn.  ^- Sistrnm    iiionix.  ^^  Tritouidtv. 

3*  Triton.  3=  Ranella.  3"  Triton  tritonis. 

Descriptiox    ok    Platk. 

1.  Ammtra  violaccir  var.  wailaucnsis.  2.  Carrlia  sinrlairi.  H.  Lamiiiclld  urarida.  4. 
Latiiinella  gravida.  5.  Amastra  turritella.  G.  Lamindhi  saiifjitinea.  7.  Amasfra  nthrinin- 
da.  8.  Amastra  textilis.  9.  Newcombia  canaliculata  var.  xvailauensis.  10.  Lcptaclialina  .<ip. 
11.  Pariulina  dubia.  12.  Perdicclla  fuh/uran.s.  13.  Lamindla  rcnusia.  14.  AiiricuhUa  sp. 
15.  Endodonta  sp.  16.  Sncciiica  sp.  17.  IfcUcina  sp.  18.  Pupa  sj).  1!).  Pf<  nuli.^rus  nx. 
20.  Endodonta  sp.  21.  Pliihme.sia  haldwini.  22.  Eitloia  siniilaris.  23.  Opta.<i  pijrtji.'icus. 
24.  Suceinea  sp.  25.  Leptachatina  cl>rysaUs.  2(5.  Pterodi-fctis  discus.  27.  Philoiitsin  .f/j. 
28.  Amastra  frosti.  29.  Achatinella  (Apex)  lorata.  30.  PartuUna  confusa.  31.  finliinrUa 
bacca.     32.    Achat audhtst rti ix   iihnncta. 


450  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

foggy  sound  that  carries  for  a  long  distance.  In  former  times  it  Avas  a  con- 
venient instrument  with  which  to  summon  the  laborers  from  their  slumbers,  or,  in 
more  strenuous  times,  to  cheer  the  faithful  on  to  victory  at  arms.  The  grace- 
fully tapering  shell  is  variegated  A\dth  buff,  brown,  purple  and  red  in  a  very 
rich  and  characteristic  i)attern.  The  outer  lip  is  toothed,  and  whitish,  with 
double  streaks  of  brown  which  soon  fade  into  the  ruddy  aperture. 

The  more  common  species,  especially  in  Honolulu  and  Pearl  Harbor,  is  the 
hairy  triton  ^^  known  as  pupu  ole.  It  may  be  recognized  by  its  bristly  olive- 
colored  epidermis.  On  beach-Avorn  specimens  this  peculiarity  disappears,  leav- 
ing the  whole  exterior  of  the  shell  streaked  with  revolving  bands  and  folds.  In  the 
tritons,  as  with  most  shells,  as  age  advances  the  lip  thickens  and  changes  take  place 
between  young  and  old  specimens  w'hich  confuse  even  those  w^ho  profess  to 
considerable  knowledge  of  the  science  w^hich  deals  with  the  shell-bearing 
animals.-'^'^ 

The  quilted  triton  •'•'  is  a  smaller,  more  solid  species,  seldom  more  than  two 
inches  in  length,  and  is  far  from  being  the  most  common  triton  in  the  islands. 
It  exhibits  considerable  variation  in  coloring  and  other  characters.  Init  is 
usually  light  or  dark  brown  M'ith  the  ribs  and  tubercles  lighter,  and  there  is 
sometimes  an  ill-defined  whitish  band  on  the  large  or  body  whorl.  The  nodu- 
lated teeth  and  the  mouth  of  the  shell  are  whitish  and  thickly  enameled.  The 
interior  of  the  aperture  is  orange-red. 

Spindle  Shells. 

The  spindle-shell ""'  family  has  a  typical  Hawaiian  form  in  a  graceful 
w^iite  species  ^^  in  which  the  long  canal  ecjuals,  or  exceeds,  the  spire  in  length. 
The  species  is  fond  of  mud-fiats,  where  it  burrows  in  the  soft  deposits.  For 
this  reason  it  is  a  common  shell  in  harbor  dredgings.  The  chick-pea  shells  ^- 
and  the  genus  Peristernia  are  common  shells  that  are  grouped  in  a  suli- 
family  ^^  of  the  spindle  shells.  l)ut  to  the  ordinary  observer,  unacquainted  with 
all  the  details  of  classification,  they  appear  to  have  little  in  common  with  the 
more  typical  forms. 

Whelks. 

So  far  as  is  known,  the  whelk  ^-^  family,  which  includes  the  f uigur 
shells  commonly  figured  in  books  on  sea  shells,  are  represented  in  Hawaii  by 
only  a  few  small  species.  The  family  as  a  whole  is  described  as  thick,  ovate 
or  pear-shaped  shells  with  a  short  canal  and  with  the  columella  (the  pillar 
around  which  the  whorls  or  turns  of  a  spiral  shell  revolve)  wnthout  plications 
or  folds.  The  sub-family  ^''  to  which  the  island  species  belong  is  characterized 
as  small  heavy  shells,  usually  less  than  an  inch  in  length,  w^ith  teeth  on  the 
outer  lip  and  the  columella  rough  and  thickened.  The  pisa  shells  ^"^  and  the 
tankard  shells"*'  belong  to  this  gi'oup.  They  ai'e  few  in  number  and  difficult 
to  place  even  by  skilled  collectors. 


^'Triton    pilearis.  •''''  Conchology.  ^^  Triton   tubero-'iiix.  *"  Fi/.s-iV/rr.  ^'  Fiisiix   iiora    linllaiiditp. 

*2  Latirus.  ^-'^  Peristi'i-nihiff.  ■'■'  Buccinidce.         *°  Pisaniiniv.        *«  Pisanin.        *'  Canthurus. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OP^  THE   GROUP.  451 

Dog  Whelks. 

The  dog  whelk -^^  family  has  four  species  occnrriny  in  tlic  islands,  all 
belonging  to  the  one  genus  '*^  of  fish-basket  shells.  The  name  is  given  them 
Ti-om  the  resemblance  of  certain  species  to  the  tapering  narrow-mouthed 
wicker  baskets  used  in  Europe  by  the  fishermen  in  the  fish  and  lobster  business. 
The  small  notch  at  the  base  of  the  aperture  is  an  important  characteristic. 
They  are  predatory  ^'"  in  habit  and  are  usually  found  near  the  shore.  The 
largest  species  ^'^  is  whitish,  more  or  less  blotched  with  yellowish-brown,  and 
has  the  spire  tipped  with  pink.  The  various  species  of  the  genus  seem  to 
intergracle  to  a  remarkable  degree.  To  the  common  small,  light-yellowush  or 
orange-brown  specimens  with  a  pale  central  band  is  given  the  name  Nassa  liirta. 
The  one  with  narrow  red  revolving  lines  and  irregular  broad  bands,  a  variable 
species,  is  called  Nassa  gaudiosa,  while  Nassa  splendidula,  smaller  than  the 
foregoing,  is  white,  shining  and  distinctly  granose,  caused  l)y  the  crossing  of 
the  longitudinal  ribs  by  deeply  incised  lines. 

IMiTRE  Shells. 

The  mitre  shells  collected  in  the  islands  are  usually  included  in  the  great 
genus  which  is  typical  of  the  family,^^  according  to  the  best  authorities,  al- 
though this  large  genus  is  variously  divided  by  other  specialists.  Three  or 
four  additional  genera,  including  the  small  "gutter-tile"  shells,^-'^  which  ap- 
proach the  cone  shells  in  general  form ;  the  little  turret  shells,^^  of  which  there 
are  four  or  five  species,  and  a  small,  slender  representative  of  the  genus  Thala 
are  regarded  as  forming  good  genera,  but  they  all  have  characteristics  that 
are  common  to  the  true  mitre  shells,  and  all  may  ])e  known  by  their  sharp 
spire  and  the  conspicuous  and  strongly  marked  folds  on  the  columella.  How- 
ever, their  size  and  the  character  of  the  liody  of  the  shell  varies  greatly,  espe- 
cially in  sculpture  and  marking.  There  are  more  than  two  hundred  species  of 
mitre  shells  in  the  tropics,  and  some  of  them  are  of  large  size  and  great  beauty. 
Of  that  number  more  than  three  dozen  species,  most  of  them  less  than  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  length,  have  been  reported  as  occurring  in  the  waters  about 
these  islands.  Of  a  possible  twenty-six  species,  seventeen  of  the  genus  Mitra 
have  been  collected  from  Honolulu  harbor  l)y  the  author. 

The  living  shells  are  gregarious  ^''•^  and  avoid  the  daylight  by  hiding  in  the 
masses  of  coral  on  the  reefs  or  by  burrowing  in  the  sand.  At  night,  however, 
like  many  of  their  marine  associates,  they  creep  out  to  feed.  Their  heavy,  hard 
shells  will  long  resist  the  action  of  the  waves,  so  that  they  are  to  be  fouiul 
among  the  small  pebbles  on  the  shore.  On  almost  every  ramble  l)y  tlie  sea 
the  careful  collector  may  gather  one  or  more  species  of  these  altrndivt'  shells. 

By  reference  to  the  accompanying  plates  they  can  readily  be  identilied  as 
Mitra,  a  name  given  out  of  a  fancied  resemblance  to  a  priest's  mitre;  but  to 


^^  Nassidw.  -^^  Nnssa.  ^^n  That  is,  feeding  on  (itlicr  ;iiiiin:ils.         ^^  Xassti  ixiiiillosa.  ■•-  Mitridce. 

^3  Imbricaria.         ^*  Turriculn.  '-■'  Inclined  to  srntlirr   in   (•ompiinics. 


452  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

describe  the  various  species  accurately,  in  a  way  to  be  of  use  in  identifying  the 
beach-worn  specimens,  is  obviously  a  task  beyond  the  scope  of  this  volume. 

Margin  Shells. 

The  margin  shell  •"''^  family  includes  small  shells  related  to  the  cowries  and 
mitres.  They  are  pear-shaped,  porcelanous  in  appearance,  and  are  marked  by 
the  large  body  whorl.  The  aperture  is  usually  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the 
shell,  and  the  outer  lip  has  a  narrow  thickened  margin  which  may  be  toothed 
or  smooth  within,  but  the  columella  is  distinctly  plicated  much  as  in  the  mitre 
family. 

Since  the  largest  of  the  four  species  of  margin  shells  so  far  collected  in 
Haw'aii  is  less  than  a  fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  they  are  liable  to  be  secured 
only  by  those  accustomed  to  close  observation.  The  largest  species  ^"  is 
smooth,  pale  rosy-wdiite,  with  two  brownish  bands,  and  has  the  outer  lip 
slightly  thickened  in  the  middle.  It  is  the  only  species  belonging  to  the  genus 
taken  here,  but  is,  of  course,  too  small  for  satisfactory  photographic  illustra- 
tion. The  typical  genus  of  margin  shells  ^'"^  embraces  perhaps  two  hundred  and 
fifty  species.  Of  this  number  a  dozen  or  more  are  Polynesian,  three  being 
credited  to  this  group,  two  of  wdiich  have  been  taken  on  Oahu.  They  have 
the  outer  li]^  conspicuously  thickened,  with  the  inner  margin  smooth,  ridged 
or  toothed  in  different  species. 

Olive  Shells. 

The  olive  shells  are  rare  in  Hawaii.  The  family  '"'■*  is  so  far  represented 
by  four  species,  none  of  wdiich  seem  to  be  common.  Only  the  beautiful  conoid 
harp-shell  ^^  is  commonly  collected.  This  species,  which  shares  the  Hawaiian 
name  pu  with  the  triton  shell,  belongs  to  an  important  sub-family  '^^  in  which 
the  species  differ  from  those  in  the  typical  sub-family  ^-  in  several  important 
respects,  among  them  being  the  conspicuous  and  characteristic  longitudinal 
parallel  ribs  on  the  shell.  These  ribs,  together  with  the  general  harp-like 
shape  of  the  shell,  amply  justify  the  common  name.  The  color  scheme  is 
brown  in  many  shades,  and  the  pattern,  resembling  the  banding  of  an  agate, 
makes  of  the  harp  shell  an  object  greatly  admired. 

The  typical  olive  shells  are  smooth,  solid,  highly-colored,  and  agree  with 
the  group  just  described  in  having  the  outer  lip  simple  and  the  aperture 
obliquely  notched  below.  The  red-mouthed  olive  •'^  is  a  typical  species.  It 
has  a  deep  orange-red  aperture,  and  the  pale  creamy  ground  is  variously 
banded  with  chestnut,  but  the  general  color  scheme  varies  greatly.  The  species 
is  said  to  inhabit  muddy  sand  in  deep  water,  Avhere  it  attains  a  length  of  two 
or  three  inches.  A  small  species  of  olive  ""^  less  than  an  inch  in  length,  is  white 
within  and  without,  and  is  marked  with  two  wide  and  one  narrow  rich  orange 
bands.  It  is  a  common  wide-ranging  species  and  together  with  a  third  unde- 
termined species  has  been  collected  by  ^Nlr.  Thaanum  on  Hawaii. 


^^  Marginellida'.  ^~  Erato  snndivlfensix.         ^^  Marc/inella.         s"  Oliridtr.  "^  Ilarpa  conoidalis. 

"^  Har/jince.  «=  Olivinw.         "^  Oliva  erythrostoiiiti.  "^  Oliva  cariieola. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  453 

Dove  Shells. 

The  little  "dove  shells"  belong  to  a  tropical  family"'''  to  -which  more 
than  eight  hundred  species  have  been  referred  by  conchologists.  Of  that 
number  fifteen  or  more  species  belonging  to  two  genera  have  been  reported 
from  these  islands.  Among  so  many  similar  forms  the  characteristics  dis- 
tinguishing the  species  are  often  obscure  and  confusing.  This  is  especially  true 
in  the  present  famih',  as  the  largest  species  are  scarcely  an  inch  in  length, 
while  the  great  majority  are  less  than  half  that  size.  However,  they  are  all 
solid  shells  of  varying  form  with  short  anterior  canals.  The  inner  lip  ante- 
riorly is  usually  tuberculated ;  the  outer  lip  as  a  rule  is  thickened  and 
variously  roughened  on  its  inner  margin.  The  most  abundant  and  best  known 
representative  of  the  family  in  the  islands  is  the  little  Niihau  shell.*^"  It  is 
a  trifle  over  a  third  of  an  inch  in  length  and  varies  greatly  in  the  markings 
and  sculpture  of  the  shell,  but  usually  has  the  base  of  the  columella  stained 
with  chocolate.  These  pretty  bead-like  shells,  especially  those  from  the  Island 
of  Niihau,  were  formerlv  used  bv  the  Hawaiians  in  making  shell  necklaces  or 
leis.  Necklaces  made  from  them  are  still  manufactured  for  sale  and  are  much 
prized  by  tourists. 

A  slightly  larger,  and  perhaps  more  typical  form,  is  shown  in  CoIumheUa 
turturina.  It  is  white,  variegated  with  clouds  of  yellowish-brown.  The  col- 
umella and  teeth  of  the  outer  lip  are  usually  stained  with  violet.  The  zebra 
dove  shell  •"'  has  a  higher  spire  and  the  white  ground  is  so  curiously  marked 
with  zebra-like  chestnut  markings  that  it  always  attracts  attention  along  the 
beach  in  spite  of  its  small  size. 

A  genus  of  ''grey"  shells*''^  with  three  species,  one  of  which  ^Ir.  Thaanum 
includes  in  his  manuscript  list  of  Hawaiian  shells  as  occurring  on  Hawaii,  and 
Avhich  also  occurs  on  Oahu,  is  included  in  this  famil^v,  though  it  is  admitted  tliat 
they  bear  but  little  resemblance  to  the  typical  genera.  They  are  all  longitudinally 
ribbed,  the  ribs  broken  up  into  nodules  by  revolving  lines.  The  form  Engina 
farinosa,  a  yellowish-brown  shell  with  indistinct  dusky  bands,  is  found  on 
Hawaii  and  doubtless  elsewhere  in  the  group. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

SHELLS   FROM   THE   SEA-SIIOHE:      PART   TWO. 

The  Cone  Shells. 

The  cone  shells^  are  sufficiently  charactei'ized  by  theii-  common  name  to 
need  no  further  general  description  than  to  say  that  in  addition  to  being 
cone-shaped,  the  aperture  is  long  and  narrow,  the  lips  are  straight  and  parallel 
and  are  always  without  teeth  or  ridges.     Perhaps  four  hnndred  species  are 


^"  Columhellidw.  ««  ColiimhrJhi   rnrianx.  '^' CdhiiiiheHa   zrhra.         ^^  Engina.  ^  Coiiidcr. 


454  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

known  to  occur  in  the  tropical  waters  of  the  globe.  Of  this  number  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-three  are  enumerated  by  one  authority  as  occurring  in  the 
Eastern  Asiatic  province  in  which  the  Hawaiian  Islands  are  included.  Twenty- 
five  species  and  well-marked  varieties  have  been  recorded  from  this  group. 
Specimens  of  all  but  three  of  the  Hawaiian  species  Mr.  Thaanum  reports  having 
personally  secured,  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  Hilo,  while  the  writer  has  secured 
a  similar  number  of  species  on  the  Island  of  Oahu.  In  the  little  collection  of 
common  beach  shells  secured  on  the  four  excursions  mentioned  are  ten  species 
ranging  in  size  from  tiny  shells  less  than  a  half  inch  in  length  to  heavy  solid 
specimens  three  and  a  half  inches  long.  Unfortunately  most  of  the  beach 
specimens  secured  are  badly  worn,  in  some  cases  past  positive  identification. 
The  great  weight  of  the  dead  shell  in  proportion  to  its  size  makes  its  progress 
over  the  wave-swept  reef  much  slower  and  the  grinding  much  more  severe 
than  would  be  the  case  with  a  lighter  shell  that  might  be  caught  up  and  laid 
down  again  high  on  the  sandy  shore,  well  out  of  harm's  way,  by  a  single  wave. 

The  cones  are  fond  of  the  coral  reefs  and  hide  in  holes  in  the  rocks  on  the 
reef  and  along  the  shore.  They  are  carnivorous  animals,  and  move  slowly 
about  seeking  their  food,  which  is  usually  obtained  by  means  of  curious  poison 
fangs  by  which  they  paralyze  their  prey. 

The  most  common  and  without  doubt  the  most  beautiful  of  the  cone  shells 
found  in  the  dredgings  from  Pearl  Harbor  and  Honolulu  harbor  is  a  species 
identified  as  Conns  qucrchius.  The  shell  itself  is  a  delicate  tan  color  and  is 
ornamented  with  numerous  parallel  revolving  piMi-lines  of  In-own.  Over  this 
in  fresh  specimens  is  a  thin  rich-brown  epidermis.  They  appear  to  prefer  the 
muddy  brackish  water  conditons  at  the  harbor  mouth  to  a  life  on  the  coral  reef 
in  the  open  sea.  A  more  ordinary  type  of  marking  is  found  on  the  spotted 
cone  shell.-  It  is  about  two  inches  long  and  has  the  creamy  white  ground  ir- 
regularly covered  with  chocolate  spots  about  the  size  of  a  pin-head.  These 
spots  are  somewhat  thickened  towards  the  ends,  thus  forming  three  ill-defined 
bands  about  the  shell. 

The  Hebrew  cone  -^  is  so  called  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  large 
deep-chocolate  colored  markings  on  the  white  ground  to  the  characters  used 
in  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  It  is  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length  and  is  a  reef- 
dwelling  species,  found  usually  on  sandy  shores  with  fragments  of  broken 
shells  and  other  debris. 

The  largest  species  is  the  lettered  cone,^  which  bears  row  after  row  of 
oblong  brown  characters  on  its  white  surface.  A  yellow  undercolor  groups 
these  rows  into  indistinct  bands.  Specimens  seven  or  eight  inches  in  length 
are  not  uncommon,  especially  on  the  coast  of  Molokai,  and  a  number  of  very 
large  specimens  come  up  in  the  dredgings  of  Honolulu  harbor. 

Unfortunately  the  worn  specimens  of  any  of  the  cones  can  seldom  be 
identified  without  reference  to  perfect  examples.  The  local  collector  should 
have  no  trouble,  however,  in  identifying  any  shell  he  may  secure  by  use  of 


^  Conns  piiUrnriiin.  ^  Comix  hebra'us.  *Co)Uis  litti'rntiis  var.  miUepunrfatiis. 


THE  AXLAIAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  455 

the   labeled   specimens    in    the    extensive    collection    of    Hawaiian    shells    at    the 
Bishop  Museum. 

Leis  were  occasionally  made  by  the  Hawaiians  of  certain  species  of  cone 
(leho)  shells,  but  as  a  rule  they  were  too  scarce  to  be  much  used,  althou'jh 
there  is  a  string  several  feet  in  length  in  the  Bishop  JMuseum  and  the  author  has 
two  such  leis  in  his  private  collection. 

Auger  Shells. 

The  auger  shells  ■'^  are  most  appropriately  named,  for  the  lojig,  tapering, 
many  flat-whorled  spire  at  once  characterizes  them,  while  the  small  aperture, 
notched  in  front,  renders  them  easily  placed  in  the  single  genus  to  which  a])out 
two  dozen  Hawaiian  species  belong.  These  hard,  sharp-pointed  shells  were  of 
much  use  to  the  Hawaiians  in  various  waA's.  They  were  formerly  used  as  drill 
points  in  their  crude  but  ingenious  rotary  drills.  There  they  served  their  true 
purpose  of  an  auger,  but  the  hard,  sharp  outer  lip  was  equally  effective  as  a 
tool  when  used  as  a  scraper.  They  made  excellent  stoppers  for  the  small- 
necked  gourds  that  once  were  used  for  the  storage  of  water. 

Even  the  fragment  of  the  crenulated  auger  shell"  washed  ashore  is  suffi- 
cient for  the  identification  of  this  large  species  in  which  the  whorls  are  obtusely 
nodulated  below  the  suture.'  Fresh  specimens  are  cream-colored,  streaked 
with,  chestnut  between  the  nodules,  and  with  three  revolving  rows  of  chestnut 
spots  on  the  body-whorl  and  two  rows  on  the  remainder  of  the  si)ire.  Adult 
specimens  are  five  inches  in  length.  The  spotted  auger  shell, '^  Avhen  fully 
adult,  is  almost  as  large  as  the  foregoing,  but  is  orange-brown  with  a  I'ow  of 
large  white  spots  just  below  the  suture  and  a  second  row  below  tlic  middle  of 
the  body-whorl.  The  largest  species  occurring  in  Hawaii  is  Tcrebra  macidala. 
Specimens  in  the  writer's  collection  vary  from  three  to  nine  inches  in  length. 
Large  shells  were  much  sought  for  by  the  natives,  as  they  were  fond  of  the 
animal  and  used  the  chisel-like  edge  of  the  shell  in  scraping  out  the  wooden 
hulls  of  their  canoes. 

Perhaps  the  Gould  auger  shell''  is  the  eonnnonest  species  found  on  (Ma- 
Hawaiian  sand-rimmed  bays.  It  is  a  smaller  species  and  one  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  this  group  of  shells  which  is  peculiar  in  that  it  has  what  appears  to  bo 
a  double  suture  about  the  spire.  This  band  is  slightly  nodulated,  while  tin' 
body  of  each  whorl  is  longitudinally  plicated.  The  shell  is  creainy-white 
banded  with  very  pale  chestuut.  and  has  thi'ce  bands  on  the  body-whorl.  The 
cancellated  auger  shelP"  is  smallei'  and  has  the  nan'ow  nodulous  b.ind  \\liite. 
To  the  unpracticed  eye  it  is  otherwise  very  similai-  to  the  |)r(TC(linL;-  foi-iii. 

A  fifth  form  which  is  fairly  common  on  saiuly  shores  is  Tcrebra  aciculiua. 
It  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  varies  in  color  from  deep  chocolate  to 
pale  ash  color,  and  is  white-banded  at  the  suture,  as  well  as  on  the  free  edge  of 
the  body-whorl.     Perhaps  twenty  species  of  auger  shells  can  be  secured  in 


^  Terebrida>.  <^  Terehra  rreniilnta.  "The  line  where  the  whorls  of  the  sliell  unite. 

8  Terebtd  ocuUitii.  »  Terebra   ijoi'ldi.  i"  Terebra  cavci-Uata. 


PLATE  104.     COMMON   MARINE   BIVALVES. 

1.     Hawaiian   Edible   Mussel    [Nahawele]    (Mytihis   crebrLstriatus).     2.    Ham    Shell    [Hi- 
hiwai]    {MeJina   ^=    (Perna)    californica.     3.    Papaua    (Pcrna   .sp.).     4.    Papaua    (Penui   sp.). 

(Descrijition    of  Plate   Continued   on   tlie   Opposite    Page.) 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  TPIE  GROUP.  457 

Hawaii  by  a  careful  collector,  but  as  many  of  them  are  small  .iiid  rare,  their 
description  would  be  out  of  place  here. 

Conch  Shells. 

The  typical  conch  shell  family  ^i  has  but  nine  species  reported  from 
Hawaii,  the  most  common  species  being  the  little  spotted  conch,i-  the  puleho 
of  the  Hawaiians.  They  are  found  usually  in  the  shallow  water  along  shore, 
hidden  away  during  the  day  under  a  coral  rock  or  in  crevices  in  the  growing 
reef.  The  species  is  less  than  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  can  hardly  be 
made  to  agree  with  one's  notion  of  this  family  founded,  usually,  on  the  fine 
large  conch  shell  that  everywhere,  a  generation  ago,  adorned  the  mantel,  held 
the  honored  place  in  the  curiosity  cabinet  or  served  a  useful  and  ornamental 
purpose  as  a  door  brick  in  the  homes  of  people  not  given  to  the  pursuit  of 
natural  history.  Nevertheless,  if  the  species  were  compared  it  would  be  found 
that  they  differ  mainly  in  size  and  color.  They  have  the  same  solid  shell,  with 
a  well-developed  spire,  the  thickened,  expanded  outer  lip  similarly  lobed;  the 
columella  without  plaits  and  the  posterior  canal  well  developed.  The  living 
shell  has  a  strong  muscular  foot  adapted  to  leaping ;  a  peculiarity  which  makes 
them  interesting  inhabitants  for  an  aquarium.  The  shell  of  the  common 
species,  when  the  epidermis  is  removed,  is  creamy  white,  spotted  and  macu- 
lated with  chocolate  and  orange-brown,  and  has  the  aperture  white.  S trombus 
Jidlii  is  a  smaller  yelloAvish-brown  species  regularly  ribbed  and  crossed  by 
spiral  stride.  Stromdus  samar  is  larger  and  the  outer  lip  has  three  large 
teeth,  and  the  interior  of  the  aperture  radially  ridged. 

The  only  species  of  spider  shell  ^^  so  far  found  in  the  islands  is  five  or  six 
inches  in  length.  They  are  stromb-like,  but  have  the  outer  lip  exaggerated  by 
long  curved  fingers  that  make  the  mollusk  look  like  a  huge  spider  traveling  on 
seven  legs. 

The  Cowry  Family. 

The  cowry  I'i  shells  are  all  so  well  known  to  everj^one  who  visits  the  sea- 
shore that  a  description  seems  unnecessary.  The  living  animal  is  interesting, 
since  from  the  long,  narrow,  centrally-located  aperture  emerges  the  curious, 
often  brilliantly-colored,  foot  and  mantle.  The  latter  when  fully  expanded 
almost  envelops  the  smooth,  glossy  shell.  The  young  shells  almost  always  shoAV 
a  short  spire,  but  as  they  mature  the  spire  is  usually  enveloped  by  the  growth 
of  the  body  Avhorl. 


'^'^  Strombidw.         i- Strombus  macidatus.         is  pterocera  anrantia.  i*  Cyprceida. 


(Description   of  Plate    Continued   from    Opposite   Page.) 

5.  Pearl  Oyster  [Pa]  {Margaritifera  fimbriata).  6.  Ark  Shell  (Ami  .v/).)-  '•  -^^ca  Can- 
dida. 8.  Hawaiian  Ovster  [Pioeoc]  (Ostrea  rosacea).  i>.  .Tingle  Shell  (Anomia  nobiUs). 
10.  Anomia  nobilis  (young).  11.  Seallop  (Pecten  sp.).  12.  Scallop  (rcctcn  sp.).  13. 
Purple-hinged  Scallop  (Hinnites  giganteus).  14.  Tellen  Shell  [Olepe]  (TrUina  rugosa).  15. 
TeUina  dinpar.  16.  Hawaiian  Cvtherea  (Ci/fhcrca  =  (LioconcJui)  hicrogli/pliica).  17.  Venus 
Clam  (Venus  reticulata).  18.  Lucina  Shell  (Cadakia  ramulosa).  19.  Heart  Shell  (Cardium 
arbiter).     20.    Eock   Oyster   [Kupakala]    (Chawa  sp.).     21.    Rock   Oyster    (Chama  sp.). 

30 


458  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   IIAAYAII. 

Of  a  possible  two  hundred  living  species  there  are  more  than  three  dozen 
forms  of  these  interesting  molKisks  reported  as  occurring  in  Hawaii,  all  of 
which  are  known  as  leho  by  the  natives.  With  possibly  one  or  two  exceptions, 
however,  they  cannot  be  said  to  be  abundant  or  common  in  the  islands.  Ref- 
erence has  been  made  in  another  connection  to  the  large  number  of  species 
belonging  to  this  family  that  have  been  secured  in  Honolulu  harbor.  In  the 
small  collection  of  common  beach  forms,  in  the  lot  before  me  from  Oahu,  no 
fewer  than  ten  recognizable  species  occur.  Of  that  number  three  or  four  are 
sufficiently  common  to  be  liable  to  occur  in  almost  every  collection. 

By  far  the  most  abundant  species  is  the  snake-head  cowry .i^"*  It  is  seldom 
more  than  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length,  and  is  often  found  along  rocky 
coasts  or  in  coral  heads  in  shallow  water.  It  is  reddish  or  blackish-lu'own 
with  unequal  snow-like  spots  on  the  back.  The  extremities  are  tipped  with 
white,  the  base  gray ;  the  teeth  are  strong  and  white.  These  and  other  species 
of  cowries,  especially  the  money  cowry,i"''  a  small  yellowish  species,  and  another 
small  form  ornamented  with  white  and  brown  spots,  a  saffron  base  and  pale 
violet  extremities,  known  as  Cyprcea  helvola,  were  used  b\-  the  Ilawaiians  to 
some  extent  in  making  their  leis. 

The  hump-backed  cowry  ^"  when  full-grown  is  more  than  three  and  a  half 
inches  in  length.  Its  brown  color  is  varied  by  light  In-own  or  white  spots  of 
irregular  size,  while  the  sides  and  base  are  dark  brown  or  almost  black.  The 
teeth  are  prominent  and  the  edge  of  the  sbell  is  nuieh  thickened  and  angular. 
This  fine  shell  is  said  to  be  the  strongest  and  heaviest  of  the  genus.  It  is  one 
of  the  large  sea  shells  in  which  the  native  children,  like  the  children  of  many 
other  lands,  could  hear  the  sound  of  the  sea.  It  is  a  choice  food  of  the  Ha- 
waiians  and  is  often  to  be  seen  offered  for  sale  in  the  market.  Its  sliell  was 
much  used  in  making  their  ingenious  squid-hooks.  As  a  part  of  the  hook  the 
shell  served  as  bait,  and  was  attached  to  a  stone  sinker  of  similar  size  and 
shape,  so  that  the  flattened  surfaces  were  together.  Between  the  shell  and  the 
sinker  there  was  fastened  a  stick,  to  the  lower  end  of  which  was  attached  a 
hook  of  bone  or,  in  more  recent  years,  of  iron.  About  the  hook  was  usually 
fastened  a  bunch  of  leaves,  which  kept  the  point  hidden  from  the  eye  of  the 
cautious  animal.  The  squid  has  a  great  fondness  for  this  particular  species  of 
cowry.  They  seize  the  hook  by  wrapping  their  arms  about  the  shell,  when 
they  are  easilj^  captured.  "Humpbacks"  (leho)  were  always  in  great  demand 
among  the  fishermen  for  that  reason.  The  flesh-colored  cowry,i^  a  large  spe- 
cies ornamented  with  four  or  five  deep  flesh-colored  bands  and  with  a  red 
animal,  was  also  sometimes  used  as  squid  bait.  The  squid  if  captured  under 
certain  conditions  hy  this  species  of  shell,  was  supposed  to  be  a  very  valuable 
remeclv  in  the  healing  of  the  sick. 


1^  Cyprcea   caput-serpentis.         i^  Cyprwa  monefa.         i"  Cyprcea  maiirifinna.         i*  Cyprcea  carneoJa. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OE  THE   GROUP.  459 

The  following',  translated  by  Dr.  N.  B.  Emerson,  is  a  portion  of  ancient  pule 
repeated  by  the  native  doctor  (kahuna)  fishennaii  as  the  baited  hook  was  low- 
ered to  capture  a  squid  to  be  used  for  curative  purposes: 

' '  Here  is  the   cowry, 

A  red  cowry  to  attract  the  wqiiid  to  his  death. 

Here   is   the   spear,  a   mere   stick, 

A  spear  of  lama   wood  for  tlie  squiii   that  lies  flat. 

O  Kanaloa  of  the  tabu  nights, 

Stand  upright  on  the  solid  floor! 

Stand  upon  the  floor  where  lies  the  squid! 

Stand  up  to  take  the  squid  of  the  deep  sea! 

Else  up,   0   Kanaloa! 

Stir  up!   agitate!   let  the  squid  awake! 

Let  the  squid  that  lies  fiat  awake,  the  squid  that  lies  spread   out." 

Two  large  species  related  to  the  more  familiar  tiger  cowry  ''•'  (the  largest 
of  the  family,  and  common  in  collections)  have  spots  extended  over  the  base. 
The  Arabian  cowry  20  has  the  base  tinged  Avitli  hrow-n.  If  the  spots  are 
crow^ded  and  run  together,  the  sides  thick,  and  the  base  milky  or  bluish-white, 
with  a  dark  blotch  near  the  middle  of  the  shell,  it  is  the  closely-related  species 
Cypnea  reticulata.  All  three  species  occur  in  the  group,  and,  like  most  of  the 
larger  forms,  were  used  as  food  by  the  Hawaiians.  A  small  form  usually 
about  an  inch  in  length,  that  is  ashy-fulvous,  without  spots,  and  has  the  teetli 
w^hite  and  the  extremities  satfron-red  (that  is  usually  collected  in  the  group), 
is  Isabella's  cowry. ^^ 

A  curious  species  of  coway,  occurring  (piite  commonly  in  the  islands. 
belongs  to  the  group  in  which  the  shell  is  covered  with  little  nodules.  It  is  a 
wide-ranging  form,  known  as  the  Madagascar  cowry,--  and  is  a  species  in 
which  the  ridges  on  the  outer  lip  are  alternately  large  and  snuill.  The  list  of 
rare  or  occasional  species  coitld  easily  be  extended  into  a  snudl  volume. 

Five  minute  white  or  pinkish  species  of  the  coffee-l)ean  shell  -'■'•  have  been 
reported  from  Hawaii.  As  the  largest  of  them  are  less  thnn  hall'  an  inch  in 
length,  they  are  seldom  seen  by  amateurs.  They  are  all  cowry-shaped,  rather 
roundish  and  curiously  cross-ribbed  shells  that  can  at  once  l)e  identified  t)y 
their  resemblance  to  the  larger  members  of  the  family. 

Egg  Shells. 

The  egg  shells-''  are  so  seldom  seen  on  our  beaches  that  a  desci'iption  of 
the  species  seems  unnecessary,  farther  than  to  say  that  in  geiiei'al  ronn  ihey 
resemble  the  cowries,  are  whitish  or  didl  in  color  and  the  extremities  ai-e  usual  In- 
drawn out  to  form  two  canals.  They  differ  from  the  family  mentioiu'd  above 
in  having  the  inner  or  columella  side  of  the  aperature  smootli.  The  shells 
occur  throughout  Polynesia,  where  in  many  of  the  islatids  they  ;ire  much 
prized  as  personal  ornaments. 

Tun  SttkT;T,s. 
The  tun  shells,-'^  or  wnne  .iai's.  as  the  n;iiiie  Liiven  to  the  family  siLnn'hes.-" 


'"  Ci/prirn  ti(/ri.i.         -•>  Gyprcea  arahicu.         "^  Cyprwa  isabclhi.         "-  Cuprcvu  nmdaijasrariensi.i. 
"^  Trivia.  "••    Orulidrv.         °°  Doiiiihr.  -"  An   allusion   to   their  cjipiu-ious  size. 


PLATE  105.     SOME   OF   THE   LARGER   COMMON    SEA   SHELLS. 

1.     "Purple"    Shell    [Pupn]    (Fnrinira    aperta) ;    so    called   by   reason    of   a   |nirple    dye 
secured  from  certain  species.     2.    Pupu   (Purpura  si).).     3.    Hairy  Triton   [Pupu  ole]    (Triton 

(Dcscriptwn    of   Plate    Continued   oti    the    Opposite    Page.) 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  461 

are  represented  in  Hawaii  ])y  two  species,  there  bein<i'  hut  fifteen  species 
described.  The  partridge  tun  -'  is  the  more  common,  though  a  specimen  is  a 
real  prize.  It  is  fairly  t.ypieal  of  the  family.  The  tun  is  a  large  shell  wnth  a 
stout  spire  and  sw^ollen  body-whorl  that  is  banded  l)y  strong  spiral  ribs.  The 
shell  is  marked  with  crescents  and  irregular  lines  of  white  on  a  rich  browm 
ground  color,  suggesting  the  breast  of  a  partridge.  They  are  said  to  attain  a 
length  of  fifteen  inches,  but  the  specimens  found  on  the  beach  are  seldom  more 
than  a  third  that  size.  The  black-mouthed  tun  ^s  is  much  rarer.  It  is  dirty 
white  in  color  and  has  the  outer  lip  dark  brown. 

Cameo  Shells. 

The  helmet  or  cameo  shells  -^  are  active  predatory  moUusks  that  live 
along  sandy  shores  in  the  warm  seas.  There  are  perhaps  three  dozen  species 
and  sub-species,  of  which  five  or  six  are  known  to  occur  in  the  w^aters  about 
Hawaii.  They  all  agree  in  being  thick,  heavy  shells  witli  short  spires.  The 
aperture  is  long  and  ends  in  a  recurved  channel.  The  typical  horned  helmet  ^^ 
occurs  in  the  islands.  Although  it  is  a  rare  shell  here,  it  is  of  more  than  ordi- 
nary interest  since  it  is  one  of  the  shells  used  elsewhere  in  the  manufacture 
of  cameos,  cutting  a  white  figure  on  an  orange-brown  ground.  It  is  the  giant  of 
the  family,  reaching  a  foot  in  length.  The  shell  is  yellowish-white  tinged  with 
yellowish-brown,  and  is  studded  over  the  back  with  three  rows  of  tubercles. 
Blotches  of  dark  brown  occur  on  both  the  curiously  expanded  lips  and  on 
the  knobs. 

The  more  common  form  on  Oahu  is  Cassis  vihex,  which  has  four  short 
spines  at  the  base  of  the  lip  and  is  seldom  more  than  three  inches  in  length. 
It  is  a  fieshj^-ash  color,  obscurely  banded  and  varied  wdth  light  and  dark  chest- 
nut. The  lip  on  its  outer  margin  is  marked  with  chocolate  spots.  A  variety  ^^ 
also  occurs  that  is  smaller,  thicker  and  has  small  elongated  tubercles  on  the 
shoulder. 

jMoon  Shells. 

In  the  family  of  moon  shells,  or  naticas,^-  the  shell  is  more  or  less  globular 
or  eai^-shaped  and  the  aperture  differs  from  that  of  the  preceding  families  in 


^' Dolium  perdix.         "'' Dolium  rtielanostonia.  -^  Cassidcc         ^"Cassis  cnrnuta. 

3^  Cassis  vihex  erinacea.         ^^  Naticidoe. 

(Drsrription   of   Plate    Continued   from   Opposite   Page.) 

pilearis).  4.  Quilted  Triton  (Triton  luhcrunus).  5.  Spindle  Shell  (Fiisus  novor-hoUandice). 
6.  Chocolate-lined  Cone  {Comis  quercinm).  7.  Lettered  Cone  (Conns  pnlivarius).  8.  He- 
brew Cone  (Conns  licbrceus).  9.  Conus  lividus.  10.  Conus  miliaris.  11.  Auger  shell  sp. 
(Tereira  sp.).  12.  Terebra  gouldi.  13.  Terebra  ocnlala.  U.  Terebra  aeiculina.  15. 
Hermit  Shell  (Camis  vibcx  var.) .  16.  Hawaiian  Top  Shell  (rrochu^  .mndwicen.'iu'i).  17. 
Hump-l)aeked  Cowry  [Leho]  (Cyprwa  manritiana).  18.  Ci/pro'a  reticulata.  19.  Turban 
Shell  (Turbo  chrysostomus) .  20.  Turbo  intrrcostalis ;  showing  the  operculum  in  place.  21. 
CyprcFa  svlcidentata.  22.  Worm  Shell  [Tohokupelel  (rrrmrhis  sp.).  23.  I'lrwctns  sp.  24. 
Kaunoa  (Vermetus  sp.).  25.  Partridge  Tun  [Puonionio]  (Doliiim  perdix).  2(5.  Umbrella 
Shell  [Opihi  kapuailio]    (JJelcioniscus  exaratu.^).     27.    Conoid  Harp  SIioll    (TIarpn  ronoidalis). 


462  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

that  it  is  smooth  and  without  canals.  The  outer  lip  is  smooth  and  sharp. 
The  inner  lip  is  turned  back  in  some  species  so  as  to  conceal  the  umbilicus, ^-^ 
as  may  be  plainly  seen  in  one  of  the  species  of  the  genus  here  shown.  The 
shells,  placed  in  the  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  or  more  species  in  the  dif- 
ferent genera,  vary  greatly  in  shape.  Examples  of  the  same  species  often  vary 
through  a  long  series  of  color  patterns,  rendering  the  ten  or  more  species  that 
occur  here  difficult  of  determination,  even  in  the  hands  of  specialists  and 
when  aided  by  a  large  series  of  shells. 

The  living  animal  is  remarkable  for  the  very  large  foot,  which  is  used  to 
crowd  the  creature  through  the  sand  in  search  of  other  mollusks,  mostly 
bivalves,  upon  which  they  feed.  Their  habits  are  interesting,  and  as  living 
specimens  may  occasionally  be  secured  from  the  sand  where  their  favorite  food 
is  abundant,  they  may  be  studied  to  advantage  in  a  small  aquarium  partly 
filled  with  sand  and  stocked  with  other  living  shells. 

Slipper  Shells. 

Perhaps  the  most  abundant  shells  along  the  coast  of  our  islands  are  the 
various  species  of  slipper  shells,-^^  cup-and-saucer  limpets,-'^-'  the  horse-hoof 
shells  ^*^  and  their  allies,  all  of  which  are  placed  in  the  one  f amily  ^^  including 
the  various  cap-shaped  or  limpet-like  shells.  They  usually  have  a  more  or  less 
spiral  apex,  and  the  interior  is  often  provided  with  a  septum  or  internal  plate 
of  variable  shape. 

The  living  animals  are  found  adhering  closely  to  stones  and  shells,  and  as 
thej^  spend  most  of  their  lives  in  one  spot  the  shell  is  usually  irregularly  shaped 
to  fit  some  particular  spot  on'  rock  or  coral.  They  feed  on  the  minute 
free-swimming  animals  that  come  their  way.  In  due  time  they  die  and  add 
their  shells  to  those  light  particles  of  debris  cast  up  at  high  tide.  Represen- 
tatives of  four  genera,  including  the  nine  or  ten  species  usually  found  in  the 
islands,  are  shown.  From  these  the  main  characteristics  for  the  genera  may 
be  determined. 

Horse-Hoof  Shells. 

Of  the  horse-hoof  shells,  four  species  occur  about  Honolulu  and  Hilo. 
Hipponyx  antiquatus  has  the  apex  posterior  of  the  center  and  is  rudely  and 
closely  laminated  with  more  or  less  distinct  radial  striae.  When  alive  it  has  a 
hairy  epidermis.  Hipponyx  harhatus  is  more  compressed,  is  strongly  radially 
striated,  and  has  a  brown  hairy  epidermis.  Ilippnnyr  iwhricafus  has  the  in- 
terior stained  with  chestnut. 

Worm  Shells  and  Eulimas. 

Without  doubt  the  most  curious  of  the  shell-bearing  mollusks  are  those 
included  in  the  worm  shell  family. •'''  in  which  the  twisted  shell  might  be  mis- 
taken for  the  tube  of  some  marine  worm,  as  thev  much  resemble  them  in  that 


^'•'  The  name   given   to   the  cavity   in   the   central  base  of  the   shell   when   the   columella   or   axis   is  hollow. 
**  Crepidula.        *»  Crucibidum.  "•"  Hipponyx.         *"  CalyptravUv.  ^^  Tennetidw. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  463 

they  are  similarly  twisted  and  are  attached  to  stones,  coral  and  shells  in  much 
the  same  way.  In  early  life  they  are  spiral  in  foi-m  and  crawl  about  as  free 
moving  animals,  but  later  they  become  attached  and  take  on  various  con- 
torted shapes.  While  the  species  are  not  numerous,  their  irregular  growth, 
sculpture  and  coloring  render  them  difficult  to  characterize,  but  the  general  form 
and  appearance  may  be  made  out  from  the  figures  shown.  The  ctecum  shells  ^'^ 
are  also  represented  in  the  islands  by  one  or  two  species.  They  are  minute 
shells  which,  as  adults,  are  curved  cylindrical  tubes  that  are  closed  at  one  end 
by  a  septa. 

The  eulimas -^*^  are  all  small,  white,  polished  slender  shells  in  whidi  tlie 
spire  is  often  curved  to  one  side.  Three  genera  occur  here;  Eulitn<t  is  the 
most  important.  It  includes  fifteen  of  the  seventeen  species  commonly  re- 
ported from  Haw^aii.  Some  of  the  species  belonging  to  the  family  are  known 
to  live  in  or  upon  the  sea-cucumber  (loli).  Euliiiui  major  is  an  incli  in  length 
and  is  one  of  the  larger  species  found  in  the  islands. 

Pyramid  and  Sun-Dial  Shells. 

The  pyramid  shells  *^  have  slender  spires  of  many  whorls.  The  columella 
lip  may  have  one  or  several  folds,  ryrmnidella  tereheUum  is  smooth,  creamy 
white,  with  three  or  four  narrow  spiral  lines  on  the  body,  and  two  on  the  spire 
whorl.  PyramideUa  sulcata  is  longitudinally  streaked  with  pale  orange-chest- 
nut, usually  forming  a  series  of  revolving  dots ;  the  columella  has  three  plicated 
folds.  Pyramklella  mitralis  is  whitish  clouded  and  baiided  with  pale  brown  ; 
is  strongly  ribbed,  usually  forming  little  knobs  at  the  sutures. 

The  family  T urbonellidcE  is  represented  in  Hawaii  by  four  small  species 
which  resemble  the  species  in  the  preceding  family,  except  that  they  are 
usually  more  pronounced  in  their  sculpturing  and  usually  have  the  coluinclla 
without  folds. 

The  curious  spiral  sun-dial  shells  ^-  are  easily  recognized  by  their  toi)-like 
shape  and  angular  aperture  and  wide  and  deep  umbilicus.  Although  they 
resemble  Trochus  to  some  extent,  they  are  never  pearly  in  texture.  Six  species 
belonging  to  two  genera  have  been  recorded  from  Hawaii.  They  are  seldom 
taken  in  beach  specimens,  but  their  beauty  of  form  and  color  make  them 
especially  prized  by  professional  as  well  as  amateur  collectors.  Sola ri ion  prr- 
spectivu))i  has  the  umbilical  crenulatious  brown;  in  Solarium  ciuguluni  they 
are  white.  The  genus  Torinia  differs  from  the  foregoing  in  some  respects,  but 
mainly  in  having  the  spire  more  elevated  and  the  edge  of  the  whoi'ls  ntunded. 
Torinia  variegata,  here  shown,  occurs  occasionally  on  Oahu.  It  is  reddish- 
brown,  variously  marked  with  white  and  brown,  the  margin  of  tlie  umbilieu.s 
crenulated  and  the  centei-  of  the  umbilical  wall  with  a  ei-enulaled  mid-rib. 

Violet  Snails. 

Shells  of  the  thi'ee  beautiful  species  of  violet  snails  ^-'^  are  often  found  on 


^^  Ccecidce.  *«EuUmida\  >^  PyraiiddclUila'.         *- Solariida.         *3  hnitliinida-. 


464  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

the  beaches  of  all  the  islands  after  a  heavy  gale.  They  float  on  the  snrface  of 
the  ocean,  usually  in  large  companies.  They  are  supported  by  a  raft-like 
structure  formed  by  a  large  mass  of  cells  filled  with  air.  All  the  species  recog- 
nized by  Tyron  were  gathered  at  Kahana  Bay,  on  Oahu,  on  the  beach  on  the 
same  collecting  trip.  The  base  of  the  thin  shell  is  always  deep  violet,  while  the 
spire  is  almost  white,  tinted  with  violet.  The  large  violet  snail  ^-^  is  an  inch  or 
more  in  diameter.  It  is  slopingly-convex,  is  slightly  angular  on  the  edge,  and 
has  the  outer  lip  very  slightly  sinous.  lanthina  glohosa  is  inflated  with  a 
short  spire,  the  whorls  are  rounded,  and  the  outer  lip  is  slightly  more  sinuous 
in  the  middle.  The  third  species  ^"*  is  much  smaller  and  more  conical,  the 
whorls  forming  an  obtuse  angle  on  the  outer  edge,  and  there  is  a  deep  incision 
on  the  outer  lip.  The  species  are  all  said  to  feed  on  small  surface-swimming 
animals,  especially  minute  jellyfish. 

Ladder  Shells. 

The  staircase  shells,  or  ladder  shells,*''^  are  usually  white  and  polished.  The 
numerous  ribs  across  the  whorls  are  prominent  and  look  like  the  steps  of  a 
ladder,  whence  they  derive  their  name.  They  live  in  the  ocean  below  the  low- 
water  mark.  They  are  carnivorous  in  habit  and  are  fairly  common  about 
Hawaii.  Ten  or  more  of  the  many  species  known,  have  been  reported 
from  the  group.  The  chief  characteristics  center  about  their  size,  the  number 
of  whorls  and  the  size  and  number  of  the  ridges.  Scalaria  lamellosa,  which 
is  representative,  has  seven  or  eight  whorls,  is  a  fleshy  color  with  a  more  or  less 
definitely  darker  band  at  the  suture  and  above  the  basal  rib. 

Herald's  Horn  Shells. 

The  family  CeritJiiidce,  a  name  derived  from  that  given  to  the  principal 
genus,'*"  is  represented  hy  almost  fifty  species  of  small  shells  belonging  to  four 
genera.  They  are  all  long,  many-whorled,  spiral  shells,  with  both  anterior 
and  posterior  canals,  and  have  the  lip  more  or  less  dentate.  They  live  on  the 
rocks  and  among  the  marine  vegetation.  The  species  figured  "^"^  are  found  in 
dredging  from  Honolulu  harbor.  They  will  serve  to  aid  the  amateur  in  plac- 
ing such  shells  as  may  be  gathered  in  the  proper  family,  but  the  specific  char- 
acteristics for  the  twenty  or  more  species  that  may  be  collected  are  too  minute 
for  consideration  here. 

Periwinkles. 

Of  the  familiar  periwinkle  ^'^  family  two  or  three  species  are  everywhere 
abundant  on  rocky  coasts,  where  they  are  to  be  found  usually  at  or  above  the 
high-tide  mark.  They  feed  on  algaj  and  inhabit  brackish  and  salt  water.  The 
species  ^^  most  common  at  Waikiki  are  liesh  color  or  nearly  white  and  have  the 
aperture  orange-brown,  and  may  be  easily  identified  as  distinct  from  a  spe- 
cies ^^  common  at  Pearl  Harbor,  which  is  lai'ger.     The  latter  are  gray  to  red- 


**  lanthina  fragilis.  *^  lanthina  e.rir/tia.  *^  Scalariidft.  ^'  Cerithiiim  =  Hpr.ald's   horn. 

^*  Crrithiiim  roliimna  and  Ceritlnum  obcUsciis.  *^  Littorinidtv.  ^^  Liftorina  obesa. 

^^  Littorina   srahra. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  465 

brown  in  color,  are  usually  banded  with  chocolate,  and  have  the  aperture 
often  streaked  with  the  same  color.  Two  other  genera  ^-  belonging  to  this 
family  also  occur  about  the  shores  of  the  islands.  They  are  small  shells  seldom 
seen  by  amateur  collectors,  and  differ  so  much  in  appearance  from  the  more 
common  forms  that  their  relationship  is  not  easily  understood.  The  Fossaridce 
is  a  small  family  closely  allied  with  the  family  just  considered,  the  chief  dif- 
ferences being  in  the  soft  parts.  The  family  PJanaxidce  is  a  small  family,  the 
common  species  ^^  being  nearly  smooth,  light  yellowish  varied  with  orange, 
brown  and  chestnut,  is  little  over  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length  and  varies 
greatly  in  form  and  color.  The  Eissoidce  include  another  group  of  shells  to 
which  a  dozen  or  more  forms  from  Hawaii  have  been  referred.  Of  this  num- 
ber five  or  six  small  species  may  occasionally  be  taken  among  the  very  small 
shells  on  the  shore,  but  they  are  too  tiny  to  be  of  interest  to  anyone  except  the 
professional  collector. 

Sea  Snails. 

The  sea  snails^'*  include  such  well-known  shells  as  the  small  black  species 
commonly  found  clinging  to  the  lava  rocks  along  the  shore  near  the  upper 
tide-mark.  They  are  all  fond  of  seaweed  and  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits, 
the  thick  body  whorl  and  small  spire  give  them  a  characteristic  form,  but  they 
may  be  identified  also,  by  the  character  of  the  operculum,  which  is  iieculiar 
in  that  it  has  a  process  jetting  out  from  beneath  that  fits  under  the  toothed  or 
wrinkled  columellar  lip,  when  the  animal  retires  within  its  shell. 

Of  the  six  species  of  Xerifa  reported  from  Hawaii,  the  black  form  witii 
a  white  ajierture  and  with  fine  spiral  grooves  on  the  shell  is  most  abundant  on 
the  sea-shore  of  Oahu.  It  is  commonly  known  as  pipipi.^^  The  native  Ha- 
waiians  are  very  fond  of  them  and  often  spend  hours  gathering  the  little  black 
shells  from  the  rocks  at  low  tide.  The  fleshy  part  is  easily  picked  from  the 
shell  with  a  pin  after  they  have  been  heated  in  warm  water  or  in  the  imu — the 
native  underground  oven.  A  similar  species,^*^  which  is  without  teeth  on  the 
outer  lip,  and  a  larger  variegated  species  •"*"  showing  fine  growth  lines  and  with 
the  shell  flecked,  spotted  or  banded  with  white,  yellow,  orange,  red  or  black 
on  a  varying  ground  color,  are  fairly  common  about  the  islaiuls.  Both  these 
latter  species,  and  doubtless  others,  were  used  by  the  natives  in  bracelets  worn 
as  an  emblem  of  mourning  for  the  alii.  A  specimen  in  the  author's  collection 
is  shown  on  the  accompanying  plate.  They  were  often  polished  or  cut  in 
various  shapes. 

A  genus  ^s  belonging  to  this  family,  which  has  four  or  five  Hawaiian 
species,  is  not  easily  separated  from  their  cousins  just  described.  They  are 
somewhat  thinner  shells  and  are  usually  found  under  stones  or  clinging  to  the 
rocks  just  below  the  low-water  mark,  most  coimiionly  in  the  brackish  water 


°- Modulus  tectum   ar.d   RisHIa   spp.  "-^  Plnnn.Hs  liiipatu.i.  ■■*  ycritiihr.  "^  Xerita  picea. 

=«  Nerita  sp.  °^  Kerita  polita.  '^  Xeritina. 


466  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

at  the  mouths  of  streams.  The  wi  •^■'  is  found  only  in  fresh  water.  It  is 
the  largest  species  of  the  genus  in  the  islands,  being  more  than  an  inch  in 
diameter.  It  is  black  in  color  and  the  shell  is  curiously  g'ranular  over  the 
surface.  One  species  ''^  commonly  found  at  Waikiki  is  horn  color,  while  a 
second  species  ^^  from  the  same  locality  has  distinct  grow^th  lines.  The  black 
epidermis  is  marked  wath  numerous  minute  yellowash  spots,  sometimes  scarcely 
visi])le;  the  outer  lip  of  the  aperture  is  bluish  in  color. 

Turban  Shells. 

The  large  family-  of  turban  shells/'-  to  which  belong  the  tj-pical  turban 
shells,'^^  the  pheasant  shells  *^^  and  the  star  shells,'^-^  is  represented  in  Haw^aii  by 
perhaps  a  dozen  and  a  half  species.  Not  more  than  a  third  of  that  number 
are  liable  to  be  collected,  however.  Only  two  species  appear  in  the  collection 
of  beach  specimens  before  me  from  the  shores  of  Oahu.  The  larger  one  '^•'  is 
brownish  or  white  marbled  w-ith  chestnut :  the  smaller  one  is  dirty  white 
strongly  tinged  with  green  and  variously  marked  on  the  body  whorl  with,  dark 
brown.  The  characteristics  employed  in  descriptions  of  the  species  in  this 
family  are  confusing,  and  much  skill  is  required  in  order  to  make  the  identifi- 
cation of  the  species  certain. 

Top  Shells. 

Of  the  top  shells,*"'"  only  two  of  the  ten  or  a  dozen  species  w^hich  have 
been  recorded  from  Hawaii  occur  in  the  little  collection  of  shore  shells  that 
serves  as  the  l^asis  of  this  brief  account  of  the  common  mollusks  of  Hawaii. 
Of  these,  the  Hawaiian  top  shell  ■'*  is  by  far  the  most  common.  It  is  a  shallow- 
w^ater  species  occurring  at  Pearl  Harbor,  Hilo  and  elsewhere  about  the  group 
where  slightly  brackish  water  may  be  found.  The  second  species'*'*  was  col- 
lected only  at  Kahana  Bay  and  appears  to  be  a  rare  form. 

Limpets. 

Several  species  of  limpet-like  shells  may  be  easily  collected  from  the  rocks 
between  the  tide-marks,  or  may  be  found  cast  up  on  the  sand  beaches  along 
the  shores  of  all  the  islands.  While  the  keyhole  limpets  ^"  are  represented  by 
one  or  two  species,  they  are  by  no  means  as  common  as  the  species  belonging  to 
the  old-world  limpets,'^  from  which  they  differ  by  having  a  small  hole  through 
the  apex  of  the  shell.  The  families  and  species  of  this  sub-order  of  conical, 
cup-shaped  shells  are  separated  in  the  main  by  obscure  and  difficult  character- 
istics that  render  them  almost  beyond  definite  determination  by  amateur  col- 
lectors. Two  species  belonging  to  the  keyhole  limpets  "-  are  occasionally  col- 
lected, especially  at  Hilo,  and  Honolulu  harbor. 

To  the  old-world  limpets  belong  the  opihi  '•'  of  the  natives.  It  is  a  favorite 
food  with  the  Hawaiians,  and  fine  specimens  may  often  be  secured  alive  in  the 


^8  Neritina  granomi.       The  native  name  hiliiwai   is  applied  to   all   the  brackish   and  fresh   water  forms  of 
Nerifinn.  ^o  Xeritina  vespertina.  «i  Neritina  cariosn.         "-  Turbinidcc.  "^  Turbo.       "*  PhusinneUa. 

"^  Astraliiim.  "'^  Turbo   rliri/nostomus.  ^"^  Trochidcf.  ^^  Trocfnis   sandwicensis.         '^^  Trochus   sp. 

^"  Fissiirettidie.         ''i  Patellida;.         ''^  Glyphis  granifi-ra   and  ,Subemargiiiula   oblonga. 
'•^  Helcioni/icus  exarntiix. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  467 

markets.  This  knee-caj)  or  uiubrella  shell  is  roughly  lliou<;h  t'vcnly  i'il)lK'd 
without  and  pearly  white  within.  They  attain  a  diameter  of  two  inches  or  more 
and  are  usually  completely  covered  with  a  growth  of  sea-moss.  As  they 
are  fond  of  the  dash  of  the  spray,  they  usually  cling  with  great  tenacity  to 
the  moss-grown  rocks  along  the  more  exposed  portion  of  the  sea-coast.  Like 
their  relatives,  they  feed  on  algw  of  various  kinds,  but  are  commonly  found 
sticking  tight  to  the  rocks,  although  they  are  known  to  move  about  in  search 
of  food. 

Experiments  have  been  made  on  certain  European  species  of  limpets  for 
the  purpose  of  shownng  how  difficult  they  are  to  dislodge  from  their  resting 
places.  It  was  found  that  it  required  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  eighty- 
four  times  the  weight  of  the  living  animal  to  detach  it  from  tlie  rocks. 

Chitons. 

The  chiton  shells"^  are  also  represented  in  the  sea-shore  fauna  and,  like 
the  members  of  the  preceding  family,  they  are  found  adhering  firmly  to  the 
rocks.  The  shell  is  remarkable  in  that  it  is  composed  of  several  separate  over- 
lapping plates  suggesting  a  "coat  of  mail,"  a  name  often  applied  to  various 
species.  Specimens  may  be  taken  from  under  stones  on  the  shore  at  Pearl 
Harbor  and  about  Ililo,  but  as  there  are  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
living  species  in  the  world,  more  than  one  of  which  occurs  in  Hawaii,  the 
beginner  can  hardly  hope  to  definitely  identify  his  material.  Specimens  are 
of  unusual  interest,  however,  as  they  are  believed  to  be  a  very  primitive  type 
of  mollusk  and  are  known  to  occur  elsewdiere  in  very  ancient  geologic  strata. 

One  of  the  prettiest  shells  to  be  picked  up  occasionally  on  the  sea-shore  in 
the  islands  is  the  beautifully-banded  bubble  shell, "•"  the  body  whorl  of  which 
is  characteristically  marked  by  two  delicate  pink  bands  that  are  set  off  from 
the  white  ground  by  well-defined  blackish  bands.  Another  species/''  with  a 
greenish  body,  is  often  found  well  concealed  on  mossy  rocks  along  our  coasts. 
The  thin  pale-green  shells  are  so  delicate,  however,  that  they  are  seldom 
found  except  living  and  attached  to  the  rocks.  Although  related  to  the  pre- 
ceding "■  family,  they  are  held  separate  from  it  as  Scaphandridce. 

Sea  Slugs. 

The  sea  slugs,"''  and  especially  the  sea  hai-es."'-'  ai'e  curious  naked  niol- 
lusks  occasionally  found  cast  uj^  on  the  shore,  etilangled  in  the  seaweed  or  else 
caught  in  tide-pools  ahuig  the  shore.  The  nuniei'ous  species  viivy  in  si/e  from 
small  animals  up  to  creatures  several  inches  in  length.  They  also  vary  in 
form  and  color  to  such  an  extent  that  they  ace  not  easily  recognized  as  mem- 
bers of  the  great  phylum  to  which  the  more  ordinary  shell-bearing  animals 
belong. 


''*  Chitonidce.         '•^  Hi/dotimi  /impli/xtrc.  '«  Smaraf/diiwlhi   liiidix.         ''  BuUidce. 

'*  Order  N ndibrnnchidta.  ""  A  jiljjsiidce. 


468  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  FRO:\r  THE  CORAL  REEFS  :     PART  ONE. 

Of  the  many  groups  of  animals  living  on  or  aliout  our  tropic  shores,  the 
fishes  and  mollusks  have  received  attention  in  other  chapters.  There  remains 
for  consideration  some  of  the  more  common  and  striking  of  the  many  varied 
forms  of  plant  and  animal  life  that  are  sure  to  awaken  the  interest  of  any  one 
who  visits  the  shore  or,  better  still,  is  so  fortunate  as  to  spend  even  a  few 
hours  wading  in  the  shallow  water  that  covers  the  fascinating  coral  reefs. 

The  Common  Crabs. 

Of  the  various  orders  of  the  larger  animals  yet  to  be  considered,  the  crabs 
and  their  marine  relatives  are  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous  and  at  the  same 
time  the  most  omnipresent.  Some  one  of  the  tribe  inhabits  almost  every  rod  of 
the  sand  beach  and  almost  every  loose  stone  along  the  shore  furnishes  a  shelter 
for  one  or  more  of  these  active,  interesting,  curious  creatures. 

Nearly  every  child  is  familiar  with  some  of  the  more  common  shore  forms 
and  pei'haps  can  call  them  hy  their  native  names  and  tell  something  of  their 
many  peculiar  habits.  But  few,  indeed,  even  of  those  who  are  skilled  in  such 
matters,  can  name  the  rarer  of  the  odd  forms  of  crab-like  animals  that  inhabit 
the  ocean  and  are  liable  to  be  captured  by  almost  anyone  who  will  take  the 
trouble  to  turn  over  a  stone,  stir  up  the  sand  and  mud,  or  break  up  the  masses 
of  living  and  dead  coral  along  the  shore. 

As  the  number  of  marine  species  belonging  to  this  huge  class  far  exceeds 
any  other  group  of  marine  animals,  we  can  do  little  more  than  point  out  the 
main  characteristics  of  the  class  by  calling  attention  to  a  few  of  the  common 
forms.  The  body  of  an  animal  of  this  class  is  typically  made  up  of  a  number 
of  hard  plates  or  rings  variously  arranged,  but  always  forming  an  outer  hard 
or  thickened  shell  or  skeleton.  The  skeleton  plates  are  usually  so  arranged 
as  to  divide  the  animal  into  a  variable  number  of  segments.  Each  segment 
ordinarily  bears  paired,  jointed  legs  or  swimming  organs. 

The  wide  variation  in  form  and  plan  among  these  creatures  can  be  gath- 
ered from  the  examination  of  such  animals  as  crabs,  crawfish,  prawns,  shrimps, 
mantis  shrimps,  sand-hoppers,  fish-lice,  whale-lice,  acorn  and  stalked  barnacles, 
and  a  long  list  of  less  known  denizens  of  the  deep,  all  of  Avhich  belong  to  this 
grand  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  of  which  the  lobster  is  taken  as  the  typical 
form. 

The  Lobster, 

The  so-called  Hawaiian  lobster,-  the  ula  of  the  native  fishermen,  is  the 
large  species  of  marine  crawfish  so  abundant  in  the  Hawaiian  market.  Those 
familicir  Avith  the  large  pincer-clawed  American  lobster^  will  appreciate  at 
once  that  the  local  species  is  quite  a  different  creature.     By  zoologists  the 


^  Crustaced.  -  P(in}tJiriis  japoiiifus.  ^  Homnriis  nmericnviis. 


THE   ANi:\rAL   LIFE    OF   THE   (JROUP.  469 

Hawaiian  species  is  placed  in  a  separate  family  and  is  known  as  the  rock 
lobster.^  The  large  size,  enormously  long,  stout  antennie  and  spiny  carapace 
of  the  ula,  and  the  absence  of  the  pincer-claw,  are  among  its  most  conspicuous 
characteristics  and  serve  to  separate  it  at  once  from  the  fifteen  or  twenty 
species  of  crabs,  lobsters,  shrimps  and  prjiwus  that  find  thoir  way  into  the 
markets. 

The  ula  is  caught  in  lobster  traps,  or  more  commonly  by  stringing  a  net 
about  the  reef  and  leaving  it  during  the  night.  As  lobsters  ai-e  tu-tive  at 
night,  they  become  entangled  in  the  net  when  they  come  out  of  llieir  hiding 
places  among  the  rocks  to  seek  food.  Although  they  appear  large  and  showy 
in  the  market  stalls,  their  color  is  such  that  they  harmonize  perfectly  with 
the  rocks  and  seaweed  where  they  make  their  home.  They  are,  therefore,  very 
difficult  to  detect  on  the  reef,  and  are  not  often  seen  by  one  unfamiliar  with 
their  appearance  or  habits. 

They  feed  upon  both  fresh  and  decayed  fish,  various  invertebrate  animals, 
and  to  some  extent  on  seaweeds.  The  lively  demand  for  them,  owiug  to  their 
excellent  food  qualities,  brings  large  numbers  of  them  fresh  and  sprawling 
into  the  markets  every  day.  The  ulaapapa  -^  is  also  a  large  species  of  crawfish- 
like animal,  quite  common  in  the  markets,  that  is  a  favorite  food  of  the  native 
people. 

Prawns. 

Prawns'^  of  several  species  and  brackish  and  fresh-watrr  shrimps"  are 
common  in  the  fish  stalls  and  are  of  excellent  quality. 

Turning  to  the  short-tailed  Crustacea,  or  the  crabs,  a  dozen  species  at 
least  are  offered  for  sale.  The  papai,  the  aania.  and  the  alamihi  are  the  more 
common  forms,  while  such  crabs  as  the  kukuma,  the  pai)a  and  ihe  papai  lauai 
are  less  abundant.  The  alamihi  is  a  notorious  scavenger  on  the  coral  reefs 
about  Plonolulu.  The  kumimi  is  regarded  as  poisonous  b\-  tlie  Ilawaiians. 
They  are  fairly  common  along  the  shore,  and  they  and  their  close  relatives 
are  quite  generally  avoided  by  experienced  crab  catchers. 

The  common  black  rock-crab  ^  is  the  species  usually  found  hidden  under 
stones  at  low  tide.  A  similar  dark-colored,  but  more  active,  species  prefers 
the  dash  of  the  spray  along  rocky  shores,  wliile  a  pale  sand-colored  crab"' 
lives  in  burrows  that  it  makes  for  itself  in  tlic  sandy  shore  just  above  high 
tide.  Other  forms  live  their  lives  hidden  away  in  the  coral  heads;  and  so  the 
list  might  be  extended  almost  indefinitely,  as  more  than  three  hundred  species 
belonging  to  the  short-tailed  i"  and  the  long-tailed  ^i  Crustacea  are  enumer- 
ated by  Miss  Mary  J.  Rathljun  in  licr  i-cport  on  this  section  of  the  Hawaiian  ma- 
rine and  fresh-water  fauna.  As  eighty  of  the  species  are  described  by  her  for  tiie 
first  time,  the  brief  characterization  of  the  common  forms  is  too  difficult  a 


*  I'riHiniridcc.  ^  iSrvlla rides  S(iu(immnsii.i. 

''Alofilo:  this  native  name  is  most  commonly  applied  to  the  mantis-shrimp. 
"!  Opae.  ^  Grapmis  grapstis  tei(iiicr>iiit(it(if'\  «  Orypode   ceratopthalma. 

'"  Maci'ura.  n  Braclii/ioa. 


t§4#^H^ftf 


^  (r  %  il 


>it% 


# 


SI ;  )j 


••9%##9^ 


^e^ 


■"Sp- 


s » 


PLATE  lOG.     SMALLER   COMMON   SEA   SHELLS. 

L     Spottpd    Puri)lo    Sliell    (Eicinula    rii-inu^i) .     2.    Banner    Shell    (Ve.riUa    vexilhm).     3. 
Mulberry    Shell     {SLstnim.    moms).     4.    Kolealea     (Perisieriiia    chlorostoma).     5.    Peristniiia 

(Description   of  Plate   Continued   on   the   Opposite   Page.) 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  471 

task  to   be   undertaken    lierc.     'I'lic    readei-   is   i-eferred   to   the   accompanying 
plates  lor  the  names  of  a  iiiunljer  of  the  more  common  shore  species. 

Hermit  Crabs. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  species  of  hermit  crabs  ^-  that  occur  in 
such  abundance  along  our  shores.  They  are  especially  interesting,  since  they 
do  not  have  the  long,  hard  tail  of  the  shrimp  or  lobster,  nor  a  slioi't  one  tliat 
can  be  doubled  underneath  as  is  the  case  with  the  ordinary  crabs.  Instead 
they  have  a  soft  fleshy  tail  that  requires  to  be  covered  and  protected.  Appar- 
ently aware  of  this  defect  in  its  organization,  the  hermit  crab,  be  it  large  or 
small,  old  or  young,  invarialily  thrusts  itself  for  shelter  into  some  empty  sea 
shell.  Once  established  in  its  shell  house,  it  is  subsequently  never  quite  ready 
to  leave  it,  except  to  exchange  its  abode  for  a  larger  one  wIkmi  it  finds  its 
quarters  too  cramped  for  comfort,  owing  to  its  own  growth  :  or,  occasionally, 
for  a  new  home  that  in  weight  and  design  is  more  closely  in  accord  with  its 
notion  of  what  a  domicile  should  be.  For  these  reasons  they  nuiy  be  styled 
the  professional  house-hunters  along  the  shore.  Once  sheltered  and  |)r()tected 
in  the  empty  shell  of  some  mollusk,  they  become  aggressive  and  are  always 
on  the  lookout  to  better  themselves.  Occasionally  one  will  foi-cilily  eject  the 
living  animal  or  another  crab  from  the  shell  it  chooses. 

This  house-hunting  process  may  be  easily  seen  by  ])]acing  a  few  hermit 
crabs  in  an  aquarium  together  with  a  variety  of  empty  shells  and  a  libci'al 
supply  of  food.  With  a  full  stomach  the  necessity  for  a  larger  house  is  soon 
felt.  But  if  the  process  becomes  too  tedious  to  watch,  the  crali  may  he  ejected 
by  force,  when,  if  care  is  taken  not  to  injure  the  two  or  three  pairs  of  rudi- 
mentary feet,  by  means  of  which  it  retains  possession  of  its  boi-rowed  dAvelling, 


^-  Suborder  Onomura. 


(Df'xcrii)! ion    of    Phitc    Coiitiiiurd    from    Opjionite   Par/e.) 

chlorostoma  var.  6.  Tankard  Shell  (iknilhani.s  sp.).  7.  Canthants  sp.  8.  Cantharus 
sp.  9.  Fish-Basket  Shell  (A'«**«  liirta).  10.  Mitre  Sliell  {Mitra  sp.).  11.  Mitni  .sp. 
12.  Mitra  sp.  13.  Mitra  sp.  14.  Mitra  tabanula.  15.  Dove  shell  (CohnnbeUa  tiirturina). 
16.  Zebra  Dove  Shell  (ColiunbeUa  zebra).  17.  Niihau  Shell  (ColumbiJhi  varians).  18. 
Spotted  Coneh  [Pii  leholeho]  {Strombus  maciilatus).  19.  Strombus  vtaculuius ;  var.  20. 
Madagascar  Cowry  [Leho  puupuii]  (Cypro'a  madagascariensis).  21.  Money  ("owry  (Ci/pnra 
moneta).  22.  Isabella  Cowry  {Cyprrra  Isabella).  23.  Cypra'a  semiplota.  2-4.  Snake-hoad 
Cowry  {Cyprcea  eaput-serpentis).  2.5.  Cypra'a  carneola,  var.  26.  ^Moon  Shell  (Natica  viela- 
nostoma).  27.  Natica  mtiroeliiensis.  28.  Horsedioof  Shell  {Hipponyx  aiititjiuitus).  29. 
Uipponyx  barbatus.  30.  Hipponyx  imbricatus.  31.  Slipper  Shell  {Crei)i(htla  anileala).  32. 
Eulima  Shell  (Eiilima  sp.).  33.  Eulima  major.  34.  l^yrainid  Shell  (ryramidella  terebel- 
lum).  35.  Sun-Dial  Shell  [Pnpii  piihi]  (Solarium  perspeetivum).  36.  Ornament  Shell  (Tori- 
nia  variecjata).  37.  Violet  Snail  {lanthina  frafiilis).  38.  lanthina  exiiiua.  39.  lanthina 
(llohdsd.  40.  Ladder  Sliell  (Seahiria  sp.).  41.  I'npu  alajiii  (Scalaria  lanullosa).  42.  Horn 
Shell  {Cerithium  coJumna).  43.  Cerilhiuni  obeliseus.  44.  Small  reriwiiikle  {Littoriita  pinta- 
do). 45.  Mottled  Periwinkle  [Kolealeaj  (Littoriim  scabra).  4(i.  Measure  Shell  (Mn(iulu.9 
teetum).  47.  Sea  Snail  Shell  [Kupeo]  (Xerita  polita).  48.  A  wrist  ornament  made  of 
Kiipee  shells;  often  worn  as  an  (Mubleiii  oi'  mourning.  49.  Little  Sea  Snail  (Xerilina  neiilteta). 
50.  Pipipi  (Nerita  picea).  51.  Neriiina  eariosa.  52.  Neritina  vespertina.  .53.  Wi  (.Vrri- 
/i/ia  ^ra/iosa)  ;  a  fresh  water  species.  54.  Top-shell  (Troehus  sp.).  55.  Patella  sp.  56.  Pa- 
tella sp.  57.  Pupil  moo  {Isehnoehiion  sp.).  58.  Bubble-shell  (Hydatina  amplu.ftre).  59. 
Little  Emerald  Shell   (Siiuirandiiif  Ihi   -iritlis). 


< 


tH 


<       -g. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OP  TIIH   (JROI'I'.  473 

it  will  iniinediately  seek  shelter  in  the  iieai'est  shell  at  ha  ml.  TIh'  cral)  will 
back  into  its  new^  home,  inserting  its  tender  abdomen  into  the  shell  until  the 
aperture  is  phisged  l)\-  its  elaws  and  the  hard  part  of  its  body. 

Often  at  low  tide  during  the  day  a  dozen  or  more  of  tlu'se  active  creatures 
will  be  found  carefully  hidden  away  under  some  loose  stone  on  the  reef. 
When  disturbed  they  start  oft'  in  all  directions,  each  shellcrcd  in  a  ditferent 
species  of  shell  and  each  carrying  its  own  lioi-i'owcd  house  on  its  hack  like  a 
snail.  Not  infrequcMitly  other  animals,  as  ])aruacles,  oysters  and  sea-anenionies 
take  up  tlieir  permanent  residence  on  the  shell  occupied  by  a  hei-mit  crab  and 
are  in  this  Avay  cai'ried  about  l)y  them. 

Barnacles. 

There  is  little  in  the  apj)earance  of  adult  Ijarnadcs  to  suggest  that  they 
are  in  any  way  related  to  their  crab  antl  lobster  cousins.  Such  is  the  ease, 
nevertheless,  and  by  zoologists  they  are  looked  upon  as  furnishing  an  excellent 
example  of  degeneration  through  quiescence,  for  wdien  they  hatch  fi-om  the 
egg  they  are  fi-ee  swimming  animals  that  closely  I'esemble  the  young  ^•'  form 
of  the  crabs  and  shrimps,  with  btit  a  single  eye.  Later  on  they  have  six  pairs 
of  swimming  feet,  a  pair  of  compound  eyes,  and  two  well-developed  antenna'. 
and  are  still  free  swimming  animals.  But  when  the  ci-eatute  makes  the  linal 
change  to  the  adult  condition,  it  attaches  itself  by  means  of  a  cement-like  sub- 
stance to  a  stone,  shell,  pile  or  tioating  log,  or  to  the  bottom  of  a  ship,  and 
gives  up  all  attempts  at  locomotion.  Tt  then  loses  its  compound  eyes  and  its 
feelers,  and  develops  a  protecting  shell.  The  swimming  feet  become  modified 
into  grasping  organs  and  henceforth  it  abandons  any  attempt  to  look  and  act 
like  other  Crustacea  and  devotes  its  energies  to  fanning  such  food  as  comes  its 
way  into  its  mouth,  with  its  legs.  There  are  two  main  i:roui>s  of  tlu'  ordei-.'^ 
including  the  barnacles,  that  are  lia])le  to  attract  attention  on  the  seashore. 
One  family  '"'  includes  the  stalked  species  familiarly  known  as  goose  mussels  or 
goose  barnacles,  a  name  derived  from  an  ancient  belief  that  if  one  fell  from  its 
support  it  turned  into  a  goose.  They  usually  occni'  hanuini^  by  the  long  stalk  ''• 
to  the  bottoms  of  ships,  to  floating  tindier  or  submerged  wood  of  any  kind. 
The  sessile  barnacles,^"  acorn  shells,  or  ])ioeoe  as  they  are  called  by  the  natives, 
are  everywhere  abundant  along  the  shoi'(\  The  entire  animal  is  enclosed  in  n 
tent-shaped  shell  composed  originally  of  six  pieces,  which  is  capped  hy  an 
operculum  made  up  of  four  valves. 

Unfortunately,  the  shore  forms  ha\e  ]H)t  as  yel  heen  rully  studii'd.  A 
dozen  species  of  barnacles  were  eninnerated  1)\'  my  liiend.  I)i'.  Tilsbi-y.  from 
the  material  gathered  by  the  ship  Albati-oss.  But  one  of  these,  a  species  of 
acorn  liarnacle  ^"^  ])elonging  to  the  typical  licuus  of  that  family,  was  secnreil  in 
shallow  water.  The  remainder  were  deep-water  or  olV-^hoi'c  forms,  most  of 
them  occurring  in  water  two  or  thi-ee  hundred  fa.thoms  deep.  Of  the  twelve 
species  secured,  eight   pro\-ed  to  be  undescribed.      A  cai'efui  study  of  the  shore 


i«  Xraipnus.         i*  rj/ci/xv/m.         ^^  Lr/uKl'dw.         i«  Peduncle.        ^'  }i(il(i)iid,r.        i'^  Balnniin  aiiii>liil  lili. 
31 


'.V' 

,'<, 


tiv? 


PLATE  108.     COMMON    CEABS    AND    BARNACLES    OF    THE    CORAL    REEF. 

L     Podoplithnlmns     vigil      (female).     2.    Podophihalmus     vigil      (male).     3.    Snjllarides 
squammosus.      4.    Parribacus    antarticus.      5.    Panulirus  japonicus.      6.    Bardanus    gcmmatus. 

(Description   of  Plate   Continued  on   the   Opposite   Page.) 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  475 

fauna  would  doubtless  add  many  new  forms  to  the  list  of  Hawaiian  species. 
For  example,  a  large  flat  white  species  apparently  undescril)ed,  perhaps  a 
coronet  barnacle,^''  attaches  itself  to  the  skin  of  the  sen  tui'tle.  IMoreover,  there 
are  doubtless  examples  of  the  truly  parasitic  species  that  are  still  more  degen- 
erate in  form  and  habit  and  occur  as  parasites  feeding  on  the  larger  crus- 
taceans. 

Common  Corals. 

The  fragments  of  coral  occasionally  cast  up  on  the  sand  beach  are  suffi- 
cient to  awaken  in  everyone  a  desire  to  know  more  of  the  life  and  hat)its  of 
the  living  creatures  that  produce  the  curious  stony  structure,  and  this  desire 
has  tempted  many  to  explore  for  themselves  the  wonderful  reefs  for  which  the 
islands  are  so  celebrated. 

The  public  long  ago  accepted,  apparently  without  (luestion.  the  assertion 
of  a  worthy  poet  ^o  that  the  coral  animal  was  an  insect,  Zoiilogists,  however, 
have  long  known  that  it  is  not  an  insect,  but  a  polyp — a  very  different  creature, 
indeed — belonging  to  the  great  phylum,-i  including  all  such  animals  as 
hydroids,  corals,  sea-fans,  sea-pens,  jellyfish,  sea-anemonies  and  their  allies. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  kinds  of  polyps,  varying  through  a  great 
variety  of  shapes  and  sizes,  but  they  all  conform  fairly  w^ell  to  a  genci-al  plan 
of  body  structure,  a  little  more  complex  in  its  organization  than  that  of  the 
sponge.  They  have  a  more  or  less  typical  cylindrical  body,  with  an  interior 
cavit.y  connected  with  the  outside  world  by  a  single  large  opening  at  the  free 
end.  This  opening  is  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  arm -like  processes  or  tenta- 
cles, hence  the  name  polyp,  meaning  "many-footed."  The  tentacles  aiv  con- 
tinuations of  the  body  wall  and  composed  of  the  same  tissues.  The  fresh- 
water Hydra,  a  minute  animal  less  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,'--  is 
usually  figured  as  the  type  of  the  whole  great  phylum.  But  for  our  purpose 
the  common  type  of  sea-anemonie,  of  which  there  are  many  sj^ecies  living  on 
the  rocks  and  along  sandy  shores  or  attached  to  piles  and  whai-vcs.  may  he 
taken  as  an  enlarged  example  of  a  single  polyjx  The  chief  difference  betAveen 
the  two  is  that  the  animals  known  as  the  coral  polyp  usually  lixc  in  ciioniious 
colonies  and  form  skeletons  of  lime,-''  whereas  the  sea-anemonies  are  solitary, 
or  at  most  gregarious,  and  secrete  no  hard  skeleton.  Both  tlie  anemonies-'* 
and  the  calcareous  corals,-''  however,  are  included  in  the  same  class.-"  Though 
belonging  to  different  orders,  thev  seem  to  have  the  saine  ueneral  food  liabits. 


1^  Coronula   sp.  -°  Alexander  Montgomery.  "'  Cnelenterata. 

^~  This  interesting  animal  has  not  so  far  been  reported  from  the  fresh  water  pools  and  streams  of  Hawaii. 

-'Calcium  carbonate.         ^■^  Actiniaria.  "^  Madreporaria.  -"  Anthozoa  or  Artinnzoa. 

(Description   of  Plate    Continued   from    Opposite   Page.) 

7.  Podophthalmus  vigil  (male).  8.  Calappn  hrpatiea  (male).  9.  Carpilins  convex^is.  10. 
Calcinv^  elegayis.  11.  Ocypode  ceratoplithuhtia.  12.  Cahippa  hepatica  (female).  13.  Grap- 
SKS  grapsus  ienuicrusiaiuft.  14.  Cairiiuis  hitens.  1.1.  (\irpilius  macii.hitiis.  ](>.  Chdonohia 
testudinaria.  17.  Elisus  Ja'viiiianus.  18.  Metopograpsus  mcssor.  19.  Cnhippa  hepatica. 
20.  Metopograpsus  messor.  21.  Balanus  amphitrite.  22.  Macrophthalnuis  lelescopicus.  23. 
Tltalnmifa  integra.     24.    Forfunu.^  sanguinolentua. 


476  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 


Sea-Anemonies. 


The  food  and  iicneral  habits  aud  life  history  of  the  sea-anemonies  may  be 
studied  with  profit  l)y  placing  the  living  examples  of  any  of  the  common 
shore  forms,  with  thi^  bit  of  rock  to  which  they  are  usually  attached,  into  an 
aquarium.  When  disturbed  they  contract  into  an  almost  unrecognizable  mass, 
but  when  unmolested  they  expand  into  beautiful  aster-shaped,  tiower-like.  brib 
liantly-colored  animals,  so  that  a  collection  of  living  species  is  a  veritable 
sea  flower-garden.  That  they  are  not  flowers,  however,  may  be  shown  l)y  at- 
taching a  small  piece  of  meat  to  a  thread  and  dropping  it  into  the  circle  of 
petal-like  tentacles.  Almost  instantly  the  long  tentacles  close  over  the  food 
and  shift  it  to  the  mouth,  where  the  juices  are  extracted  and  the  flesh  digested. 

As  a  rule,  sea-anemonies  settle  where  food  is  most  liable  to  be  carried  to 
them  by  currents  of  water.  Sometimes  they  attach  themselves  to  other  ani- 
mals, as  crabs,  and  in  this  way  are  carried  about  from  place  to  place.  That 
there  are  a  large  nund)er  of  species  about  Hawaii  is  apparent  to  the  most 
casual  observer,  but  as  far  as  the  writer  knows,  they  have  never  been  studied 
and  classified. 

Turning  now  to  the  stony  corals,-'  so  important  as  reef  Iniilders,  we  find 
that  though  they  are  much  more  minute  as  individuals,  they  are  more 
liable  to  develop  into  large  colonies.  Thus  a  single  cabinet  specimen  of  coral 
often  represents,  as  a  life  work,  the  combined  involuntai-y  secretion  of  myriads 
of  these  patient  and  persistent  animals.  Interesting  and  beautiful  as  the 
bleached  skeletons  of  the  stone  corals  are.  the  living  animals  in  their  habitat  on 
the  growing  reef  are  infinitely  more  fascinating  to  study.  In  the  different 
species  the  expanded  animals  cover  the  skeleton  witli  their  soft  bodies,  giving 
to  them  a  variety  of  colors  as  varied  and  as  delicate  as  those  in  the  rainbow. 

The  Growing  Coral  Reef. 

Those  persons  who  for  the  first  time  see  a  growing  coral  reef  through  a 
glass-bottomed  boat,  or,  failing  that,  through  a  water-box  -with  a  glass  bottom, 
are  invariably  lost  in  admii-ation.  Though  they  are  privileged  to  repeat  the 
experience  again  and  again,  they  never  tire  of  viewing  the  peaceful,  brilliant 
scene  beneath  the  wave.  There,  with  the  living  and  dead  coral  as  a  back- 
ground, are  mingled  in  wild  and  ever-changing  confusion  a  multitude  of 
nature's  curious  plants  and  singular  animals.  All  are  garbed  in  the  most 
wonderful,  striking  and  varied  colors  imaginable,  and  as  they  swim  in  and  out 
among  the  corals  or  traniiuilly  wave  to  and  fro  with  the  rise  and  fall  of  every 
wave,  they  foi-m  a  vei'itable  vision  of  delight  that  time  and  distance  cannot  dim. 

To  have  visited  Hawaii  without  visiting  some  of  these  tropical  submarine 
gardens  is  to  liave  missed  a  golden  opportunity,  but  to  live  in  Hawaii,  often 
within  the  sound  of  tlie  surf  that  breaks  over  her  fringing  coral  reefs,  and  not 
to  have  first-hand  knowledge  of  their  wondei's.  is  to  be  ]'(Mniss  indeed. 


-'  llfttlreporaiia. 


THE   ANIMAL  LIFP:  OF  THE   OROUP.  477 

The  coral  reefs  of  the  Pacific  have  been  miicli  sludieil  l)y  oceanof^raphers, 
zoolo<iists  and  geologists  who  have  sought  to  wrest  from  them  something  of  the 
history  of  the  formation  of  the  islands  in  this  vast  ocean.  'IMic  geologic  sig- 
nificance of  the  Hawaiian  reefs  has  been  pointed  out  in  finotlicr  iMjnnectioii. 

While  ])ut  few  have  ever  attempted  to  list  the  various  species  of  corals 
found  here,  their  study  was  first  undertaken  sei'iously  long  ago.  In  1840-41 
the  renowned  geologist  James  D.  Dana,  whose  epoch-making  hook  on  the  coral 
islands  is  a  scientific  classic,  visited  Hawaii  and  examined  the  i-cefs,  as  a 
member  of  the  scientific  staff  of  the  linited  States  Ex|)h)i'iug  Expedition.  As 
a  result  a  dozen  of  the  more  common  shallow-water  forms  were  dcscfihcd  as 
new  by  him  in  a  portion  of  the  report  of  that  expedition,  ])ul)lished  in  1S46. 
Since  then  others  have  added  to  tlie  list,  but  it  remained  foe  my  ffiend.  \)v. 
T.  W.  Vaughan,  to  give  the  subject  the  attention  it  deserves.  As  a  result  of  his 
labors,  based  primarily  on  the  collections  secured  by  the  All)atross  expediti  m 
in  11)02,  hut  supplemented  by  a  large  collection  of  shallow-water  coral  secured 
by  mendjers  of  the  staff  of  the  Bisho]>  Museum,  we  now  have  availabh^  for 
the  specialist  a  handsome  monograph  in  which  representatives  of  fifteen  fami- 
lies, including  thirty-four  genera,  to  which,  according  to  that  author,  are  re- 
ferred one  hundred  and  twenty-three  species,  varieties  and  forms.  Of  that 
mnnber  more  than  three-fifths  are  described  and  figured  fdc  the  lirst  time. 
Some  idea  of  the  richness  of  the  coral  fauna  of  any  given  locality  can  be 
gathei'ed  from  the  fact  that  the  reef  and  shadow  waters  along  the  soutli  side 
of  Oahu,  but  especially  at  Waikiki.  yielded  examples  of  thirty-four  of  the 
species   enumerated. 

While  a  single  species -'^  of  mushroom-like  coral  was  bi-ouglit  to  tlie  sur- 
face by  the  dredges  of  the  Albatross  from  the  great  depth  of  eleven  hundred 
and  fifty  fathoms,  the  great  majority  of  the  forms,  seventy-seven  in  number, 
occur  in  water  from  one  to  twenty-five  fathoms  in  dejith.  Of  the  t'ourteen 
genera  that  occur  in  this  shallow  water  zone  throughout  the  group,  ten  wei'e 
collected  on  reefs  of  Oahu  from  Pearl  llai'bor  to  Diamond  Head.  Repi-eseii- 
tative  specimens  of  the  common  genera  from  this  locality  ai-e  here  ligui-ed. 
The  figures  will  aid  in  the  generic  determination  of  sueli  fdi-ms  as  are  most 
liable  to  be  collected,  but  definite  identification  of  tlie  species  and  the  almost 
numberless  forms  of  certain  species  is  in  nuiny  cases  almost  imjjossihje.  even 
when  the  type  specinu'us  can  be  seen. 

The  genera  occurring  in  the  shallow  water  about  Oahu  ma.\-  I)e  n^uarded 
as  the  living  representatives  of  the  reef-bnildinu  foi'ms  that  for  thousands 
perhaps  millions  of  years  have  been  buihliiiL;-  the  lime  i'0(d\  that  tViuLics  the 
islands. 

Of  the  several  genera  I'orihs.  tlie  pohaku  puna  o\'  the  nati\'es  is  the  most 
abundant  and  is  representcMl  by  the  largest  inunbei-  of  i'm-nis.  The  Pocilloponi  are 
perhaps  next  both  in  size  and  al)undance,  and  like  the  precedinu:  uenns.  they 
ranue  through  an  extensive  list  of  varied    r(U-ms.      Mimt ipura   is  next    in  abuu- 


-•''  BiithiKirtcs  liairniii'tiKis. 


z 

c 


«c  t. 


Z     "  o 
><     '-5    >> 


4;   o 


§    r. 


:s   \ 


tXv- 


X 


<     ! 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE   GROUP.  479 

dance,  while  such  genera  as  Pavouia,  Favia,  Leptastrca  and  fi/pjuisln <t  occur 
in  isolated  places  here  and  there  in  certain  favorable  localil  ics. 

The  mushroom  coral,--'  or  huahua  akai,  forms  a  rejiiarkable  group  of 
solitary  corals  that  are  fairly  common,  esi)ecially  in  hok'S  or  reef  pools  on  the 
outer  edge  of  the  reef.  They  take  their  name  from  their  i-csciiiljlanco  to  the 
inverted  head  of  an  expanded  mushroom.  They  are  remarkable  and  beaulifiil 
objects,  and  make  handsome  souvenirs  of  a  day's  visit  to  a  coral  reef.  The 
"sea  mushroom."  or  in  fact  any  of  the  corals,  can  be  easily  cleaned  if  they 
are  placed  in  a  bucket  of  fresh  water  before  they  have  been  out  of  Ibe  sea- 
water  long  enough  for  the  animal  to  die  and  begin  to  dry  up.  Ivu'li  day  or  so 
the  water  should  be  changed  and  the  macerating  animal  washed  out  by  a 
stream  of  water  from  the  hydrant.  When  thoroughly  cleansed  the  coi-;il 
should  be  placed  on  a  clean  board  in  the  sun  to  bleach. 

Perhaps  the  most  strikingly  beautiful  of  the  stalked  corals  is  a  species  ^*^ 
which  so  far  has  only  been  found  on  Oahu.  growing  on  the  edge  of  the  small 
coral  islands  in  Kaneohe  Bay.  When  alive  the  animal  is  a  rich  red-orange 
color  and  has  the  top  of  each  short  branch  surrounded  by  a  single  orange- 
yellow  polyp  that  when  expanded  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  On 
the  approach  of  danger  the  animal  can  completely  withdraw  within  the  cup 
in  which  it  lives. 

So  far  as  known,  the  bi-ain  corals  •■^  have  never  been  taken  in  Hawaiian 
waters.  They,  together  with  many  other  forms  offered  for  sale  in  the  curi- 
osity shops  of  Honolulu,  doubtless  come  from  the  islands  of  the  south  Pacific 
or  from  the  Philippines. 

The  Eight-Payed  Corals. 

While  the  Alcyonarians  are  seldom  seen  by  the  reef  coliectoi-.  it  is  a 
matter  of  interest  to  know  that  of  the  sixty-eight  species  of  the  "eight-rayed 
corals"  taken  by  the  Albatross  on  its  epoch-making  cruise  about  the  islands, 
thirty-nine  were  described  as  new  to  science  in  Dr.  0.  ('.  XuHinu's  i-eporls  on  ihe 
material.  He  states  that  of  the  three  orders  of  Alci/otiaria  discussed  in  his  paper, 
the  first.^-  including  the  colonial  forms,  usually  typiti(Ml  by  the  oruan-pipe  coral, 
are  represented  by  only  five  species. 

Sea-Pens  and  Ska-Fans. 

The  order"'-'  including  the  sea-pens  and  similar  forms  whei-e  tlu'  coli«nies 
are  arranged  bilaterally  and  symmetrically  on  an  axial  stem.  ha\-e  si.\t<en 
species  in  the  off-shore  fauna.  The  sea-fans.  sea-i)luines  and  their  allies  loi-m 
the  most  abundant  order.^-^  Like  the  othei-  orders  of  the  class,  they  nil  have 
eight-rayed  polyps.  The  beautiful  h.oi-ny  li-ee  oi-  bush-like  growth  1o  be  seen 
in  museums,  however,  gives  but  lillle  idea  of  the  ;iii|ieai-ance  of  the  living 
animal.     Forty-eight  species  ai-e  included   m   the  list  of  Hawaiian  s|)ecies.  but 


^0  Funmidfv.  ^^  DmidroiihiUin   iiKnini.         »'  J/cfuif/ciHO.  "-  Alcyonarta:  3n  p,.in,nliil<ii-i-a. 

^*  Gorffonacea. 


480  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

they  so  very  seldom  reach  the  sea-shore  that  their  presence  in  the  islands  would 
be  unknown  1iut  foi-  th(^  work  of  such  expeditions  as  that  of  the  Albatross. 

Jellyfish. 

Those  who  have  been  boating  on  the  beautiful  Peai-1  Harbor  lochs  are 
almost  sure  to  have  seen  large  numbers  of  the  curious  swimming-bells  of  the 
jellyfish  •^•''  floating  gracefully  about  through  the  water.  If  one  is  captured  it 
will  sting  the  hands  like  a  nettle.  For  this  i-eason  the  pololia.  as  it  is  known 
to  the  Hawaiian  fishermen,  is  let  severely  alone  by  those  who  have  once  expe- 
rienced the  stinging,  itching  sensation,  which  is  the  result  of  a  poison  injected 
by  myriads  of  little  stinging  cells.  These  stinging  cells  or  lasso  cells  are 
common  to  many  forms  of  Coelenterata,  and  are  very  effective  in  protecting  these 
apparently  helpless  animals  from  their  enemies.  Other  species  of  large  jelly- 
fish are  occasionally  seen  as  they  slowly  swim  at  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  or  are 
rarelv  found  stranded  on  the  shore  bv  the  receding  tide,  but  not  more  than  a  half 
dozen  species  all  told  ai'e  known  from  tlie  islands. 

Hydroids. 

The  Hi/(]n))n(  (Instep  resemble  the  members  of  the  foregoing  family,  differing 
mainly  in  being  smaller  in  size,  and  in  the  fact  that  the  medusie  or  heads  found 
floating  at  the  surface,  in  most  cases,  are  in  reality  budded  off  from  small 
animals,-"'*"'  which  form  colonies  and  are  permanently  fixed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sea.  The  young  medusa^  after  leaving  the  hydroids  or  stems,  begin  an  indepen- 
dent free-swimming  career.  In  the  course  of  growth  they  pass  through  a 
series  of  stages  and  finally  become  sexually  adult.  The  eggs  of  the  female 
medusa  do  not,  as  a  rule,  develop  into  meduste.  ])ut  into  hydroids,  so  that  there 
is  an  alteration  of  generations.  As  the  hydroids  seldom  grow  in  water  more 
than  a  few  hundred  fathoms  deep,  the  medusip  are  usually  found  in  shallow 
water  offshore,  though  there  are  pelagic  forms  that  are  exceptions  to  the  rule. 
Only  a  few  species  of  the  free-swimming  forms  have  so  far  been  reported  from 
Hawaii.  The  common  form.-'^'  a  new  species,  is  a  very  small  bell-shaped  animal 
with  from  twelve  to  foui'teen  lash-like  tentacles  suspended  from  the  edge  of 
the  bell. 

Dr.  Nutting  visited  the  Hawaiian  Islands  on  the  cruise  of  the  Albatross, 
and  subsequently  devoted  much  time  to  a  study  of  the  hydroids  collected 
about  the  islands.  He  found  the  fauna  very  rich,  varied  and  interesting,  but 
as  the  material  examined  was  that  secured  in  water  from  ten  to  five  hundred 
fathoms  deep,  the  littoral  fauna  is  yet  to  be  studied.  His  list  enumerates  fort.v- 
nine  species,  twenty-nine  of  them  proving  new.  As  the  species  are  placed  in 
twenty-seven  genera  belonging  to  eleven  families,  the  great  variation  in  the 
forms  will  be  apparent.  The  shore  species  are  often  called  moss  animals,^'^ 
since  many  of  them  ai-e  pretty  feathery,  i)luni('-like  creatures,  so  closely  re- 


s''' Sryphomediisa'.         ^6  Zo<)jtl;ytp/i  or  Hi/dr'iidx.         ^'  Soliiinris   irisculiitii. 
»"  This  name  is  more  properly  applied  to  the  Polyzoa. 


THE   ANIMAL   LIFE   OF   THE   CROEP.  481 

seitihliiiu'  seM-iiKisscs  tliat  it  is  with  (lifliciill  y  that  the  uiit  i-a  iiicd  ohscrv.-r  is 
convinced  that  they  arc  really  animal  ('(donies.  Sonic  of  the  <;cncra  ■'•'  ai-e 
■well-known  animals  and  occasionally  limned  in  'general  reference  books.  The 
Hawaiian  species  in  every  case  aie  i-arer  foims  Ihat  can  oidy  he  recog-nized  bv 
experts  when  aided  by  elaborate  descriptions. 

In  this  connection  mention  slionid  be  made  of  certain  colonial  hydi-oids"*" 
that  secret  masses  of  carbonate  of  lime  ont  of  which  the  aninnd  |)fot  iMuh's  like 
a  coral  polyp.  They  ai-e  usnally  jnnk  oi'  oran.u'e-colored.  and  an-  often  called 
corals.  Several  species  are  fonnd  very  ])lentiful!y  on  onr  coral  reefs.  On 
close  examination  it  will  be  seen  that  tlu'y  differ  in  strndui'e  from  the  true 
corals.  The  solid-looking  masses  with  lobed  processes,  or  bosses,  are  the  most 
common, -^1  though  fine  branching  examples-'-  also  occnr.  In  both  fjuiiiiies  the 
whole  surface  can  be  seen,  with  the  aid  of  a  lens,  t;)  be  coxci'cd  with  small 
pore-like  openings.  If  a  vertical  section  is  exaiuined.  indistinct  layei's  can  be 
seen  running  parallel  with  the  outer  surface.  Only  the  surface  is  alive,  the 
inner  mass  being  composed  of  the  dead  skeletons.  Thus  these  animals  secrete 
lime  aiul  build  up  a  coral-like  skeleton  in  much  the  same  way  as  do  the  ti'ne 
corals,  which  are  f)olyp  colonies  and  quite  different  in  their  oi-ganizatioii, 
though  secreting  similar  masses  of  lime. 

Zor»logists  often  cite  this  peculiai'  fact  as  an  example  of  "con\-ergence.' ' 
meaning  thereby  that  two  animals  of  diffei'cnt  ty[)cs  have  becoim'  adapted  to 
similar  conditions  of  life  and  come  to  superficially  resemble  each  other.  Other 
animals,  as  whales  and  fishes,  bii-ds  and  bats,  show  similar  evidence  of  con- 
vergence. Indeed,  it  has  not  been  uncommon  foi-  naturalists  to  place  totally 
different  animals  in  the  same  grou])  on  account  of  theii'  I'csemblance.  The 
Hawaiian  HijdrocoraUiuce  have  not  been  full\-  studied  as  yet.  and  there  appi^ars 
to  be  no  list  of  even  the  common  species. 

The  Portuguese  IMan-op^-AVau. 

Sea-bathers  occasionally  make  the  acquaintance  of  the  I'ortugut'st'  man- 
of-war,^-^  which  is  perhaps  the  best  known  member  of  a  third  family  ^^  of  the 
jellyfish  tribe.  It  floats,  l)y  means  of  an  air  sack,  on  the  surface  of  \ho  sea. 
Its  stinging  ])ower  is  tremendous,  producine  ;i  maddening,  scald'ng  pain  which 
lasts  for  hours.  As  the  stinging  tentacles  are  loni;-  and  1  h.read-like  and  lloat 
ont  loosely  in  the  \vat<'r.  the  beantil'nl  "bine  bottles"  are  Ihines  that  can  be 
more  safely  admii-ed  at  a  considerable  distance.  On  the  windward  shoi-e  of  all 
the  islands  they  are  often  stranded  by  thonsands  by  the  ebbine  tide,  where  they 
dry  down  to  a  mere  bubble  in  a    few   honrs. 

Ska  .Money. 

Another  common  form  ^'''  is  a  llat  coin-sha|>ed  disk  with  line  radiatinir 
white    lines.     About    the    edge    nvc    innumerable    line    tent;udes.     The    animal. 


^^  Serfiilririd.   Cam  imii  iihi  riii   :ni(l    I'linii  kUu-'ui.  *<>  JJiidrororiilHiKV.  "  Milh'iiDi-iihr. 

*^  Stiilasti'fidiv.  *•'  I'hi/siiliii    III  ririihiii.  *^  Siphniiophdnv.  *'•  Parintn   imrifira. 


^ 

a 


sq 


o 


<    t 
5 


Z     z 

<1 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  483 

tentacles  and  all.  is  less  than  Iwo  inches  in  diameter  and  is  a  beantiful  blue 
color.  When  stranded  the  soft  parts  soon  disappear,  leaving  a  white  disk  about 
the  size  of  a  dime,  which  is  often  appropriately  called  "sea  money."  Tliere  is 
also  another  form  ^'^  that  is  fairly  common  at  times.  It  somewhat  resendjles 
the  Portuguese  man-of-war  in  that  it  is  surface-swimming  and  bears  on  its 
upper  surface  an  oblique  sail.  It  differs  fs-om  the  man-of-w^ar  most  notice- 
ably in  having  short  rather  than  long  pendant  tentacles. 

A  curious  transparent  balloon-shaped  little  animal'"  with  two  long  re- 
tractile tentacles,  Avith  odd  tag-like  appendages  attached,  has  also  been  taken 
in  Hawaiian  waters.  It  belongs  to  a  fourth  family,4«  which  also  includes  an 
odd  transparent,  many-ribbed  cylinder-shaped  animal,-^^  four  or  five  inches  in 
length,  one  end  of  which  is  rounded,  the  other  truncated  and  occupied  entirely 
by  the  immense  mouth.  As  these  animals  are  jelly-like,  they  seldom,  almost 
never,  reach  the  shore.  For  that  reason  they  are  rare  curiosities  w^hen  once 
they  are  secured.  It  is  a  matter  of  interest  to  know,  however,  that  as  many 
as  twenty  species  of  jellyfish  or  medusie-like  animals  have  been  reported  by 
Dr.  A.  G.  Mayer  as  occurring  in  the  collections  made  by  the  Albatross. 

]\T0SS-AXIMALS. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  sea-mats  or  moss-animals."'"  They  are 
usually  found  attached  to  stones,  forming  an  incrustation  which,  upon  examina- 
tion, seems  to  be  made  up  of  very  minute  cells  each  perforated  by  a  small  pore. 
Besides  the  encrusting  forms  there  are  branching  forms  that  reseml)le  hydroids. 
but  unfortunately  our  fauna  has  not  yet  been  studied,  so  that  the  species  are 
not  known. 

Allied  to  the  Polyzoa,  and  by  most  authors  placed  in  the  same  i)hylum."'* 
are  the  very  rare,  but  very  interesting,  lamp  shells  ^'-  or  arm-footed  animals. 
The  shells  of  these  animals  are  so  like  the  common  clam  shells  in  general  foi-m 
that  they  Avere  once  classed  as  a  division  of  the  mollusks.  but  they  ma.v  be  dis- 
tinguished from  them  by  the  fact  that  their  valves  are  niu'(|ual  in  size,  and  ihat 
they  are  attached  by  a  small  stalk  which  passes  out  tlii-ough  a  liole  in  the  apex 
of  the  larger  valve.  While  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  species  occur  offshore,  the 
only  examples  ^s  that  have  come  under  the  writer's  immediate  observation  were 
a  few  delicately-colored  specimens  a  half  inch  in  diameter,  secured  in  a  small 
collection  of  shells  brought  up  in  dredging  operations  in  Honolulu  harbor,  jmd 


*^  Vellela  pacifica.         ^'  U/iriiiij>li(ii-<i  fiixiforiiiiii.  *■''  Ctenoi)lii<riv.         *"  Borne  sp.  '•*'  Poh/zon. 

^1  MoUiiscoiden.  ^-  Tirarhiainids.  ""^  I'crebrdtiild   sinii/tiiiicfi. 


Description   m-    ri.Ari:. 

1.  MdcrohracliiuDi  (ircuuliiiKitnis  ( iininarurc).  -  ."uul  .'{.  Cmnpnn  =  (Alphcus)  locvis.  4. 
Macrohrachium  grandemanus  (mature).  5.  Acia-a  affinis.  6.  rhiijipoflia  f)i<1ou.rii.  7.  Mc- 
topograpsus  messor.  8.  Pala'moii  pacificus.  9.  FscudosquiUu  ciliata.  10,  11.  12.  Leptodius 
sanguineus.  13.  Etisus  Icevimanus.  14.  Nerocda  austra1asi(F.  15.  Leptodius  sanguineus. 
16.  Lophozozjimii.^  dodone.  17.  Acitra  .tpeeiosa.  18.  Phj/tiiodiits  nitidus.  19.  Xanthi(i.'<  ca- 
nalirulatus.  20.  Carpiladcs  MonticitUisus.  21.  Trapezia  ei/modoee  inferwedia.  22.  Trapezia 
digitalis.  23.  Ehymodius  ungidatus.  24.  25.  Rimocarcinus  simpler.  20.  27.  Perinea  tnniida. 
28.    Domecia  hispida.     29.    Hippa  adactyla. 


484  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    HAWAII. 

a  few  shells  of  apparently  the  same  species,  gathered  on  Laysan  Island.  They 
are  of  more  than  ordinary  interest,  since  they  represent  a  gronp  which  was  very 
abundant  in  early  geologic  times  and  of  which  a  few  type-forms  have  persisted, 
almost  unchanged,  to  the  present  day. 

Sea-Squirts. 

The  sea-s(juirts  oi-  ascidians  form  a  class  ^"  that  is  well  represented  on  the 
reef  and  the  sca-l)ott(nn  offshore.  To  look  at  the  shapeless  sack-like  mass  of 
a  leathery  or  gelatinons  textnre  having  two  openings  through  which,  in  the 
living  creature,  cm-rents  of  water  enter  and  leave  the  body,  no  one  would  for 
a  moment  believe  that  they  could  claim  even  a  remote  relationship  with  the 
typical  vertebrate  animals.  Xevertheless,  they  are  placed  by  modern  zoolo- 
gists in  a  phylum  '-^  with  several  other  unusual  animals  thought  to  form  a 
group  ■'^'  more  closely  allied  to  the  typical  vertebrates  than  to  any  of  the  many 
varied  types  of  invertebrate  animals.  In  order  to  trace  the  affinities,  how- 
ever, the  larval  condition  of  the  sea-scjuii't  must  l)e  studied,  as  they  are 
strangely  degenerated  animals  in  the  adult  form.  They  begin  life  as  a  free- 
swimming  tadpole-like  larva^  which  approaches  somewhat  to  the  vertebrate 
type  of  structure.  That  is,  they  possess  a  notochord,-^"  a  central  nervous 
system,  gill  slits,  and  certain  other  fundamental  characteristics.  As  they 
attain  the  adult  condition,  however,  radical  changes  in  form  and  structure  take 
place.  They  usually  find  a  suitable  location  and  become  attached,  remaining 
for  their  life-time  in  one  ])lace.  fii-mly  adhering  to  various  objects,  as  a  shell, 
a  coral,  a  rock,  or  a  bit  of  seaweed.  The  pelagic  free-swimming  sea-squirts 
or  salpa  I  have  never  seen  in  Hawaii,  but  there  are  both  simple  and  compound 
ascidians  in  abundance  about  the  islands.  Among  the  compound  fixed  types, 
the  colonies,  as  they  are  called,  are  produced  by  budding  from  a  single  parent 
animal.  They  commonly  form  jelly-like  incrustations  in  which  a  whitish  star- 
like pattern  can  be  seen.  They  abound  on  the  under  side  of  submerged  objects, 
or  on  seaweeds.  But  the  simple  forms,  being  much  larger,  are  sure  to  attract 
the  notice  of  the  naturalist  on  the  reef.  On  being  lifted  from  the  water,  at- 
tached to  a  stone  or  coral,  they  squirt  a  siuall  stream  of  water  fi'om  the  open- 
ings as  thev  contract. 


'c?"- 


The  Balanoglossus. 

A  curious  soft-l)odied  worm-like  animal."'"  whose  claim  to  a  place  among 
the  Cliordata  rests  upon  the  fact  that  an  outgrowth  of  the  intestine  extends 
into  the  probosis,  where  it  forms  a  solid  rod  which,  in  its  origin,  suggests  the 
notochord  in  more  typical  forms,  occurs  in  the  sand  in  shallow^  water  along  our 
shores:  in  pockets  in  the  reefs,  as,  for  example,  in  the  reef  at  Kahala,  Oahu. 
Specimens  may  be  secured  by  passing  the  sand  through  a  sieve,  or  dredging  it 


ssTuntcofn.         o*  Chorihita.  ^=  Protorertehrata. 

^^  A  dorsal  longitudinal  rod  of  supporting  cells  that  corresponds  to  the  primitive  backbone 

^"  Balanoglossus. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFK  OF  TlIK   (IKOI.P.  485 

up  on  tile  tiiK's  of  a  rake.  They  ai'e  imicli  sou^lil  l)y  zoiilonists  owiiiu  to  IIhmc 
primitive  ehordate  characters,  but  uuiuformed  collectors  Avould  place  them 
at  once  amon^'  the  woi-ms.  If  specimens  are  cnrerully  (-(jllected  and  placed  in 
a  jar  of  sea  water  and  sand,  they  make  interesting'  exhibits  in  the  schoolroom 
or  laboratory. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 
PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  FRO^r  THE  CORAL  REEF:      PART  TAVO. 

The  Hawaiian  reefs  aliound  in  representatives  of  the  pliylum.'  includinLi- 
such  odd  and  diverse  animals  as  the  starfish,  sea-urchins,  brittle-stars  and 
the  sea-cucumbers.  The  curious  bleached  white  skeletons  of  the  sea-urchins, 
with  the  beautiful  lace-like  pattern  pierced  in  fine  holes  over  the  biscuit-shaped 
shell  or  test,  are  among  the  objects  picked  up  with  shells  and  seaweed  on  the 
sand  beach.  They  are  hardly  to  l)e  recognized,  however,  as  the  remains  of 
the  spiny  sea-urchin  so  often  stepped  on  by  incautious  ])atlicfs.  Tlioy  arr  the 
"hedge-hogs"  of  the  sea,  since  the  numerous  calcareous  ])lates  formiiiL:  the 
shell  are  covered  in  the  several  species  Avitii  variously-shaped  spines.  These 
spines  serve  the  ina,  as  the  sea-urchins  are  called  by  the  natives,  as  a  means  of 
protection,  and  in  certain  species  they  are  used  to  assist  in  boring  the  burrows 
often  inhabited  by  them  in  the  solid  rock  below  low-tide. 

Sea-Urchins. 

The  common  forms  are  a  black  species.-  oi-  ina  el  eel  e.  and  a  whitish 
form,'^  ina  keokeo.  They  both  are  very  {)lentil'ul  on  the  coral  n'vfs  abt)ut 
Honolulu  and  are  gathered  and  eaten  by  the  natives.  If  one  is  taken  alive 
from  its  liiding  place  beneath  the  loose  stones  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  reef  and 
examined,  the  spines  will  lie  found  to  move  on  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  The 
tubercles  on  the  test  forming  the  attachment  foi'  the  spines  are  arrangecl 
mainly  in  five  broad  bands  extending  from  the  io[)  I'ound  to  the  bottom  or  oral 
side.  Alternating  with  the.se  are  five  narrow  bands  bearing  fewei-  tubercles, 
but  pierced  by  the  small  holes  arranged  in  I'ows  as  referi-ed  to  above.  Through 
these  holes  pass  numei'ous  cui'ious  tube-feet,  each  i)rovided  with  a  sucker  on  the 
end.  These  are  therefore  the  walking  bands. ■»  The  vent  is  situated  in  the 
summit  or  aboral  side  of  the  test.  The  membfane  on  tlie  boltoin  oi'  flat  side 
surrounds  the  i!U)uth,  fi'oiii  wliieji  prolrude  the  ii|is  ol'  li\-e  poinli'd  leetli.  If 
the  membi-ane  is  renuived  a  curious  conical  sli'ucture  will  be  seen  commonly 
called  Aristotle's  lantern. 

One   of   these   animals   di'oiipeil    into   a    salt-v.ater   a(|uariuin    will    prove   an 
interesting  object.      Placed    in    water,   tlie   tube   walking   I'eet    expand    and    tin 
creatui-e   will    slowly   glide   along,   or   if   placi-d   on    its   back    it    will    i-ieht    itself. 


^  Erhinodcrmafa.  •  Echinomrira   sp.  ^  Echiiminctra  sp.  '    \  nil.nl.i.rnl   n>u, 


PLATE  m.  COMMON  CORALS  AND  CORAL  ROCK. 

1,  2,  3,  4.  [Akoakoa — the  jjeiieral  name  of  coral].  Porites  spp.  an<l  varieties;  the  species 
are  variable  in  form  and  a  larjjje  number  of  forms  have  been  enumeratcMl.  5.  Coclnstrea  tenuis. 
G.  Leptastrea  sp.  7.  Cyphastrea  ocilliiia.  8.  Leptastrea  iKiiraiienfiis.  9.  Lepinstrrn 
agaassizi.     10,   11.     Mo)iti]>ora   spp.     12.    CnrJaslrra   sp. 


THE  ANIMxVL  LIFE  OF  THE  GRULl'.  487 

They  are  said  to  feed  on  seaweed  and  also  on  dead  fish  and  decaying  mattei-  of 
various  kinds.  The  large  purple-black  species/^  with  long,  slender,  awl-shaped 
spines,  prefers  the  deeper  water  in  the  holes  toward  tlie  outer  edge  of  the  reef. 
With  it  occurs  a  similar  species  "  in  whieli  tlie  long  spines  are  banded  gray  and 
black.  Both  species  are  known  as  Wana,  or  sea  eggs,  and  are  much  sought 
for  by  the  Ilawaiians,  Avho  are  very  fond  of  them. 

The  spines  of  the  wana  are  both  sharp  and  brittle  and  inflict  a  serious 
wound.  If  the  native  fisherman  is  so  unfortunate  as  to  be  injured  by  one  he 
will  bite  the  wound  savagely  in  order  to  grind  the  spine  into  fine  fragments 
so  that  the  pieces  will  come  out  later  on  with  the  pus. 

The  1)eautiful  club-spined  ~  urchins  are  quite  conniion  at  eei-tain  ]ilaces 
on  the  reef,  and  are  often  on  exhibition  in  the  Acpiariiuu  in  Honolulu.  They 
are  as  large  as  the  preceding  species,  but  are  a  reddish-brown  color,  and  the 
spines  are  heavy  and  blunt  and  imperfectly  triangular. 

A  curious  rough  rock  urchin.''  the  haukeuke,  has  tlie  spines  short  and 
blunt  over  the  back,  but  long  and  dull-pointed  about  the  edge.  They  are 
fond  of  the  rough  sea  and  adhere  to  the  blaek  lava  rocks  exposed  to  the  full 
dash  of  the  waves. 

A  large  lieart-shaped  urchin,''  covered  with  fine  short  brown  hair-like 
spines,  is  known  as  the  sea  biscuit  or  heart-urehin.  Other  forms  are  occasion- 
ally collected  in  shallow  water,  l)ut  the  ma.i(»rity  of  the  Echinoidea  are  found 
in  deeper  water  offshore.  The  number  of  species  inhabiting  the  Hawaiian 
waters  is  not  determined,  but  it  is  known  to  be  a  rich  fauna,  there  beiim-  a 
number  of  rare  species. 

Starfishes. 

While  the  true  starfishes^"  are  fairly  common  in  the  deeper  water  otV- 
shore,  they  are  not  very  abundant  on  the  coral  reef.  As  a  matter  of  fact. 
it  is  a  great  find  to  collect  a  specimen  of  any  size  from  the  reefs  about  Oaliu. 
It  is  necessary  to  understand  at  this  point  that  in  the  tyi>ical  stai-fish  the  anus 
are  usually,  though  not  always,  five  in  number  and  that,  as  a  I'ule.  they  are  not 
sharply  marked  off  from  the  centi'al  disk,  as  is  the  case  with  the  bi-ittle-star- 
fish.ii  two  or  three  species  of  which  are  plentiful  in  shallow  water.  In 
the  true  stars  the  feet  are  located  in  a  definite  groove,  while  in  the  brittle  stars 
the  grooves  are  not  present. 

The  connection  of  the  feet  with  the  water-vascular  system  is  very  inter- 
esting. On  the  back  between  two  of  the  arms  nuiy  be  seen  a  curiously  rougli- 
ened  plate  i-  that  in  reality  is  a  sieve  through  Avhich  the  water  is  strained  l)efore 
it  enters  the  system.  Connected  with  this  sieve-like  body  is  tlie  stone-canal. 
It  runs  downward  and  connects  with  the  ringed-canal  which  encircles  the 
mouth;  from  this  canal  five  radial  canals,  on.e  for  each  arm,  ])ass  outward 
just  above  the  ambulacral  grooves.      The  radial-canals  give  olV  side  bi-anches 


^  Diademn  pniii'i.spii(inn.  "  Ecliinotlirix  desori.  ~  Ufti'rori'utrotes  sp.  »  Podophorn  jtediii-ra. 

"  Brixsiis  carinatus.         ^'>  Asterioidea.  ^^  Ophitiroidea.         i-' Madreporite. 


1>LATK   112.     CORALS    AND    UKKV    ROCK. 

1.  SicpaiKtrid  sji.  2.  PociUipnrd  sp.  3.  Fnufiui  sp.  4,  o.  (i,  7.  S.  9.  PdciJlipora  .-ipp. 
and  forms,  in.  11.  Dead  coral  rock  showing  worm  holes  ami  ntlirr  marks  of  ilisintt'fjration. 
12.    Stepanari/i  .^p.;  beach   worn  specimen.     13.    FnrUrs  sp. 


THE  ANBrAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  489 

to  connect  with  the  bulb-like  sacks  i"  tluit  in  tuni  connect  with  the  tube-feet. 
Sea  water  is  forced  into  this  system  of  tubes  and  by  the  expansion  ov  contrac- 
tion of  the  little  sacks,  the  feet  are  thus  extended  or  withdrawn. 

The  favorite  food  of  the  starfishes  is  said  to  consist  of  the  connnon  bivalves, 
but  it  is  asserted  that  there  is  no  animal  that  it  can  catch  that  it  will  not 
devour.  On  the  oyster  beds,  especially  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  they  are  vei-y 
destructive.  They  wrap  themselves  about  the  oyster  and  in  so  doing-  literally 
turn  the  stomach  inside  out  through  the  mouth.  In  a  little  while  the  bivalve  is 
forced  to  relax  its  muscles  and  allow  the  shell  to  oi)en.  The  edge  of  the 
stomach  is  then  inserted  between  the  valves  of  the  shell  and  the  soft  parts  of 
its  prey  are  thus  digested  outside  the  starfish's  body.  The  habits  of  our  Ha- 
waiian species  have  not  as  yet  been  studied,  though  it  would  not  be  a  difficult 
matter  to  do  so. 

Large  specimens  of  an  eight-rayed  starfish  ^^  are  occasionally  captured  ;it 
Pearl  Harbor.  They  are  often  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter,  are  cream-colored 
above,  mottled  with  burnt  sienna  and  chocolate,  and  are  white  below.  A 
similar  but  very  small  species  is  to  be  found  abundantly  in  the  coarse  green 
sponges  in  Kalihi  bay  and  at  Pearl  Harbor.  A  small,  stiff,  irregularly-de- 
veloped pink  leather-like  species,!^  without  spines,  is  occasionally  found 
crowded  into  small  holes  in  the  coral  reef.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  powers  of 
reproducing  new  and  complete  animals  from  the  broken  fragments  of  the  old 
one;  a  single  specimen  in  the  laboratory  has  been  made  to  produce  a  dozen  or 
more  complete  animals  from  the  fragments  broken  from  the  pareni,  while  the 
parent  disk  has  gone  on  and  reproduced  all  the  lost  parts. 

A  c\u"ious  five-sided  form,  ten  inches  or  more  in  diameter,  has  also  been 
taken  in  the  shallow  water  in  Pearl  Harbor,  but  of  recent  years  the  dredging 
operations  have  apparently  driven  the  large  species  away.  My  friend  Dr. 
Walter  K.  Fisher  was  on  the  great  Albatross  expedition  and  has  described 
fifty-two  of  the  sixty  species  taken  on  that  cruise  as  new  to  science.  They  are 
placed  in  twenty  families  and  are  distributed  into  no  fewer  than  forty-six  genera. 
As  can  be  imagined,  the  collection  represents  a  inost  astonishing  variety  of 
starfish  forms.  But  as  the  collection  was  niiulc  in  w.-itei-  fi-om  Icn  to  a  thou- 
sand fathoms  down,  his  splendidly-illustrated  monogra])h  is  an  iiidrx  to  what 
is  in  the  great  deep  oft'shore,  rather  tlian  a  guide  to  the  forms  liahlc  to  be 
gathered  by  hand  by  the  wading  naTiiralist. 

The  Brittle-St.vrpish. 

The  brittle-stars  1*'  have  long  serpent-like  arms  attarhed  to  a  i-clati\el\' 
small  and  usually  rounded  disk-shaped  body.  They  differ  from  the  true  stars 
in  a  number  of  ways.  It  is  important  to  note  that  the  digestive  system  does 
not  extend  into  the  arms,  but  is  confined  in  the  centi-al  body,  and  that  they 
have  no  grooves  on  the  under  sidi'  of  the  arms,  such  as  exist  in  the  typical  star- 
fish. The  arms  are  long  and  very  (Icxihlc  and  ai-e  used  almost  entirely  as  the 
organs  of  locomotion. 


13  Ampulla;.  '*  Liiidia  In/xtrix.  ^''  Liitckia  sp.  '"  Oiihi>in,i,l,n. 

32 


PLATP]  ]]3.     .MJSrKLLAXEOUS    MAEI^^E    ANIMALS. 

1,  2,   3,  4.    Common   Tunieates.     5.    Marine   worm    [Koe]    from  the   coral  rock.     6.    Flat- 
worm.     7.    Portuguese   Man-of-war    [Pololia]    (Phi/salia   utricula).     8.    Marine  worm    {Gephtj- 

(Descriidion   of   Plate   Cnntiiutfd   on    the   Opposite   Page.) 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  491 

The  common  blue-black  bri1tl(^-star,' '  known  lo  ihc  llawaiiaris  as  pea,  is 
svire  to  give  the  unsuspecting  person  a  start  as  it  scrambles  oiil  dl'  some  hole  iu 
a  dead  block  of  coral  lifted  from  the  water  and  held  in  llic  hands  for  closer 
inspection.  Like  the  true  starfish.  Hie  bi'il tic-stars  arc  inclined  lo  be  gre- 
garious. Often  a  dozen  or  two  Avill  be  gathered  under  a  single  head  of  coral, 
or  a  stone  half  buried  in  sand  in  a  hole  in  the  coral  reef.  As  they  go  scurry- 
ing off  in  all  directions  they  look  so  weird  and  snake-lik(>  that  one  instinctively 
shrinks  from  taking  them  up  in  the  hand,  though  t]ie\-  are  known  to  be  per- 
fectly harmless. 

They  can  be  kept  for  a  short  time  in  an  aquarium,  wIutc  their  habits  can 
be  studied  to  advantage.  Their  food,  however,  is  difficult  to  provide,  since  it 
consists  of  marine  organisms  and  decaying  organic  matter  lying  on  the  mud 
and  sand  on  the  sea  bottom.  It  is  scooi)ed  into  the  mouth  by  special  liibe-feet, 
two  pairs  for  each  arm.  The  stomach  is  a  simple  sac  that  cannot  be  pushed  out 
of  the  mouth.  A  small  pink  species  ^^  with  remarkably  long,  slender  ai-ms, 
with  short  bristle-like  spines,  is  occasionally  found  in  holes  in  coi-al  rock-,  luit 
is  exceedingly  difficult  to  secure,  owing  to  the  arms  being  very  easil\-  hi'oken. 

The  term  "brittle-star"  is  derived  from  the  liabit  of  these  animals  of 
breaking  oft'  their  arms  on  the  slightest  provocation.  By  so  doing  they  can 
readily  escape  from  their  enemies.  The  loss  of  tAvo  or  three  arms  is  of  no 
serious  consequence,  since  new  arms  are  speedily  regenerated.  The  ucav 
growth,  however,  may  be  easily  recognized,  as  it  seldom  is  as  large  as  the 
portion  it  replaces.  This  remarkable  powder  of  regenerating  lost  mend)ers  is 
a  common  one  in  the  animal  kingdom,  worms,  crabs,  lizards  and  the  like  fur- 
nishing interesting  examples. 

Zoologists  include  the  basket-stars,^"  with  branching  arms,  in  the  same 
class  with  the  brittle-stars,  but  they  have  never  been  taken  b.\-  naturalists  on 
the  Hawaiian  reefs. 

Sea-Cucumbers. 

Every  Hawaiian  child  is  familiar  with  the  loli,  and  most  of  tliem  can  tell 
at  a  glance  the  species  that  are  used  as  food  and  those  that  are  to  l)e  left  lyimr 
on  the  reef  or  unmolested  in  the  holes  in  the  coral  rock  where  they  commonly 
seek  attachment  or  shelter.  They  are  known  to  Europeans  by  v.irious  names, 
as  sea-cucumbers,  trepang  or  beche-de-mer,  but  whatever  tlie  name,  whetlier 
they  are  fresh  from  the  sea  or  dead,  or  for  sale  in  the  markets,  they  are  the 
same  repulsive,  uninteresting-looking  objects. 

They   are   all   included   by   zoologists   in   one   class  ^o   of  sausage-sliaped. 


1"  P/itof  mo  sp.  ^^  Ophiothrix  sp.  ^^  CUidtophiuroe.        '^o  Holothuroidea. 


(Description   of  Plate   Continued   from   Opposite   Page) 

rea)  from  the  dead  coral.  9.  A  Coelenterate  (.sp.  indct.)  from  Honolulu  harbor.  10.  Soa- 
sqiiirt  {Tunicate).  11.  Marine  worm  from  a  pilinij  in  Honolulu  liarltor.  VI.  Portion^of  the 
tube  of  a  ship  worm  {Teredo)  in  a  piece  of  timber.  lo.  Hue.  14.  !Sea-ancnionic.  LI.  Sea- 
squirt.     16.    Sea-anemonie. 


PLATE  114.     COMMON  MAEINE  PLANTS  AT  WAIKIKI. 


THE  AXLMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  403 

leathery  marine  auiinals  with  tlie  mouth  ;it  one  end  ui'  the  Ixxlv.  whidi  is 
sometimes  surrounded  with  tentack^s  which  may  be  expanded  or  withdrawn. 
They  appear  to  bear  but  little  resemhl;iii.-c  to  their  cousins,  the  sea-urchins,  or 
their  second  cousins,  the  starfish,  but  if  one  is  closely  examined  it  will  be 
found  to  resemble  the  sea  urchins  in  cortnin  fundamental  features,  especially 
in  possessing  a  ringed  canal  about  the  mouth  wliicli  gives  off  tubes  that  i-un 
up  and  backward  to  supply  water  to  the  tube-feet  Avhen  they  are  present. 
AVhile  they  are  far  from  being  star  shaped  and  are  without  the  long,  s]i;ir|. 
spines  of  the  typical  sea-urchins,  they  appear  to  trace  their  ancestry  back  to  ;i 
generalized  starfish-like  animal,  and  for  that  renson  they  are  all  included  in 
the  one  great  phylum. -^ 

An  energetic  collector  may  secure  a  half  dozen  species  on  a  single  expe- 
dition on  the  reef  at  low  tide,  but  if  one  turns  to  Dr.  Fisher's  very  compre- 
hensive paper  based  on  the  Albatross  collection,  the  list  of  Hawaiian  species 
will  be  found  to  be  a  much  more  extensive  one. 

Of  the  forty-four  species  of  sea-cucumbers  enumerated  by  tiiis  careful  nat- 
uralist, nineteen  are  described  for  the  first  time.  The  fauna  is  placed  in  four 
families,  including  twenty-one  genera  in  all.  Perhaps  a  dozen  species  are 
liable  to  be  gathered  from  the  tide  pools  on  the  reef,  but  as  they  are  ditfieult 
to  describe  in  popular  terms,  they  are  even  more  difficult  to  identify.  .\  few 
forms,  however,  may  be  recognized  by  their  popular  lunnes  or  simple  de- 
scriptions. 

To  all  of  these  animals  the  Hawaiians  applied  the  class  name  loli.  Imt 
several  species  were  recognized  by  definite  specific  names,  such  as  loli  kai. 
which  grows  about  six  inches  long  and  is  eaten  raw  or  cooked;  loli  jma.  the 
large  black  species  often  fifteen  inches  in  length,  which  was  also  eaten,  ami  loli 
koko,  which  is  red  inside  and  was  not  eaten  by  the  natives. 

The  names  thus  applied  by  the  Hawaiians  are  fairly  accurate  and  con- 
stant throughout  the  group.  As  the  definite  detection  of  the  characters  which 
separate  the  species  in  most  cases  can  only  l)e  made  out  by  the  examination 
of  the  calcareous  deposits  in  the  skin  of  the  animal,  tlu'ir  classification  is  a 
far  too  difficult  problem  for  the  average  collector.  But  to  collect  specimens  of 
many  of  the  species  is  an  easy  task,  since  they  are  sluggish,  inactive  creatures 
which  lie  buried  in  the  sand  or  seek  shelter  underneath  stones  or  in  the 
crevices  in  the  coral  reef.  The  large,  dai'k-brown.  lil;iekisli  species  with 
ambulacral  feet  scattered  all  over  the  body.--  eonuuonly  fouml  in  lava  rock  jioois, 
is  perhaps  as  well  known  as  any  of  the  group  owing  to  its  size  when  ailult. 
A  reddish,  heliotrope-purple  or  brownish-purple  species -•'*  frequently  found 
in  company  with  the  large  black  oiu'  just  nuMitioned.  and  a  brown  oi-  reddish- 
brown  species-^  of  large  size  with  a  whitish  ventral  surface,  are  also  c(»ninion 
in  shallow  water.  A  well-knoAvn  species-"'  on  the  Honolulu  reef  is  about 
three  inches  long  and  variously  colored,  the  tentacles  being  straw  color,  the 


^^  Erhinodermatn.  -- IloUithuria  atra.  ^^  Eolothuria  cinftasfcns.         -*  Ilolothtiria    ratjahunda. 

-^  Holothuria   pardnlis. 


S:'- 


V-- 


■..  "'Ji';"*/\v..V',.-   ^.' 


■V 
f.  k,f 


m--^^ 


^-^--^ 


'~  ■c#,P'- 


PLATE  115.     COMMON   HAWAIIAN   SPONGES    [UPI]. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  495 

dorsal  surface  brownish  straw  coloi',  varied  with  lighter,  the  ventral  surface 
lighter  than  the  back.  The  species  may  or  may  not  have  two  rows  of  doi-sal 
spots. 

A  curious  and  striking  worm-like  sea-cucumber-'^  is  common  at  I'l'arl 
Harbor,  Kaneohe  Bay,  and  at  other  points  in  similar  places  in  the  shallow 
water  on  sandy  and  coral  bottoms.  Large  specimens  ai-e  two  or  tliice  feet  in 
length  and  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter.  They  vary  greatly  in  coloration, 
but  are  usually  reddish-orange  spotted  with  brown,  the  brown  forming  mot- 
tlings  and  irregular  bands.  They  have  fifteen  or  more  greenish  tentacles  an 
inch  or  more  in  length.  These  animals  may  be  seen  by  the  hundreds  in  favor- 
able localities  at  certain  seasons,  as  they  slowly  creep  about  in  the  algai  on  the 
bottom,  in  shallow  quiet  water.  On  being  lifted  to  the  surface  they  completely 
collapse,  as  the  water  which  fills  the  entire  animal  runs  out.  Icaviue  only  the 
thin  contracted  bladder-like  skin. 

Another  very  common  variegated  olive-brown  species,-"  varied  with 
whitish  circles  and  blotches  over  the  back,  takes  little  care  to  conceal  itself 
during  the  day  and  is  quite  plentiful,  usually  in  lava  rock  pools.  A  fair-sized, 
dark-greenish  species  -^  mottled  with  dark  brownish-green  is  also  quite  com- 
mon, especially  in  the  large  tide  pools  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  reef  near 
Honolulu. 

The  food  of  most  sea-cucumbers  consists  of  minute  particles  of  organic 
matter  extracted  from  the  sand  and  mud,  taken  into  the  alimentary  canal. 
The  species  mentioned  above  as  common  in  Pearl  Harbor  may  be  seen  in  the 
process  of  feeding.  The  plume-like  tentacles  round  the  mouth  are  stretched  to 
their  full  length.  When  they  have  gathered  sufficient  food  particles  from  the 
water  they  are  alternately  curved  round  and  drawn  over  the  mouth  aiul  tlie 
food-charged  water  forced  into  the  central  mouth  opening. 

The  tube-feet,  when  present,  are  the  organs  of  locomotion;  l)y  them  the 
animal  is  pulled  along  on  its  ventral  surface.  Several  of  the  species,  but 
especially  the  loli  koko,  have  a  disgusting  habit,  when  disturbed,  of  exuding  a 
mass  of  long  white  sticky  fibers  that  adhere  tenaciously  to  any  object,  and  in 
which  the  enemies  of  the  animals  are  entangled.  These  thi-eads  are  i»ai-t  of 
the  respiratory  apparatus  known  as  the  gill  tree,  but  the  threads  themselves 
are  termed  Cuvierian  organs.  When  the  loli  becomes  excessively  ii-ritated  it 
contracts  the  muscles  of  the  body  wall  to  such  an  extent  that  the  thin  wall  of 
the  intestine  is  ruptured  and  a  portion  of  the  long,  coiled  intestine  is  pushed 
out.  The  animal  is  only  temporarily  inconvenienced  by  this  experience,  how- 
ever, as  in  a  short  time,  after  a  bi'ief  period  of  (luiescence,  nn1ui-c  r.M'iirnishcs  it 
with  an  entire  new  set  of  digestive  organs. 

CRiNoms. 

While  the  beautiful  and  rare  sea-lilies  or  Crinoids  ai-e  never  found  on  the 
reef,  it  is  a  matter  of  general  interest  to  know  that  they  belong  in  the  great 


-»  Opheodesoma  si)ert(ih!h'S.  -'  Actiitophi/ffa  maiiritkiua.         ="  Stichopiia  tropiralix. 


PLATE  116.     STARFISH,    SEA-URCHINS    AND    SEA-CUCUMBERS. 

1.    Sea    Egg    or    Sea-urcliin    [Wana].     2.    The    saiiH>    witli    the    spines    removed.     3.    Sea- 
beaver   or    Heart-urchin.     4.    Aristotle's   lantern:    tlie   masticating   organ    of   a    sea-urcliin.     5. 

( Descrijition    of   Plate    Continued    on    the    Opposite    I'age.) 


THE  ANIiMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  497 

phylum  including  the  starfish,  sea-urchins  and  sea-cucumbers.  A  dozen  species 
of  this  class  -"'  of  animals,  often  known  as  feather-stars,  or  when  fossilized  as 
stone-lilies,  were  collected  by  the  Albatross.  Tliey  were  placed  in  eight  genera 
assigned  to  four  families  of  the  non-stalked  forms.  In  the  hands  of  T)i-.  A.  II. 
Clark,  the  American  authority  on  the  crinoids,  they  all  proved  to  l)e  species 
heretofore  unknown.  Although  it  is  thought  that  the  collection  secured  repre- 
sents only  a  small  portion  of  the  entire  crinoid  fauna  of  the  islands,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  all  of  the  species  were  collected  fi'oni  water  more  tluin  a 
hundred  fathoms  deep.  The  lower  range  of  their  distribution  about  the 
group,  for  want  of  fuller  knowledge,  is  placed  at  about  tlic  one-thousand- 
fathom  line.  Although  the  species  are  peculiar  to  Hawaii,  tliey  all  belong  to 
wide-ranging  genera. 

Sea-Worms. 

The  great  group  of  worm-like  creatures  is  at  best  not  an  especially  attrac- 
tive one  to  collectors  of  animals,  and  the  general  natui'alist  is  very  liable  to 
pass  them  by  without  much  attention.  Yet  there  is  such  a  variety  of  marine 
forms  that  make  their  home  on  or  in  the  living  and  dead  coi-al,  and  in  the  sand 
and  mud  along  the  shore,  that  they  are  at  least  worthy  of  passing  notice. 

Of  the  various  groups  of  flat-worms,  a  division  ■'"  collectively  termed  Pla- 
uarians  is  well  represented.  As  they  are  very  curious  in  i'oi'iii.  1)eing  broad 
and  flat,  they  are  usually  sufficiently  out  of  the  ordinary  to  attract  attention 
when  seen  gliding  from  the  under  side  of  some  object  picked  up  on  the  reef. 
Many  of  them  are  brilliantly  colored  and  have  an  easy,  graceful  gliding 
motion,  enabling  them  to  move  smoothly  over  the  surface  of  shells,  seaweeds 
or  stones. 

The  Nemertinea  have  a  superficial  resemblance  to  the  flat-worms.  They 
may  be  recognized  by  their  soft,  extensile  bodies  and  their  long  thread-like 
proboscis,  an  organ  which  can  be  completely  withdrawn  within  the  animal. 
They  are  often  conspicuously  colored  and  of  varying  form;  some  are  fracrile. 
others  are  very  slender  and  of  great  length. 

By  far  the  most  important  group  on  the  reef,  hoAvever,  is  that  which 
includes  the  bristle-worms  ^^  and  their  allies,  all  members  of  the  phylum.-"^- 
including  the  common  earthworm,  the  leeches  and  similar  forms.  They  can 
be  placed  in  the  phylum  Avithout  much  difficulty  by  the  fact  that  the  body  is 
divided  into  numerous  similar  parts  called  segments. 

They  occur  in  various  places,  some  living  in  canals  in  tli(>  dead  eoi-;d  rock. 


^»  Crinoidea.  ^°  Turbellaria.  ^^  Tohjcha'ta.         "^Annelida. 

* 

(Description  of  Plate    Continued  front    Opposite  Page.) 

Tna  keokeo  (Fchiiwmetra  sp.).  6.  Aboral  viinv  of  tlic  slioll  or  tost  of  Fehinomctra.  7.  Oral 
view  of  the  same.  8.  Rough  Roek  Urcliin  [  llaiikeuk(>  |  (Ax/c/'/iom  pedifcra).  9.  Oral  view 
of  the  same.  10.  Iiia  liilii  (Echinometra  sp.).  H.  Crab  (Simororciuus  sp.).  12.  ytarfisli 
(not  HaAvaiian).  13.  Oral  view  of  the  same.  14.  Ann  of  a  Starfish  [Pea]  (Lin./id  /m/s''"''- ). 
15.  Same  as  No.  14.  16.  Sea-cucumber  [Loli].  1..1S.  Brittle  Starfish  (P/iiorma  sjp.).  ll*. 
Sand   Crab    (Ocypode  ceraiophthalma) .     20.   21.   22.   23.   24.    Sea-cucumbers   [Loli]. 


PLATE  117.     MAEINE    PLANTS    AND    PLANT-LIKE    ANIMALS. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  499 

some  forming  tubes  for  their  habitations,  while  still  others  are  noted  for  mak- 
ing paper-like  tubes.  Some  species  burrow  beneath  the  sand  and  mud;  others 
fasten  their  tubes  to  stones  or  coral  and  cover  them  with  sand  or  bits  of  shell. 
Another  group  of  worm-like  animals '^'^  may  easily  l)e  found  by  breaking 
up  old  coral  rocks  in  which  they  are  able  to  drill  i-ound  holes.  In  the  common 
forms  ^-i  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  can  be  di'iiwii  into  the  posterior  part. 
They  are  tough  and  leathery,  blunt  at  the  tail,  and  taper  gradually  to  the  end 
of  the  proboscis. 

Sponges. 

It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  the  many  species  of  sponges  •''•''  thai  occui-  on 
our  reefs  and  to  moderate  depth  in  the  water  about  them  have  never  been 
systematically  collected  and  studied.  This  need  not  prevent  one  from  ad- 
miring and  examining  them,  however,  not  only  on  their  own  account,  but  on 
account  of  the  large  number  of  Avorms,  Crustacea,  starfish  and  other  animals 
that  enter  them  for  protection. 

There  is  scarcely  a  stone  of  any  size  on  the  reef  that  is  without  one  or 
more  of  these  curious  ei'catures  attached  to  it.  Red.  black,  white,  yellow  and 
purple  sponges  are  common,  but  ahuost  every  color  one  can  suggest  is  repre- 
sented. Many  of  them  are  shapeless  encrusting  masses;  still  others  have  a 
definite  form,  so  familiar  as  to  render  their  identification  complete  at  a  glance. 
Still  others  look  more  like  weird  plants  than  animals,  and  it  is  not  strange 
they  are  often  mistaken  for  such,  when  we  consider  tlicir  irregular  plant-like 
growth.  Although  they  were  once  claimed  by  botanists  as  part  of  the  plant 
kingdom,  they  are  now  generally  regarded  as  representatives  of  the  simplest 
form  of  the  many  types  of  many-celled  animals  ■'*'  as  distinguished  from  the 
single-celled  animals,^"  which  are  nearly  all  microscopic. 

Sponges  are  free  swimming  animals  for  only  a  very  short  time,  at  an  early 
stage  of  their  development.  They  soon  become  attached  to  some  object,  and 
not  infrequently  modify  their  form  so  as  to  conform  Avith  the  shape  of  the 
object  to  which  they  adhere.  For  this  reason  they  seem  to  have  no  fixed  shape 
of  body,  as  individuals  of  the  same  species  vary  greatly. 

The  sponge  is  a  very  simply-organized  animal  and  lives  a  vci'v  simple  life 
indeed.  Their  food  is  the  minute  organisms  in  the  watci'.  Currents  are 
created  in  the  animal  b.v  means  of  minute  flagella  wliich  wave  to  and  fro  in  the 
tiny  tubes  that  lead  into  the  animal  through  small  pores  scattered  over  its 
body  surface.  The  food  is  digested  out  of  the  water  before  it  is  allowed  to 
pass  out  again  through  the  large  holes  ■^'^  distributed  over  the  animal  at  irregular 
intervals.  Sponges  are  of  considerable  interest  to  zoologists,  as  they  are  the 
lowest  t.ypes  in  which  cells  are  found  differentiated  for  certain  i)ui-poses,  as 
skeleton  cells,  reproductive  cells,  and  so  on. 

Sponge  culture  has  never  been  attempted  in  Hawaii,  tlmugh  the  subject 
has  been  occasionallv  discussed.     While  none  of  the  species  now  growing  on 


33  Gcp/n/rco.  '^'^  Sipintriiloidca.  3»  Poiifera.  »"  Mi'tmoa.  »' Protozoa.         "«  Oscoluni. 


500  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   HAWAII. 

the  reefs  have  any  great  commercial  value,  it  is  uot  improbable  that  the  fine 
soft  species  of  commerce,  suited  to  our  climate  and  conditions,  could  be  intro- 
duced and  grown  here. 

Anyone  who  sees  the  living  sponge  will  realize  that  the  familiar  bath 
sponge  is  only  the  bleached  skeleton  of  the  animal  from  which  all  of  the  soft 
part  has  been  macerated  and  washed  away,  leaving  onh-  a  substance  known  as 
spongin — a  substance  very  like  silk  in  its  composition. 

The  division  of  the  sponges  is  made  not  on  color  or  shape  nor  habits,  but 
on  the  differences  in  their  skeletons.  Two  principal  classes  are  recognized : 
one  where  the  skeleton  is  composed  of  limy  spicules  ^^ ;  the  other  class  includes 
species  with  glassy  ■^^  spicules  or  Avith  horny  ^-  fibers.  To  the  non-calcarious 
class  belong  the  majority  of  the  larger  sponges  on  the  Hawaiian  reefs. 

Seaweed. 

It  is  a  very  natural  transition  in  this  connection  to  pass  from  the  curious 
sponge  animals,  that  so  often  resemble  plants,  to  the  consideration  of  the 
flora  of  the  coral  reef,  since  these  curious  marine  representatives  of  the  vege- 
table and  animal  kingdoms  occur  together,  often  in  the  most  intimate  relation, 
about  our  shores.  In  fact,  many  of  the  species  of  seaweed  are  attached  to 
various  species  of  sponges,  and  even  more  frequently  sponges  will  be  found 
growing  on  the  larger  forms  of  algfe. 

The  examination  of  the  heaps  of  curious  bright-green,  browii,  purple  or 
red  plants  cast  ashore  by  the  sea,  particularly  after  a  heavy  storm,  gives  to 
the  beach  ramble  a  charm  in  any  quarter  of  the  globe,  but  in  Hawaii,  with  its 
hundreds  of  miles  of  ever-varying  coast  line,  the  gathering  of  the  sea-mosses  holds 
out  allurements  to  the  lover  of  the  beautiful  in  nature  that  few  can  long  resist. 

How  TO  Collect  Hawadax  Alg.e. 

To  gather  and  preserve  these  bright-colored  flowerless  plants  is  so  easy 
and  so  fascinating  a  task  that  tourists  who  visit  the  islands,  as  well  as  old 
and  young  people  who  call  Hawaii  home,  can  find  no  more  pleasant  diversion 
than  making  a  collection  of  the  more  common  forms. 

The  first  step  in  reef  collecting  of  any  kind  is  to  find  out  the  time  each 
day  when  the  tide  will  l)e  low  and  arrange  to  be  on  the  reef  two  or  three  hours 
before  extreme  low  water,  so  that  the  tide  may  be  follow^ed  out.  However, 
algjB  hunting,  as  well  as  reef  collecting  generally,  may  be  greatly  facilitated  if 
the  collector  can  have  the  use  of  a  boat,  a  fine-toothed  long-handled  rake  and  a 
w^ater  box  with  a  glass  bottom.  Still  more  ambitious  collectors  will  want  to 
use  a  dredge,  though  dredging  about  a  coral  reef  is  very  difficult  work.  Those 
who  are  not  able  to  dredge  or  wade,  will  find  the  sea-coast  at  high  tide  fur- 
nishes specimens  of  most  of  the  species  to  be  gathered  first-hand  farther  out. 

The  collector  will  want  a  light  canvas  bag,  or  wicker  basket,  and  a  small 


3"  Calcarea.  *"  Xon-Ciilrnrin.  *'  Silicioiis.  ■*"  Spongin. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  GROUP.  501 

assortment  of  bottles  and  cuntainers  oi'  odd  sizes.  A  good  quantity  of  old 
newspapers  will  also  be  useful.  A  lens,  a  stout  knife,  a  pair  of  forceps,  and  a 
wading  costume  that  protects  the  arms  and  legs  fi'om  the  sun  are  very  important 
parts  of  the  field  equipment,  but  nothing  is  more  necessary  than  a  pair  of  stout 
shoes  to  protect  the  feet  when  wading  over  the  rocks  on  the  rough  coral  reef. 

The  Hawaiian  tides  are  so  uniform  and  slow  that  there  is  no  danger  to  be 
feared  from  their  sudden  return,  so  the  collector  can  work  in  safety  and  at  his 
leisure,  always  taking  time  to  gather  the  finest  specimens  to  be  found  in  the 
given  locality.  A  little  practice  with  the  lens  will  enable  the  beginner  to 
discover  the  fruiting  bodies  on  the  different  algte.  If  they  ever  attempt  the 
task  of  naming  their  specimens,  the  importance  of  having  perfect  specimens 
will  be  appreciated ;  still,  an  imperfect  example  is  not  to  be  despised,  since  it 
will  be  of  value  in  giving  a  clue  to  the  nature  of  the  flora  of  a  given  locality. 

The  specimens  may  be  roughly  dried  in  a  shady  place  or  salted  down,  or, 
better  still,  mounted  and  pressed  while  they  are  fresh.  To  do  this  the  plants 
should  be  carefully  washed  and  sorted  in  sea  Avater,  as  they  retain  their  colors 
better  than  when  washed  in  fresh  water. 

The  next  step  is  to  "float  out"  the  specimen  in  fresh  or  salt  water  on  a 
piece  of  substantial,  tough,  unglazed  paper  of  the  proper  size.  Several  methods 
of  "floating  out"  the  specimens  may  be  employed.  A  good  way  is  to  take  a 
shallow  dish  or  enameled  pan  and  lay  in  the  bottom  a  square  piece  of  gal- 
vanized iron  that  is  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  pan.  If  the  corners  of  this 
mounting  table  are  turned  down  so  as  to  make  legs  a  quarter  to  a  half  incii 
long,  the  apparatus  will  work  much  better. 

Place  the  floating  table  in  the  pan  and  cover  it  with  watei-  aii<l  lay  n])(ui 
it  a  piece  of  mounting  paper  that  has  heen  moistened  on  l)oth  sides.  The 
specimen  to  be  mounted  is  then  laid  on  the  paper  and  held  in  |)lace  with  the 
left  hand,  while  with  the  right  hand,  needle  points  and  tweezers  are  used  to 
smooth  the  branches  of  the  specimen  out  on  the  paper.  The  specimen,  mount- 
ing table  and  all,  is  then  gently  lifted  out  of  the  water  and  the  card  laid  to 
one  side  to  drain.  When  the  paper  is  fairly  dry.  the  specimen  and  its  mounting 
sheet  is  placed  on  a  sheet  of  blotting  paper,  a  piece  of  thin  nnislin  cloth,  free 
from  starch,  spread  over  it  and  a  second  dryer  laid  over  the  cloth.  The  speci- 
mens are  piled  up  in  this  way,  one  on  top  of  the  other,  until  the  lot  is  finished, 
when  they  are  placed  between  two  flat  boards,  to  which  a  little  weight  is 
added,  and  left  to  dry  thoroughly.  Specimens  that  do  not  adhere  to  the 
mounting  sheet  may  be  fastened  in  place  with  iianow  strips  of  gummed  paper. 

The  collector  will  soon  learn  that  alga\  like  land  plants,  favor  certain 
localities,  and  moreover  that  they  have  their  special  seasons  of  growth.  So 
that  to  gather  all  of  the  attached  or  fixed  algie  *^  in  a  given  locality  will  require 
many  expeditions  over  the  same  locality  at  different  seasons.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  almost  every  collecting  ground   Avould  yield   as  many  as  fifty 


*^  For  there  are  many  microscopical  species  lliat  are  free  swimming  plants. 


502  NATURAL   HISTORY    OF    HAWAII. 

species,  and  there  are  some  of  the  more  favorable  localities  in  the  islands 
where  with  close  and  persistent  work  a  more  extended  list  can  be  secured. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  in  a  few  pages  a  systematic  survey  of  so  exten- 
sive a  group  as  the  Hawaiian  alga?.  A  few  of  the  more  common  forms  found 
at  Waikiki  are  figured.  These  will  serve  to  show  how  curious  and  interesting 
these  plants  are.  But  as  not  a  fe^y  of  the  species  to  be  gathered  about  the 
islands  are  as  yet  unnamed,  the  collector  who  is  not  a  botanist  may  feel  sure 
that  he  can  render  good  service  to  science,  and  at  the  same  time  afford 
himself  a  pleasant  recreation  by  making  a  carefully  collected  and  well- 
labeled  collection  from  almost  any  locality.  The  label  should  note  such  facts 
as  the  season,  depth,  character  of  the  bottom,  whether  in  brackish  or  salt 
water,  exposed  to  tide-rush  or  surf  or  in  quiet  pools,  and  other  observations  of 
interest. 

While  Hawaiian  algaj  have  been  studied  to  some  extent  for  years,  and 
several  important  collections  have  been  made,  no  one,  so  far  as  the  writer 
knows,  has  ever  given  more  than  a  guess  at  the  probable  extent  of  the  flora  of 
the  Hawaiian  reefs.  The  literature  begins  with  a  list  published  more  than 
thirty  years  ago  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Chamberlain,  which  gave  the  names  of  one 
hundred  and  twelve  species  of  marine  alga?  common  in  Hawaii.  In  1900  ]Miss  J. 
E.  Tilden  spent  some  months  in  Hawaii  collecting  the  fresh-water  and  marine 
alga?,  and  subsequently  published  a  list  of  one  hundred  species  in  Thrum's 
Annual.  But  as  the  list  published  was  only  a  small  part  of  "the  several  hun- 
dred species  collected,"  many  of  which  were  not  described,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  this  authority  will  be  induced  to  make  a  more  exhaustive  review  of  the 
material. 

Miss  Minnie  Reed  has  also  made  extensive  collections  of  the  alga?  of  the 
islands  in  connection  with  her  especially  interesting  investigation  of  the  eco- 
nomic seaweeds  of  Hawaii  and  their  food  value — for  limu,  as  the  fresh  and 
salt-water  algse  are  called  by  the  natives,  has  always  had  an  important  place 
in  the  native  bill-of-fare.  As  many  as  seventy-five  species  of  edible  algae  were 
known  to  the  Hawaiians  by  name.  As  this  list  of  edible  species  is  referred  by 
botanists  to  thirty-eight  genera,  some  idea  of  the  variety  of  forms  of  the  useful 
species  can  be  gathered. 

Almost  every  day  at  low  tide  native  women  and  children  may  be  seen  on 
the  reef  gathering  the  daily  supply;  and  at  least  a  dozen  species  are  offered 
for  sale  in  the  markets,  along  with  other  Hawaiian  delicacies,  the  favorite 
species  being  limu  kohu,"*-*  limu  eleele,^^  limu  oolu  ^'''  and  limu  lipeepee.'*''' 

Seaweed  has  also  had  an  important  place  among  the  native  medicinal  plants. 
But  Europeans,  as  a  rule,  seldom  regard  this  product  of  the  sea  as  a  market- 
able or  an  edible  commodity.  Nevertheless,  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of 
Hawaiian  limu  is  consumed  by  the  natives,  and  even  a  greater  quantity  is 
imported  by  the  Oriental  population. 


Aspnragopsis  snnfordiarin.  *••  Entiromorpha   spj).  '"  ChnndrUi  fcniiisxeiiin.  *'  Laurencia  spp. 


THE  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  TIIL   (iliOlP.  503 

In  addition  to  the  lun^'  list  oi'  iiiariiiL'  species  tliei'e  is  an  extended  list  ol 
fresh-water  limn,  many  species  of  which  were  also  used  for  food  by  the  natives 
living  at  some  distance  from   the  sea. 

But  important  as  limn  is  as  a  footl  foi-  man.  its  importance  as  a  food  for 
the  myriads  of  animals  of  the  coral  reef  that  feed  on  it  exelnsively.  or  at  one 
stage  or  another  of  their  existence,  is  far  greater.  It  is  perhaps  in  this  indirect 
way  that  it  has  its  most  significant  bearing  on  the  food  supply  in  Hawaii,  and 
it  is  the  O'cological  relation  of  these  curions  plants  an<l  animals  to  their  envi- 
ronment, that  is  of  such  absorbing  interest  to  the  student  of  nalucal  liislory. 


D.  H.  HILL  LIBRAK> 
North  Carolina  State  CoileQ.* 


End  of  Book  Two 


PARTIAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  COMMUNICATIONS,  PAPERS,   LEC- 
TURES, ADDRESSES,  ETC.,  BY  THE  AUTHOR,  ON 
HAWAIIAN  AND  KINDRED  SUBJECTS. 

1900  Notes  on  the  Birds  of  Kauai.     Brvan  and  Seale.     Occ.  Papers,  B.  1'    Bislioi.  Museum 

Vol.  1,  No.  3. 

1901  Key  to   the   Birds   of   tiic   Hawaiian   Group.     Memoirs   B.   P.   Bishop   Museum,   Vol.   1 

No.  3.      (13  plates,  17  text  illustrations.) 
How  to  see  a  Museum  (Address).     P.  C.  Advertiser,  February  lOtli. 
List  of  Hawaiian  Birds  in  the  St.  Louis  College  (Collection,  Including  Eeeords  of  Several 

North  American  Species.     Auk,  Vol.  XVIII,  No.  4. 

1902  Monograph  of  Marcus  Island.     Occ.  Papers,  B.  P.  Bishop  Museum,   \'ol.  II,  No.  1. 

1903  Hawaiian  Birds  in  the  Crater  of  Kilauea.     Condor,  Vol.  V,  No.  3,  p.  79. 
Notes  on  Loxiodcs  baiUe^ii  from  Hawaii.     Condor,  Vol.  V,  No.  3,  p.  80. 

1904  Birds  of  the  Waianae  Mountains.     Occ.  Papers,  B.  P.  Bishop  Museum,   Xul.   II.  No.  3. 
Notes  on  the  Nesting  Habits  of  the  Hawaiian  Owd.     Occ.  Papers,  B.  P.  Bishop  Museum 

Vol.  II,  No.  3. 
Nest  and  Eggs  of  Chlorodrepanis  virens  (Ginel.).     Occ.  Papers,  B.  P.  Bishop  Museum, 

Vol.  II,  No.  3. 
Bird's  Nest  of  Pele's  Hair.     Occ.  Papers,  B.  P.  Bishop  Museum,   \'oI.  II,  No.  3. 
Undescribed   Nests   and   Eggs    of    Two   Hawaiian   Birds.     Occ.    Papers,    B.    P.    Bishop 

Museum,  Vol.  II,  No.  3. 
Wilson's  Snipe  in  Hawaii.     Osprey,  Vol.  VI,  p.  78. 
Bird  Protection  in  the  Pacific.     Report  National  Assoc.   Audubon  Societies,   p.  (58. 

1905  Three  New  Hawaiian  Eishes.     Occ.  Papers,  B.  P.  Bishop  Museum,  Vol.  II,  No.  4. 
Eeport  of  a  Visit  to  Midway  Island.     Occ.  Papers,  B.  P.  Bishop  Museum,  Vol.  II,  No.  4. 
Nest  of  the  Hawaiian  Hawk.     Occ.  Papers,  B.  P.  Bishop  Museum,  Vol.  II,  No.  4. 

Egg  of  the  Hawaiian  Goose.     Occ.  Pajiers,  B.  P.  Bishop  ^Museum,  Vol.  II,  No.  4. 
Paternalism  in  Agriculture    (Address  before   Social  Science  Club).     Published   hy  Ha- 
waiian Forester  and  Agriculturist   (July),  Vol.  II,  No.  7. 

1906  Outline  of  a  Plan  to  Establish  a  Pacific  Scientific  Institution.      (Pamjihlet)    November. 

1907  Some  Birds  of  Molokai.     Occ.  Papers,  B.  P.  Bishop  Museum,  Vol.  IV.  No.  'l. 

Draft  of  Charter  of  Incorporation  and  By-laws  of  the  P.  S.  I.  (Pamphlet).     Honolulu, 
December. 

1908  Habits  of  the  Black  Mamo   (Paper),     fleeting  of  American  Oriiith.   T'uion.   Xov.   IStb. 
A^oleano  of  Kilauea    (Lecture).     Brooklyn  Museum,  Dec.   12tli. 

Mission  of  the  Pacific  Scientific  Institution   (Address).     Lake  Mohonk  Conference,  Oct. 

1909  Invention   Among   the   Ancient    Hawaiians    (Paper).     Baltimore    .Meeting,   A.    A.    A.    S. 
Laysan  Island  Scheme    (Communication).     low^a  Alumnus,  Jan. 

Visit  to  Kilauea  (Illustrated  Lecture).     Amcr.  Assn.  Adv.  Science,  Baltimore,  Dec.  27th. 
Hunting  Uau   on   Molokai    (Reprint).     P.  C.   Advertiser,  Aj^ril  1st. 
Adventure  in  Chase  of  Rare  Birds  (Reprint).     P.  C.  Advertiser,  April  Sth. 
Birds  as  Assistant  Bug-catchers   (Communication).     P.  C.  Advertiser,  Oct.  31st. 
Bird  Slaughter  on   Midway   Island    (Address).     Washington    Biolog.   Sue,  Jan.    IMth. 

1910  Bird  Slaughter  in  the  Pacific  Islands.     National  Assoc,  of  Audubon  Sees.     Bulletin  in 

Birdlore,  April. 
Volcano  House  Records    (Excerpt).     P.  C.  Advertiser,  .Tan.  9th. 
New   Fields   of   Industry    (Communication).     P-    C.    Advertiser,   March    Ifith. 
Methods    in    Aquatic    Photography     (Address).     Meeting    American    Fisheries    Society, 

Sept.  10th. 
Popular  Lectures   (J.  B.  Pond  Lyceum  Bureau). 

Fire  Fountains:      A  Visit  to  Hawaii's  Volcano,  Kilauea. 

Hawaii:      The  Land  of  Heart's  Desire. 

Six  Weeks '  Life  on   a  Coral  Island. 

Lost  Islands:      The  Diplomatic  Adventure  of  a   Xaturalist. 

Trekking  the  Black  ^Tamo. 

The  Mutiny  of  the  Bounty. 

The  God  of  Our  Fathers.' 
HaAA'aii's  International  Mission    (Address).     Lake  Mohonk  Conference,  Oi-r.   I'lst. 
The  Volcano  of  Kilauea    (Lecture).     Minneapolis  Meeting  Amer.   Assoc.   .\<1v.   Science 

December. 

33  505 


506  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Hawaii  as  a  Meeting  Place  for  the  A.  A.  A.  S.    Portions  of   (Pamphlet). 
Aquatic  Photography  for  Naturalists  (Paper).     A.  A.  A.  S.,  Minneapolis  Meeting,  Dee. 
Study  of  the  Sea    (Lecture).     March  11th. 
Department  of  Zoology.     Hawaiian  Collegian,  June. 

1911  The  Kilauea  Park  Bill  (Communication).     P.  C.  Advertiser,  April  11th. 

Starvation  May  Face  Bare  Birds  on  Laysan   (Preliminary  Report).     P.  C.   Advertiser, 

May   7th. 
Race  Contact   (Paper).     The  Friend,  June. 

Scientific  Expedition  to  Laysan.     Audubon  Society  Dist.   of  Col.,   Aug.   8th. 
Mosquitoes  Reduced  at  Small  Cost   (Communication).     Honolulu  Star,  Aug.  23rd. 
Introduction  of  Birds  Into  Hawaii.     Proc.  Hawaiian  Entomol.  Soc.  Vol.  II,  No.  4. 
Laysan  Island :      A  Visit  to  Hawaii 's  Bird  Reservation.     The  Mid-Pacific,  Vol.  II,  No.  4. 

1912  Introduction  and  Acclimatization  of  the  Yellow  Canarv  on  Midway  Island.     Auk  (.July), 

Vol.  XXIX,  No.  3. 
What   Hawaii   Teaches.     San   Francisco   Call,   Aug.    14th. 
Help  for  Real  Farmers  (Communication).     P.  C.  Advertiser,  Nov.  11th. 
A    Marine    Biological    Laboratory    for    Hawaii.     Science    Seminar,    College    of    Hawaii 

(Pamphlet). 
Report  of  an  Expedition  to  Laysan.     V.  S.  Biol.  Survey  Bull.  No.  42. 
The  Commission  Form  of  Government  for  Our  City   (Address).     Pamphlet   (Dec.  19th). 

1913  Rare  Seals  from  Hawaii  Waters   (Communication).     New  York  Zool.  Soc.  Bull.,  Nov. 
Miscellaneous  Papers,   etc. 

Beginnings  of  a  Free  Port    (Connnunieation).     P.   C.   Advertiser,  May,  1913. 
No  Mastery  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  (Communication).     Star-Bulletin,  Feb.  12th,  1913. 
Panama  Canal  and  Hawaii's  Opportunity  as  a  Treaty  Port.     Thrum's  Annual,  1913. 
Hawaii  as  an  Open  Port.     Mid-Pacific,"  Vol.  V,  No.  2    (1913). 

1914  In  preparation,  or  awaiting  publication: 

Ecology  of  Laysan  Island. 

Fresh-water  Mollusca  of  Hawaii. 

Relation  of  Hawaiian  Melania  to  Environment. 

1915  In  press: 

An  undescribed  Species  of  DreiJanidida;  from  Nihoa.  Hawaiian  Group.  Auk, 
Dec,   191.5. 

Evidences  of  the  Deep  Subsidence  of  the  Waianae  Mountains.  Thrum 's  An- 
nual. 1916. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


It  seems  unuecessary  to  attempt  a  complete  bn>liograi)hy  of  even  the  more  inclu- 
sive publications  dealing  with  the  phases  of  the  extensive  subject  treateil  in  this  volume. 
The  following  list  is  therefore  calculated  to  serve  as  a  guide  indicating  the  way  to  the 
chief  of  the  many  and  varied  sources  used  in  tlie  j)n'paration  of  the  text.  An  exainination 
of  the  references  given  will  suggest  tlnuiigh  Idbliograpliics  ami  citations  still  other  reliable 
original  sources  to  which  the  reader  in  search  of  fuller  information  can  safely  go  for  a 
more  systematic  and  detailed  handling  of  the  various  subjects  touched  ujion  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages  than  is  possible  within  the  cumpass  of  one  brief  volume — particularly  if  that 
volume,  in  jiurjiose  and  design,  is  j)lanned  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  average  reader. 

The  author  takes  this  final  opportunity  to  again  express  his  indebtedness  to  those 
who  have  preceded  him,  and  through  their  published  works,  made  this  popular  synoptical 
view  cf  natur(>  in  Hawaii  possible. 

GENERAL. 

In    addition    to    standard    works    on    anthropology,    ethnology,    geology,    topography, 
physiography,  botany,  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  general  natural  history,  mention  should 
be  made  of  the  40  volumes  of  Thrum's  Annual,  wliiih   collectively  constitute  an  encyclo- 
pedia of  Hawaiian  subjects. 
Thrum's  Almanac  and  Annual  will  long  l)e  Hawaii's  greatest  source  book.      (Consult  tables 

of  contents,  indices,  etc.). 
Memoirs  B.  P.  Bishop  Museum.     Honolulu.   1899  to   1915   (see  indices). 
Occasicnal  Papers  of  the  B.  P.  Hishoii  Museum,      llonohilu,  1,S9S  to  1915  (see  indices). 
Hawaii's   ^'uung    People,   Bound    volumes   of.     LahaiMaluna    (see   indices). 
The  Missionary  Herald.      Boston   ,1819-1899. 
The  Friend.      Honolulu,  1844-1915. 

The  Sandwich  Island  G-azette  and  Journal  of  Commerce.      Honolulu,  1836-1839. 
The  Hawaiian  Spectator.      Honolulu,  1838,  1839. 
The  Hawaiian  Gazette.      Honolulu,  1892-1899. 

VOYAGES   AND   TRAVEL. 

James  Cook  and  James  King,  A  Voyage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.     ."'.  vols.     London,   1784. 

George  Dixon,  A  Voyage  Round  the  World.     London,   1789. 

Nathaniel  Portlock,  A  Voyage  Round  the  World,  etc.     London,   17>s9. 

George  Vancouver,  A  A^'oyage  of  Discovery,  etc.     .'5   vols.     London,   1798. 

r.   W.   Beechey,   Narrative   of   a   Voyage  in   the   Pacific,   etc.     Philadelphia,    18."?2. 

G.  A.  Byron  (Lord),  Voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  Blonde.     London.    182(5. 

William  Churchill,  'The  Polynesian  Wanderings.      Carnegie  Institution,  1911. 

HISTORIES   AND  BIOGRAPHY. 

C.  S.  Stewart,  A  Residence  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.     5tli  edition.     Boston,  IS."??. 

Sheldon  Dibble,  History  of  the   Sandwich  Islands.     Laliainaluiui,   1843. 

J.  J.  Jarvis,   History  of  the  Hawaiian   or  Sandwich    Islands.     London,   1S4:!. 

J.  J.  Jarvis,  History  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,     .'ird   edition.     Honolulu,   1S47. 

Hiram  Bingham,   A   Residence   of   Twenty-one   Years    in   the    Sandwich   Islands.      Hartford, 
1.S48. 

H.  T.  Cheever,  Life  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.     New  York,  1851. 

A  Haole   (G.  W.  Bates),  Sandwich  Island  Notes.     New  York,  1851. 

Kufus  Anderson,   The   Hawaiian    Islands:    Their   Progress   and    Condition    T'nder    Missionary 
La})ors.     Boston,    1864. 

Manley  Hopkins,  Hawaii:   The  Past,  Present  and    Future  of  Its  Island    Kingdom.   2nd   edi- 
tion.    New  Y^ork,    1869. 

Titus  Coan,  Life  in  Hawaii.     New  York,   1882. 

Liliuokalani    ((^ueen),   Hawaii's    Story,    by    Hawaii's   Queen.     Boston.    189'^. 

William  D.  Alexander,  A  Brief  History  of  the  Hawaiian  People.      N<"w  York.   1'^9I   and    1S9S. 

Sheldon  Dibble,  A  History  of  the  Sandwich    Islands.      i  K". ■published   by   T.  C  Thrum   i      Ho- 
nolulu,  1909.  '   ■ 

SECTION   ONE. 

TlIK   HAWAIIAN  PEOPLE. 

William   Ellis,   Narrative    of   a    Tour   Through    Hawaii,    or   Owhyhee.      Lou. Ion.    1><2<;. 


508  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Williana  Ellis,  Polynesian  Eesearehes,  etc.     2  vols.     London,   1829. 

Charles  Wilks,   Narrative  of  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition.     5  vols.     Philadelphia,   1845. 
Lorrin   Andrews,    Grammar   of   the   Hawaiian   Language.     Honolulu,    1854. 
Sir   George   Grey,   Polynesian   Mythology.     London,    1855. 
Lorrin  Andrews,   Dictionary   of   the   Hawaiian  Language.     Honolulu,   1865. 
Hawaiian   ('lul)   Papers.     Boston,   1868. 

Abraham  Fornander,  An  Account  of  the  Polynesian  Race,  etc.     2  vols.     London,  1878,  1880. 
H.  R.  Hitchcock,  An  English-Hawaiian  Dictionary.      San  Francisco,  1887 
Kalakaua    (King),  The  Legends  and  Myths   of  Hawaii.     New  York,   1888. 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Hawaiian  Historical  Society.     Honolulu,   1893   to   1915. 
Papers  of  the  Hawaiian  Historical  Society.     Honolulu,  1893  to  1915. 
J.  M.  Alexander,   The  Islands  of  the  Pacific.     New  York,   1895. 

David  Malo,   Hawaiian   Antiquities    (translated  by  N.  B.  Emerson).     Honolulu,   1898. 
W.  T.  Blackman,  The  Making  of  Hawaii.     New-  York,  1899. 
T.  G.  Thrum,  Hawaiian  Folk  Tales.     Chicago,  1907. 

W.  D.  Alexander,  Short  Synopsis  of  the  Most  Essential  Points  in  Hawaiian  Grammar.     Ho- 
nolulu, 1908. 
N.   B.   Emerson,   Unwritten  Literature   of  Hawaii.     Bureau  of  Amer.   Ethnology,   1909. 
W.  D.  Westervelt,  Maui  a  Demi  God.     Honolulu,  1910. 

S.  M.  Kamakau,   Ancient   Hawaiian  Religious  Beliefs.     Thrum's   Annual,   1911. 
Mar^'   C.   Alexander,   The   Story  of  Hawaii.     New   York,   1912. 
Mary  S.  Lawerence,  Old-time  Hawaiians.     New  York,  1912. 
(See  also  titles  under  General.) 

SECTION  TWO. 

GEOLOGY,  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY. 

J.  D.  Dana,  Geology,  V.  S.  Exploring  Expedition.     Philadelphia,  1845. 

W.  T.  Brigham,  Notes  on  the  Volcanic  Phenomena  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Memoirs  of 

the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  1868. 
C.  E.  Dutton,  Hawaiian  Volcanoes.      Fourth  Annual  Report  I".  S.  Geological  Survey,  1882-83. 
W.  L.  Green,  A'estages  of  the  Molton  Globe.     (Part   I.)      London,   1875. 
W.    L.    Green,    The    Volcanic    Problem    from    the    Point    of    View    of    Hawaiian    Volcanoes. 

Honolulu,  1884. 
W.  L.  Green,  A'estages  of  the  :\lolton  Globe.     (Part  II.)      Honolulu,   1887. 
T.  Munson  Coan,  The  Hawaiian  Islands.     Bull.  American  Geographical  Society,   1889. 
J.   D.  Dana,   Characteristics  of  Volcanoes.     New  York,   1891. 
A.  B.  Lyons,  Fossils  of  Hawaii-nei.     Thrum's  Annual,  1891. 
S.  E.  Bishop,  Geology  of  Oahu.      Thrum's  Annual,  1901. 
C.  H.  Hitchcock,  Geology  of  Oahu.      Bull.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer.,  Vol.  XI,  1900. 
S.  E.  Bishop,  Cold  Current  System  of  the  Pacific.      Thrum's  Annual,  1905. 
T.   G.   Thrum,   Table  of  Eruptions  of  Hawaiian  Volcanoes.     Thrum's  Annual,   1908. 
C.   W.   Baldwin,   Geography  of  the   Hawaiian   Islands.     New  York,    1908. 

C.  H.  Hitchcock.  Hawaii   and   Its  A'olcanoes.     Honolulu,   1909. 

W.  T.  Brigham,  The  Volcanoes  of  Kilauea  and  Mauna  Loa.  Memoirs  B.  P.  Bishop  Aluseum, 
Honolulu,  1909. 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey  (Water  Supply  Papers),  Water  Resources  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
fSee  indices.) 

Bulletins   of  tlie  Hawaiian   Volcano  Observatory.     Honolulu,   1911-1915. 

Whitman  Cross,  Lavas  of  Hawaii  and  Their  Relations.  V.  S.  Geological  Survev,  Profes- 
sional Paper  88,   1915. 

SECTION  THREE. 

FLORA  OF  THE  GROUP. 

Charles   Derby,   List   of  Hawaiian  Ferns.     Hawaiian   Annual,   1875. 

D.  D.  Baldwin,  List  of  Hawaiian  IMosses  and  Hepatica.     Thrum's  Annual.   1877,  1888. 
J.  E.  Chamberlain,  Alga?  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.      Thrum's  Annual,  1881. 

J.  M.  Lidgate,  Indigenous  Ornamental  Plants.     Thrum's  Annual,  1882. 
J.  M.  Lidgate,  Hawaiian  Woods  and  Forest  Trees.     Thrum  's  Annual,  1883. 
"William.  HiUebrand,  Flora  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Heidelberg,  1888. 
A.   B.  Lyons,   Artificdal  Key  to  Hawaiian  Ferns.     Thrum's  Annual.   1891. 
A.  B.  Lyons,   Native  Plants  of  Hawaii.     Thrum's  Annual,  1897. 

John  M.   Lidgate,   Endemic   Character  of  the  Hawaiian  Flora.     Thrum's   Annual,   1911. 
Bulletin  of  the  Torrey  Botanical  Club.     Vols.  36-42    (1915).     See  Indices. 

(See  also  titles  under  section  four.) 


BTBLTOOKAPTIY.  509 

SECTION  FOUR. 

AGRICULTl'RE   AND   HORTICULTURE. 

Transactions    of   the   Royal   Agricultural   Society.     Vols.   I,    II.      Honolulu,    1850-18,16. 

Fniit   aiul    Their    Seasons.      Thrum's    Annual,    188(5. 

A.  B.  Lyon,  AVhat  a  Botanist  May  See  in  Honolulu.      Thrum's  Annual,  li»o(). 

W.  C.  Stubbs,  Report  on  the  Agricultural  Resources  and  Capabilities  of  Hawaii.  U.  S. 
Dejit.  of  A^r.  Bull.  95.     Washington,   1901. 

Wray  Taylor,  List  of  the  Uiilms  in  the  Hawaiian  Islamls.     Thrum's  Annual,   1901. 

Hawaiian    Forester  ami   Aj;riculturist.     Vols.   1    (1904)    to    1915.      (See   indices). 

G.  P.  Wilder,  Fruits  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.      Honolulu,  1907   (Enlarged  edition,  1911). 

W.   T.  Pope,  Ornamental  Plant  Life  of  Honolulu.     Thrum's  Annual,   1911. 

Hawaiian  I'lanters'  Record.     H.  S.  P.  Assn.  Exp.  Sta.  Organ,  1  to  13  vols.   (1915). 

Reports  of  the  Boanl  of  Commissioners  of  Agriculture  and  Foresti-y  of  the  Territory  of 
Hawaii.      Honolulu,  1905  to  1915. 

Annual  Reports  Hawaiian  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.     Honolulu  (see  contents,  etc.) 

Reports  of  the  Work  of  the  Experiment  Station  of  the  Hawaiian  Sugar  Planters'  Associa- 
tion.     (Numerous   Bulletins   and   Rejiorts.) 

Planters'    ^Monthly,  Bound   ^'olumes   of.     Honolulu    (see  indices). 

Hawaii  Agricultui'al  Ex})eriment  Station  Bulletins,  Bound  A'olumes.  Honolulu  (see  in- 
dices, etc.). 

SECTION  FIVE. 

ANIMAL   LIFE   OF   THE   GROUP. 

G-eneraJ  Zoology. 

G.  H.  Fowler,  Life  of  the  Sea.     London,  1912. 

John  Murray  and  Johan  Hjort,  Dejiths  of  the  Ocean.     London,  1912. 

Fauna  Hawaiiensis,  or  the  Zoology  of  the  Sandwi(di  (Hawaiian)  Islands,  Edited  bv  David 
Sharp,  F.  R.   S.     3  vols.     Cambridge,   1899-1913. 

Contributors. 

W.  H.  Ashmead,  Hymcnoiitcia  Parasitica;  R.  S.  Bagnall,  Tliysanoi)tera ;  F.  E.  Beddard, 
Earthworms;  B.  L.  Chapman,  vide  Kellogg  and  Chapman;  Adrien  DoUfus,  Crustacea, 
Isopoda;  Aug.  Forei,  Heterogyna  or  Formicidse;  Col.  H.  H.  Goodwin- Austein,  Ana- 
tomy of  Mollusca;  P.  H.  Grimshaw,  Diptera;  G.  W.  Kirkaldy,  Hemiptera;  E.  Mey- 
rick,  Macrolepidoi)tera;  N.  D.  F.  Pearce,  Acrina;  R.  C.  L.  Perkins,  Essay  on  Lan<l 
Fauna,  Yertebi-ata,  Hymeno])tera  Aculeata,  Coleoptera,  Strejisipteia,  Diptera,  Or- 
thoptera;  Hugh  Scott,  Coleoptera;  D.  Sharp,  Coleoptera;  A.  E.  Shipley,  p]ntozoa; 
F.  Silvestri,  Thysanura;  Eugene  Simon,  Aracnida;  P.  Speiser,  Diptera  Pupijiara; 
T.  R.  R.  Stebbing,  Crustacea  Am])liipoda;  E.  R.  Sykes,  Mollusca;  Lord  Walsingham, 
Microlepidoptera. 

Proceeding  of  the  London  Zoological   Society    (see  indices).     Bound   volumes. 

Reptiles. 

Leonhard  Stejneger,  Land  Re])tiles  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Smithsonian  Institution, 
Proc.   U.  S.  Natl.  Mus.,  1899. 

Birds. 

S.  B.  Wilson  and  A.   H.   Evens,   Aves   Hawaiiensis.     London,    1890-1899. 

W.   A.   Bryan,   Key  to  the  Birds   of  the   Hawaiian   Grouj).     :\Iemoir  B.    P.   Bishoji   :Museum. 

Honolulu,    190]. 
Walter  Rothschild  (Lord),  Avifauna  of  Laysan,  etc      2  ^•ols.      London  (jiuldished  in  ]iarts). 
H.  W.  Henshaw.      P>inls  of  the  Hawaiian  Possessions.      Honolulu,  19o3. 
W.   K.   Fisher,    Birds    of   Lavsau   and   the   Leeward   Islands.     Bull.   23,   I'art    3,    U.    S.   Fish 

Comm.,  1903. 
The  Auk,  T?ound  volumes  of  (see  indices). 
The  Osprey,  Bound  volumes  of   (see  indices).     Washington. 
The  Condor,   Bound  volumes  of    (see  indices). 
The  Ibis,  Bound  volumes  of   (see  indices). 
(See  also  General  Works  on  the  Islands  and  General   Zoology.) 

Fishes 

D.  S.  Jordan  and  B.  W.  Evermann,  The  Aquatic  Resources  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
Part   I.      Shore   Fishes   Bull.    U.   S.   Fish    Comm..    1903. 


510  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

D.  S.  Jordan,  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Fishes.     New  York,   1905. 

C.  H.  G-ilbert.      The  Deep  Sea  Fishes.      Aquatic  Resources   of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Part 

II,  Bull.  U.  S.  Fish  Comm.,  1905. 
J.  N.  Cobb.      The  ronimercial  Fisheries,      ditto,  1905. 
U.   S.  Fish  Comm.  Bulletins    (see  indices). 

U.  S.  Fish  Commission  Reports,  Bound  volumes   (see  indices). 
(See  also  General  Zuolo^^y   Works;    Thrum's  Annual,  etc.) 

Invertebrates. 

T.  Blackburn,  Hawaiian  Entomology.      Thrum's  Annual,  1882. 

Mar>'  S.  Rathbun,  Brachyura  and  Macrura  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Bull.  23,  Part  3, 
T'.  S.  Fish  Comm.,  1903. 

A.  E.   Crtman,   Schizojiods  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Bull.   23,  Part   3,   V.   S.  Fish   Comm., 

1903. 

Proceedinga  of  the  Hawaiian  Entomological  Society.  Bound  volumes.  Honolulu  (see  in- 
dices). 

G.   W.   Tryon,   Structural  and   Systematic   Conchology.     Philadelidiia,   1882. 

D.  D.  Baldwin,   Catalogue  Land  and  Fresh  Water   Shells  of  the   Hawaiian  Islands.     Hono- 

lulu, 1893. 

E.  W.  Thwing,  Original  Descriptions  of  the  Genus  Achatinella.      Occ.  Pa.  B.  P.  B.  Mus., 

Honolulu,  1907. 
Julia  E.  Rodgers,  The  Shell  Book.     Xew  York,  1908. 

B.  S.   Stillman,  Some  Xew  Hawaiian  Cephalopods.     Proc.  X'.  S.  Xatl.  Mus.,   1913. 

S.   S.  Berry,   Cephalopods  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     U.   S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries,   1914. 
Henry  A.    Pilsbry,   Vol.   21,   Achatinellidae    (Amastrinae),    1911,   and   Vol.   22,   Achatinelli- 

dae,   1914,   of  the  Manual   of   Conchology,   Philadelphia   (puldished   by   the  Academy 

of  Xatural   Sciences  of  Philadelphia). 
Manual   of   Couchologv.     Published   by   the   Conchological   Department    of   the   Academy   of 

Xatural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia.     (23   vols,  in  1915.) 
A.    L.    Treadwell,    Polvcha^tonus    Annelids    of    the    Hawaiian    Islands.     Bull.    23,    Part    3, 

r.   S.   Fish  Comm.,   1903. 
W.  R.  Coe,  Xemertians  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Bull.  23,  Part  3.  U.  S.  Fish  Comm..  1903. 
W.  K.  Fisher,  Star  Fishes  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Bull.  23,  Part  3,  F.  S.  Fish  Comm., 

1903. 
W.   K.  Fisher,   Holothurians  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Proc.  U.   S.  Xatl.  Mus.,   1907. 
A.  H.  Clark,  Description  of  Xew  Species  of  Crlnoids,  etc.     Proc.  U.  S.  Xatl.  Mus.,  1908. 
J.  D.  E'ana,  Coral  and  Coral  Islands.     Xew  York,  1872. 
Charles  Darwin,   Coral  Reefs.     3d  Edition.     Xew  York.   1897. 
A.  G.  Mayer,  IVfedusa^  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Bull.  23,  Part  3,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries, 

HM);;. 

C.  C.  Nutting.  Hydroids  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Bull.  23,  Part  3,  U.  S.  Fish  Comm..  1903. 
T.  W.  Vaughan.  Recent  Madreporaria  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     U.  S.  Xational  Museum, 

Pull.    59,    1907. 
C.   C.   Natting.   Des<-ridion    of  the   Alcyonarians.    etc.     Proc.   U.    S.    Xatl.   Mus..    1908. 
R.  M.  Bagg,   Foraminifera   Collected   Xear  the  Hawaiian   Islands.     Proc.   V.   S.   Xatl.  Mus., 

1908. 

Marine  Botany. 

Josephene  E.  Tilden,  Collection  of  Algae  From  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Thrum's  Annual, 
1902. 

Josephene  E.  Tilden,  Collecting  Alga^  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Thrum's  Annual,  1905. 

(See  also  general  works  on  the  Islands,  Thrum's  Annual,  Occ.  P.  B.  P.  B.  Museum,  Reports 
of  the  Hawaiian  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Board  of  Agriculture  and  For- 
estry,   Hawaiian   Forester,    etc.) 

Minnie  Reed,  The  Economic  Seaweeds  of  Hawaii  and  their  Economic  Value.  Annual  Re- 
port Hawaii  Agrl.  Exp.  Station,  1906. 


inde:x  to  scientific  names. 


Note: — The  technical  names  used  in  the  vdlunie  are  those  in  current  use  in  the  scientific 
literature  on  the  Islands,  and  will  aid  the  student  in  findinjr  the  detailed  descriptions  of 
plants  and  animals  to  be  found  in  the  standard  literature  on  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  group. 
Some  of  the  more  important  synonyms  are  indicated  as  being  e<|uivalent  terms.  Where  recent 
changes  have  been  made  in  the  nomenclature,  the  more  recent  or  jireferred  name  is  printed  in 
bold-faced  tyj)e.  Plate  numbers  are  also  indicated  in  bold  face  (5i) ;  the  (iijures  immediately 
following  the  plate  number  is  the  i  age  on  which  the  plate  occurs;  the  additional  numbers 
have  reference  to  the  occurrence  of  the  name  in  the  text.  Important  sub-genera  follow  the 
generic  name  in  parenthesis;  generic  equivalents  for  certain  species  are  indicated  as  such. 
Additional  scientific  names  for  objects  mentioned  in  the  compendium  will  be  found  only  in 
the  general  index.     Typographic  errors  in  the  text  have  been  corrected  in  the  index. 


A 


Abrns    precatorius    Linn.,    207 
Abudefduf  sordidus    (Forskal),   349 
Acacia   dealbata   Link.,   247 

decurrens    Willd.,    247 

Farnesiana  Willd.,  54,  198,  205 

Koa  Gray.,  52,  194,  56,  202,  211 

Koaia   Hbd.,   226 
Acanthocyliium  solandri   (Cuv.  &  Val.),  349 
Acanthuri(la\    372 

Acanthurus  unicornis   (Forskal),  349,  372 
Acarina,  400 

Achitinella,  -133,  434,  437 
Achatinella       ( Achatincllastrum)       ]>lumata 
Gul.  =  Achatinella  fiUgens,  103,  448, 
434 

(Apex)    lorata  Fer.,   103,  448 

(Apex)   mustelina  Migh.,  100,  432 

buddii   Newc,   434 

cspsia   Gul.,   434 

multizonata  Baldw.,  435 

plumata      Gul.  =:  Achatinella     fulgens 
Newc,  434 
Achatincllastrum   {see  Achatinella) 
Achatincllastrum  jilumata  Gul.,  103,  448 

varia  Gulicli,  100,  432 
Achatinellidse,  119,  121,  123, 

438 
Achatinellinse,   123,   434 
Achras    Sapota   Linn.,    266 
Acridiodea,   429 
Acridotheres  tristis    (Linn.). 
Acrocephalus  familiaris  Kotlis.,  : 
Acta'a  affinis    (Dana),  110,  4x2 

spcciosa    (Dana),   110,   482 
.A.ctiniaria,   475 
Actinophvga    mauritiana    (Quov    tV:    Gaim.), 

495 
Actiiiozoa,   475 
.■Vculeata,  412 

.\(lenanthera  pavonina  Linn.,  203 
.\diantum    cajiillus-Veiieris    Linn., 
Adoi'ctus    tenui.naculatus    W'atcili. 


433,  434,  437, 


idCi 


;i4 


223 
,    99. 


406 


394,  417 
^gosoma  reflexum  Karsch.,  99,  406,  388 


jEstrelata  sandwichensis  Ridgw.,  309,  312 

hypoleuca   Salv.,   78,   310,   80,   323,   312 
Agriolimax  ])evenoti  Collin,  439 
.\grion,    424 
Agave   Americana   Linn.,   280 

Mexicana  var.  sisalana  Lam.,  280 
Agrion  pacificum  Lachl..  4'_'4 

xanthomelas  8elys.,   424 
Agromyza    sp.,    383 
Agrotis  crinigera   (Butl.),  98,  398,  396 

dislocata    (Walk.),  396 

ypsilon   Rott.,    396,    422 
Alauda   arveusis   Linn.,   307 
Albula  vulpes   (Linn.),  87,  344,  349,  354 
.\lbulida\   354 
Alcyonacea?,  479 
Alcyonaria,  479 

Alectis  ciliaris  (Bloch),  92,  366.  349 
Aleurites  Moluecana  Wild.,  56,  202,  210,  239 
Alevrodida\  427 
Alga\  28,  116,  500 
Allamanda  cathartica  Linn.,   248 
.Mocasia   macrorrliiza  Scliott,  225 
Alojiias  vulpes    (Gmel.),   86,  340 
Alphitonia  excelsa  Reiss.,  215 
Alticus,  353 

.\lticus  marmoratus  (Bennett),  94,  374 
Alyxia  oliva-formis  Gaud.^Gjmopogon  oli- 

vifonnis  (Gaud.),  59,  214,  216,  221 
Amarantus  spinosus  Linn.,  53,  196 
Amastra,    433,    434,    437 

frosti  Ancey,  103,  448 

rubricunda    Baldw.,   103,   448 

textilis  Fer.,  103,  448 

turritella  Fer.,  103,  448 

violaceai  var  wailauensis  Pils.,  103,  448 
.\niastrida^,   434 
.\mastrina\   123,  434 
A:neriurus  n<'bulosus   (Le  Rueur),  377 
Amorbia   emigratella  Busck.,  98,  398 
Amphipoda,  409 
Anampses  cuvier  Quov  &-  Gaim.,  92.  36(i.  349 

sp..   3.59 
Ananas    sativus   Schult.^Ananassa    sativa 

Lindl.  69.   258,  261 
.■\nauassa   {see  Ananas) 


511 


512 


SCIENTIFIC    INDEX. 


Anas  lavsanensis  Eotlis.,  318 

wyvilliaiia  Scl.,  80,  323,  328,  335 
Anatidffi,  309 
Anax,  425 

Junius  Drury,  97,  392,  424 

strenuus   Hagen,   424 
Ancbovia   jiuriiurea    (Fowler),   87.  344,   349, 

351 
Anevlus  sharpi  Sykes,  438 
Audropogou   {see  also  Heteropogon) 
Andropogon  (Heteropogon)  contortus  Linn., 
51.  192,  209 

Sorghum  Brot.,  285 
Auisolabis  annulipes  Luc,  98,  398 

littorea    White,    428 

pacifica  Erichs.,  428 
Annelida.  28.   IKi,  497 
Anobiida?,   418 

Anobiura  paniceum  Linii.,  418 
Anomia  nobilis  Gray,  104,  456,  445 
Anomura,  471 
Anona,  2(36 

Cheriniolia  Liuu.,  266 

muricata  Linn.,  266 

reticulata  Linn.,  266 

squamosa  Linn.,   266 
Anosia  erippus  Cram.,   421 
Anous  stolidus  (Linn.),  78,  310,  311 
Antenuariida',    355 
Antennaris    leprosus    (Evdoux    &■    Souleyet), 

94,  374 
Anthicidse,  418 
Anthomyia  sp.,  99,  406 
Anthozoa,  475 

Anthrenus  scrophularise    (Linn.),  395 
Anthribida^,  418 
Antigonon   leptopus  Hook.  &  Arn.,  68,  250, 

248 
Apex   {see  Achatinella) 
Aplmte,  389,  415,  427 
Aphis  bambusa^  Fullaway,  390 

gossypii  Glover,  390 

niaidis  Fitch,  389 

saeehari=Loxerates    sacchari    (Zehnt- 
ner),  389 
Apis  mellifica  Linn.,99,  406,  404,  415 
Aplysiidse,   467 
Apoeynacea?,  252 
Apodes,    355,    361 
Aprion  virescens  Cuv.  &  Yal.,  91,  362,  349, 

371 
Apsilus   {see  also  Eoosvelti) 
Apsilus   microdon    (Steindachuer),   349,   371 
Asplenium  nidus  Linn.,  50,  191 
Arachis  hypogsa  Linn.,  285 
Arachnida,  409 
Aracea\  249 

Artecesus  fasciculatus  (De  Geer),  395 
Aralia  Guilfoylei  Cong.  &  March.,  253 
Aramigus  fulleri  Horn,  99,  406,  394 
Araneida,  409 
Araucaria  excelsa  E.  Br.,   237 

imbricata    Pav.,    237 
Area  Candida  Gmel.,  104,  456,  444 

s[...  104.  456.  444 


258,    70, 
58,   212 


206, 


264, 


Arcea  cathecu  Linn.,  236 
Arcida;,   444 

Arctocorisa  blackburni  White,  101,  436,  426 
Arenaria  interpres   (Linn.).  78,  310.  324 
Arenga  saccharifera  Laliill..  237 
Argemone  MexicPina  Linn..  54,  198 
Argiope  avara  Thor.,  410 
Argyroxiphium  Sandwicense  D.  C.,  57. 
229 

virescens  Hbd.,  229 
Armsia,  434 
Arthropoda,   400,   405 
Artocarpus    incisa    Linn.,    69. 

239 
Asclejnas   Curassavica   Linn. 
Asimina    triloba    Dunl.,    262 
Asio   accipitrinus   sandvieensis    (Blox.),   336 
Asiracida',  427 

Asparagopsis  sanfordiana  Harv.,  501 
Aspidium,  50.  191 

aculeatuin     8\v.^Polystichujn     aculea- 
tum,  227 

sp.,  63,  228 
Aspidiotus  hedera?    (Vail.),  391 

latania?  Green  ^  Aspidiotus  transparens 
Green,  391 

persearum   Ckll.,   391 
Asplenium.  50,  191 

contiguum  Kaulf.,  63,  228 

ercctum  Bory.,  63,  228 

nidus  Linn.,  66,   240,  223,  253 

pseudofalcatum   Hbd..   63,   228 

sj..,  63,  228 


Trichomanes  Linn.,  22^ 


pustulans 


391 

350, 
392. 


364 
429 


Asteroleeanium       niiliaris  =  A 

(Cock.),  391 
Astelia   veratroides   Gaud.,  57,   206,   62,   224 
Asteroidea,    487 

Asterok'cauiuni    pustulans    (Cock.), 
Astralium,  4(i(; 

Athlennes  hians  (Cuv.  &  Val.).  88. 
Atraetoniorpha  crenaticeps  Bl..  97, 
Attida',  409 
Aulaeaspis   pentagoua   Trag.,   391 

rosa;   (Bouche),  391 
Aulostomus  valentini  (Bleeker),  88,  350,  375 
Auriculella,  433 

sp.,   103,   448 
Avicula  margaritifera  Lam.,  444 
Aviculina',  444 
Awaous  genivittatus  (Cuv.  &  Val.),  374,  357 

spp.,  357 

stamineus  (Eydoux  &  Souleyet),  357 


Bacilus  pestes  Kitasato,  401 
Balffina  mysticetus  Linn.,  301 

spp.,  301 
Balanida>,  473 
Balanoglossus,   484 

Balanus  am[ihitrite  Darwin,  108,  474.  473 
Baldwiniana,  434 
Balistes,  373,  375 


!SC'lKXTiFi(J    IXDKX. 


513 


Balistapiis  aciileatns  (Limi.),  :'A9 

reetangulus    (Blocli    &    ychncidor),    93, 
370.    375 
Balistida?,   373 

Bathyactes  liawaiieiisis  Yaiijihaii,  477 
Batis  maritiina  I^iiiii..  51,  li)2,   IUSI 
Baiimea  (see  Cladiuin) 
Beaiimontia  graiuliflora  Wall..  68.  250 
Bedollia   minor   Busek,   423 

soiiimilontella    (Z.).   423 
Beloiiidffi,  303 
Beroe  sp.,  483 
Bidens  pilosa  Linn..  53,  190 
Bignonia   ijraeilis  H.   B.  K.=Bignonia  un- 
guis-cati  Linn.,  24S 

imguis-cati  Linn.,  68,  250 

venusta  Ker-Uawl.,  68,  248,  250 
Blattodea,  428 
Blenniida',  353 

Boerhaavia  diffusa  Linn.,  51,  192 
Bo^hnieria  nivea  Hook.  &   Am..   217 
Bonibyx   niori   Linn.,    397 
Bos  bufalus,  277 

Bostricbns  migrator  .Sliarji.  99.  400 
Bostrycliida?,    418 
Bougainvillea,   66.   240 

spectabilis   Wilid.,    247 
Bowersia   violescens  Jord.   &   Evermann.   91. 

362,  349 
Bracliiopods,   483 
Braebvnietopa,   429 

discolor  Redt.,  97,  392 
Brachyura,   469 
Brissiis  carinatus,  487 
Bromeliacea^,  201 

Broussaisia  pallncida  Gaud.,  62.  224 
Broussonetia  papyrifera  Yent.,  217 
Brueluis   obtectus   Say,   405,   418 

prosopis  Le  Conte,  395 
Bryophyllum   ealyeium   Salisb.,  66,   240,   208 
Bryozoa,  28,   110 
BuceinidcV,   450 
Budleya  Asiatica,  59,  214 
Buenoa  pallipes   (Fabr.),  42G 
Bufo  colunibiensis,  96,  384 
Bulimella  baeca  Reeve,  103,  448 
Bullidffi,  467 

Bulweria  buhveri   (Jard.  &  Selliy.),  78,  310 
Buprestidse,  417 


Buteo  solitarius  Pealc 
Byronia   {.sec  Ilex) 


80. 


81. 


336 


Cadalvia  =  (LuL-ina)    ranuilosa   Gould,    I-IO, 

445 
Caecidae,  463 

Ca^salpinia  pulcherrima  Swtz.,  244 
Calandra   oryza?    (Linn.),  395,  405,  418 
Calappa  hepatica  (Linn.),  108.  474 
Cak'inus  elcgans   (Miliu>  Kdwards).  108.  472 

latens   (Randall),  108,  474 
Calidris  arenaria    (Linn.),  324 
Calliidiora   dux  Eseli..  99.   400 
Callithinvsus,  418 


Callydon  lauia    (.lord.  &  f]verman),  349 

miniatus  (Jenkins),  93,  370,  349,  305 

perspicellatus   (Steiinlaelmer),  ;>05 
Calophylhun  Inophyllum  Linn.,  201,  247 
Caloternics    castaneus    Brum..    425 

marginipiMinis  Latr.,  402,  425 
Galotonuis   sandvicensis    (Cuv.   li    \'al.),  365 
Calyptra'ida',  462 
Canipanularia,   481 
Cam{)onotiis  maculatus  Fabr..  99.  4M('i 

mac'ulatus  var.   liawaiiensis  Fortd,  403 
Campy lotheca   sp.,   61,   220 
Gampylotlieca   s])|).,   227 
Caniui,  3!)1 

Indica   Linn..  207 
Cantliarus,  450 

sp.,  106,  470 
Cantherines  sandwichiensis  (Quov  &  Gaim.), 

349 
Cantliigaster  epilami)rus    (Jenkins).  93.  370 
Canthigasterida',    367 

Capparis   Sandwichiana  D.   C,   51.    192.   199 
Carabida',   41() 
Caradrinida?,   420.   422 
Caradrinina,  420 
Carangida?,  364 

Carangoides  ferdau   (Forskal),  91,  3ti2 
Caraugus    (large  size),  349 

(small  size),  349 

affinis    (Ruppell),  92,  360 

ignobilis   (Forskal),  91.  3()2,  304 

melampygus   (Cuv.  &  Val.),  349 
Carassius  auratus   (Linn.),  376 
Careharias  nH'lano|iterus  Q.  &  G.,  86,  340 
Carcharcxlon  earcharias  (Linn.),  87,  344,  345 
Cardium  orbiter  Rei-ve.  104.  456,  446 
Carelia,  434 

sincdairi   Aneey.  103.  448 
Carox  Oahuensis  C.  A.  Meyer,  58,  212 

sp.    192 
Carica  (w    j'upaya) 
Carica  l'ai)aya  Linn.,  70,  204 
Carpilius  convexus  (Forskal),  108,  472 

maculatus  (Linn.),  108,  474 
Carpilodt's   inonticndosiis    A.    Milne   Fdwards, 

110,  4S2 
Carpodacus  mexicanus  obscurus  ]McCall.  304 
Caryoborus  gonagra   (Fabr.).  395 
Caryota   ureiis   Linn..   237 
Cassia    Fistula    Linn..    244 

graudis   Linu.,    244 

nodosa  Buch.,   244 

sp.  68.   250 
Cassidie,  4<)1 
Cassis   cornuta    Linn..    461 

vibex  Linn.,   401 

vibex  var.  Linn.,  105,  460 

vibex  var.  erinacea  Linu.,  461 
Casuarina   equisetifolia    Linn.,    237 
Cavia  cutleri,  293 
("enelirus  ecliinatus  Linn.,  287 
Centrolypns  sj).,   427 
Cephalaeautliida?,  357 

Ceplialacanthus     orientalis     (Cuv.    ,S:    Val"). 
94.  .•'.74.  357 


514 


SCIENTIFIC    INDEX. 


Cephalopoda,  441 

Cerambycidff',  417 

Ceiataphis  lantanias   (Boisd.),  389 

CeratiidfP,  369 

Ceratitis  capitata    (Wied.),  99,  406,  386 

Cereus  triangularis  Haw.,  67,  246,  254 

Cerithiidaj,  464 

Cerithiuin,  464 

columna  Sowl).,  106,  470,  464 

obeliseus  Briig.,  106,  470,  464 
Cervus  axis  Erxl.,  296 
Cetaeea,  300 
Chsetodon,  353 

lunula    (Lacep.),   349 

miliaris  Quoy.  &  Gaim.,  93,  370 

unimaculatus  Bloch,  93,  370 
Cha?todontida\  353 

Ch£etog»dia  inonticola   (Big.),  99,  406 
ChEetoptila    angustipluma    (Peale),    83,    332, 

335 
Chalcolepidius  erythroloma  Caud.,  99,  406 
Chama,  117,  446' 

sp.,  104,  456 
Chamidse,  446 
Chauos  chauos    (Forsk.),   87,   344,   349,  360, 

363 
Charadrius    dominicus    fulvus     (Clmel.)      78 

310,  321 
Chasiempis  gayi  Wilson,  85,  337,  329 

sandviconsis   (Gniel.),  85,  337,  329 

sclateri  Ridgw.,  84,  334,  329 
Cheilinus  sp.,  359 
Cheilio   inerniis    (Forskal),   349 
Cheirodendron   platyphyllum   Seem.,   62,    220 
Chelifer  hawaiiensis  Simon,  408 
Chelone  inibrieata    (Linn.),  300 

niydas  (Linn.),  76,  294,  300 
Chelonobia  testudinaria   (Linn.),  108,  474 
Chenopodium  Sandwicheum  Moq.,  79.  316 
Chilocorus  circumdatus    (Schoen.),  394 
Cbilomyeterus   affinis  Giinther,   349 
Chilopoda,  407 
Chitonidje,  467 

Chloridops  kona  Wilson,  82,  330,  338 
Chloris  radiata  Sw.,  53.  196 
Chlorodrepanis  spp.,   329 

stejnegeri    (Wilson),   84,   334 

wilsoni    (Roths.),  83,  332 
Clinndria  tenuissema,  501 
Chordata,  484 

Chrysomphalus    ficus    Ashm.  ^  Chrysompha- 
lus  aoniduni  (Linn.),  391 

ficus  Ashm,  66,  384 
Chrysopa  microphya  McLachl.,  424 
Chrysopogon  aeieulatus  Trin.,  286 

verticillata    (L.),  Seribon,  53,  196 
Cibotium,  50,  191,  63,  228 

Chamissoni  Brack.,  222 

Menziesii  Hook.,  50,  191,  222 

sp.,  52,   194 
Cimex  lectularius  Linu.=Klinophilos  lectu- 

larius  (Linn.),  402 
Cinnamomum   camjihora    T.   Xees  &   Eberm., 
262 

Zeylanicum  Nees,  262 


Cioida?,  418 

Ciridops  anna    (Dole),  82,  330 
Cirrhitidge,  354 

Cirrhitus  marmoratus  (Laeep.),  94,  374,  349 
Cirripedia,  473 
Cistelidge,  418 

Citrullus   vulgaris    Schrad.,    269 
Citrus    acida    Hook.  =  Citrus     medica     Li- 
metta,  265 

Aurantium   Linn.,    263 

Deeumana  Linn.,   265 

Japoniea  Thumb.,  265 

Limon  Linn.  =  Citrus  medica  limonum, 
265 
Cladiophiura\   491 
Cladium    (Baumea)    Mevenii   Kth.,   57,    206, 

62,  224 
Clarias  fuseus  (Lacepede),  377 
Clerida^,  417 
Clermontia,   226 

niaerocarpa  Gaud..  58.  212 

persicsefolia  Gaud.,  59,  214 
Clerodeudron  Thomsonag  Balf.,  66,  240 
Clubionidae,   409 
Cluj)eida?,  358 
Clytarlus,  418 

Clytus  crinicornis  Chevr.,   99,   406 
Coccidaj,  391,  427 
Coccinellida",   393,   416 
Coccus  viridis   (Green),  391 
Cocos  nucifera  Linn.,  201,   233 
Codia:>um  variegatum  Linn..  64.  234,  251 
Coelastrea  sp.,   Ill,  486 

tenuis  Verrill,  111,  486 
Coelenterata,  28,  116,  113,  490,  475 
Ccelophora   imequalis    (Fabr.),   394 

pupillata  (Schoen.),  393 
Coffea  Arabica  Linn.,  50,  191,  279 

Liberica   Hiern.,   279 
Coix  lacryma  Jobi  Linn.,  54,  198,  207 
Coleoptera,   388,   394,   412,   415,   418 
Coleotichus   blackburni^   White,   98,   398 
Coleus,   251 
Collembola,    430 
Columbella  turturina  Lam.,  106,  470,  453 

varians  Schwb.,  106,  470,  101,  453 

zebra  Gray,  106,  470,  453 
Columbellida?,   453 
Colubrina   Asiatica  Brongu.,   204 

oppositifolia   Brong.,    215 
Composite  sp.,  59,  214 
Conidte,  453 

Conoeephaloides  hawaiiensis  Perkins.  429 
Conus,  117 

hebranis  Linn.,   105.   460,  454 

litteratus  var.  millepunctatus  Lam..  454 

lividus  Hwass.,  105,  460 

miliaris  Hwass.,  105,  460 

]iuliearius  Hwass.,   105.   460,  454 

(juercinus  Hwass.,  105,  4(i0,  454 
Coprosoma  ernodeoides  Gray,  256 

spp.,  227 
Coptops  aedificator  Fabr.,  99,  406 
Cordia  subcordata  Lam.,  54.  198,  201 


SCIKXTI FI("    IXDKX. 


515 


Cordvline    terminalis    Kunth.,    50,    liU,    210, 

251 
Corixa    (see  Arctoeorisa),  426 
Corixida",   426 
('oronula  sp.,  475 

Corvus  hawaiiensis  Peale,  81,  327,  335 
Coryphjena  hippiirus  Linn.,  91,  362,  349,  354 
Cosiiiojihila   sal>ulifpra    (Giieii.),   397 
Craliro,  413 
Crambida",   420 
Crangon  =  (Alpheus)    loevis   (Randall),  110, 

482 

Cremastobonibycia  lantanella  Busck,  385 
Crepidula,  447,  462 

aculeata  Gmel.,  106,  470 
Crinoidea,  497 
Crotalaria  sp.,  53,   196 
Crucibiilum,  462 
Crustacea,  28,  116,  468,  469 
Cryptokemus  niontrouzieri   Muls,   394 
Cryptophlebia  illopida    (Btl.),  397 
Cryptorhynchiis  niangifera?  (Fabr.),  99.  406 
395 

Ctenocephalus     eanis=Pulex   caiiis   Duges, 

401 
Ctenophorae,   483 
Cneidida\  419 
Cueiunus   ]\Ielo  Lino.,   269 
Cucurbita  maxima  Duch.,  209 
Culex  fatigans  Wied.,  387 
Cupressus   macrocarpa   Hartw.,   237 
Curculionidii?,   418 

Cuscuta    .sandwiehiana   Chios.,    201.    204 
Cyanea  angustifolia  Hbd.,  62,  220 
Cyathodes    Tanieiameia^    Cham.^Styphelia 

Tameiameia  ('ham.,  22.'),  23o 
Cycas  circinalis  Linn.,   237 

revoluta   Tlmmb.,  237 

sp.,  66,  240 
Cylas  formiearius   (Fabr.),  418 
Cynodon  dactylon    (L)    Kuntz.,  19.  90    208 
286  ' 

Cyperns  alterna folia  Linn.,  64,  234 

pennatiis  Lam.,  54,  198 

rotundas  Linn.,   287 
Cyphastrea,  479 

Cyphastrca  ocillina    (Dana).  111.  486 
Cypraea,  447 

arabica  Linn..  459 

carnoola  Linn.,  var.,  106.  470,  458 

caput-serpentis  Linn..   106.  470,  458 

helvola  Linn.,  458 

isabella  Linn..  106,  470,  458 

niadagascarionsis  Gmel.,  106,  470.  459 

mauritiana  Linn.,  106.  460,  458 

moneta  Linn.,  106.  470,  458 

reticulata    :\rart..   105.   4<;0.   459 

seniijilota  Migh..  106.  470 

suleidentata  Gray,  105,  4(50 

tigris  Linn.,  459 
Cypra^ida'.    457 
Cypranus   carpio,   376 

Cypsilurus  siinus  (Cuv.  &  Yal.).  92.  366.  349 
Cyrcnidtr,  440 


(yrtandia  sp.,  59,  214 
Cytherea,  446 

Cytherea=  (Liochoucha)       hieroglyphica 
Conrad,  104,  456 

D 

Daeus  cucurbita'  Coq.,  99,  406,  387 

Dafila    acuta    Liiiii.,    32s 

Dardanus  gemmatus   (Milne  Kdwardsj,  108, 

472 
Dasyatis  hawaiiensis  Jenkins,  86,  340 
Datura  Stramonium  Linn.,  54.  198,  287 
Deilephila    calida    Butl.,    98,    398 

lineata  (Fabr.),  98,  398 

smaragditis  Meyr.,  420,  421 
Delphinus   deljihis   Linn.,    301 
Dermaptera,   428 

Dermestes  cadaverinus  Fain-.,  405 
Dermestida^,  417 

Dendrojihillia  manni   (Verrill).  479 
Desnmdium      uncinatum  =  (Meiobemia      un- 

cinatus)    D.   C,  53,   196 
Diadema  paucispinum,  487 
Dianella  ensifolia   (Linn.),  D.  C,  56.  202 
Diaspis  bromelia^  (Kern.),  96,  384,  391 
Dinoderus  minutus    (Fab.),   405,  418 
Diodon  nudifrons  Jenkins,  93,  370,  365 
Diodontida',  365 
Diomedea  immutabilis  Roths.,  20,  92.  3L3 

nigripes  And.,  78,  310,  312 
Dioscorea  sativa  Linn.,  210 
Diplopoda,  408 
Diploptera,  414 
Diptera,  387,  402,  419 
Dolichopodida?,   419 
Doliida\  459 
Doliuni  melanostoma  Jay,  461 

perdix  Linn.,  105,  460,  461 
Doniecia    hispida    Eydoux   &    Soulevet.    110, 

482 
Dracaena,  211,  251 

aurea  Mann.,  56,  202,  210 
Drepanidida^,   331,  336 
Drepanis  pacifica   (Gmel.).  83,  332.  333 
Drepanorhamphus    funereus     (Xewton).    83, 

332,  335 
Drosophila  ampelophila   Loew.,  420 
Droso]>hilida:',  420 
Didiautia,    227      (Dtihdntid  =  typoi/.    error) 

laxa  Hook.  &  Am..  61,  220 

plantaginea  Gaud.,  61,  220 
Dvtiseida',  416 


Kcheneis  sp..   36S 

Echidna   nebulosa    (Ahl.).   88.   350,   361 
Echinodermata,  28,  116,  485,  493 
Echinometra,    116,    496 
sp..  116.  496,  485 
Echinothrix   desori,  487 
Echthromorpha     maculiiicniiis     Tlnlniirr..    99. 

40() 
Ktdipta  alba  llassk..  53.  196 
Elieocar|ms   bifidius   Hook.   &    Arn..   56.    202 


516 


SCIENTIFIC    INDEX. 


Elseis  guiueusis  Jacq..   237 

Elaphoglossum  =:   (Serosticbum)     con  forme 
SW.,   63,   228 

ElateridiE,   417 

Eleocharis  (see  Scirpus) 

Eleotiis    saiulwieensis    Vaillaiit    .S:    Sanvao-e 
94,  374,  349,  357 

Elensine  Indiea  Garrtu.,  53,  19(3 
Eleiitheroda    dvtiscoides    Coquel)       97      399 
388  ■       ""'' 

Elimam  api>endieu]ata  Rrunn.,  97,   392,   429 
Elisus  la^viniaiui.s  Randal],  108    474 
Elopidfe,  364  ' 

Elops  saurus  Linn.,  360 
Embiida^,  425 
Endodonta  sp.,  103,  44S. 
Endodontida',  439 
Engina,  453 

farinosa  Gould,  453 
Enneapterygius  atriceps   (Jenkins),  94,  374, 

Entiromorpba  spp.,  501 

Eopenthes,  417 

Epinepludus  quernus  Seale,  91,  362,  349,  369 

Epiti-agiLs  direnipluis  Kerseh.,  99,' 406' 

Epitrix  parvula  (Fabr.),  395 

Eragrostis  major  Host..  53,   196 

variabilis  Gaud.,  62,  224 
Erato  sandwicensis  Pease,  452 
Erigerou  Canadensis  Linn.,  58,  212,  287 
Erinna  neweombia  A.  Adams,  438* 
Eriol)otrva  Japoniea  Lindl.,  266 
Erythrina  nionospeima  Gaud.,  52,  194    203 
210  '         ' 

Etelis  marshi  (Jenkins),  91,  362,  349   371 
Ethmia  colouelia.  Walsm.,  98,  398 
Eti.sus  la?vimanus  Eandall,  lib,  482 
Etrumeus  micropus   (Schlegel),  87,  344.  349 

358 
Euclienidida^,   367 
Eucolia  impatiens  ,Say,  387 
Eugenia    (see  also  Jambosa) 
Eugenia  Jambolana  Lam=rSyzygium   Jam- 

Dolana  (Lam),  268 

Jambos    Linn.  =  Eugenia     (Syzvgium) 

Jambolana,   267 
Malaeeensis    (Linn.)=Jambosa  Malac- 

censis  (Linn.),  216 
Mit.dielii      Lam.  =  Eugenia      uniflora 

Linn.,  267 

Eulejitorlianipus     luiiuir,,stris     (Cuvier)      88 
350  ^'         ' 

Eulima,  463 

Eulima  major  8o\vl>.,  106,  470,  463 

sp.,   106,   470 

Eulimida^,  463 

Eulota   similaris   Fer.,   103,   448    439 

Eumenida^,   414 

Euphorbia    clusia^folia    Hook.    &     Arn       59 
214,  61,  220 
cordata  Meyen.,  51,  192 
geniculata  Ort.,  53,  196 
lorifolia  Ilbd.,  283 
multiformis  Hook.  &  Arn.,  58,  212 


puleherrima    Willd.,    249 

pilulifera  Linn.,  53,  196 
Euphorbiacea^,  249,  283 
Euplexoptera,  415 
Eurnella,  434 

Euthyrrhapha    pacifica.    (Coqueb.).    97.    392 
Eutreta   sparsa,    385 
Euxesta    annone    (Fabr.),    388 
Euxolus  viridis  Moq.,  53,  196 
Eviota  ejnphanes  Jenkins,  94,  374,  357 
Exoccetidffi,   355 
Exocoetus  volitans  Linn.,   349 


Favia,   479 

Felis  domestiea  Linn.,   293 

Fieus  Benghalensis  Linn.,  245 

Cariea   Linn.,   245,   266 

elastiea   Roxb.,   245,   283 

Indiea  Linn.,  67,   246 

puniila  Linn.,  245 

religiosa  Linn.,  66,  240,  283 
Fissurellidai,   466 
Fragaria  Chilensis  Ehrh.,  255 
Fraugilla   canaria  Linn.,   319 
Fregata  aquila  Linn.,  78,  310,  313 
Freycinetia  Arnotti  Gaud..  50.  191.  56,  20" 
60,  218,   211  ' 

Fulgorida?,  427 

Fulica   alai   Peale,   80.   323,   326 
Fundulus  grandis,  378 
Fungia  sp.,  112,  488 
Fungiida\    479 
Fusidffi,  450 

Fusus  nova?-hollandia^  Rve.,  105,  460,  450 
Forniicaleo  purjurus    (Walk.),   425 
FormicidEe,    413 
Formicina,    403 
Fossarida?^  465 


Gahnia  Beecheyi  Mann,  62,  224 

Galleriida?,  420 

Gallinula  sandvicensis  Streets,  80,  323,  326 

Gambusia  aiEnes,  378 

Garcinia    mangostana,    269 

Morella  Desr.,  67,  246 

xauthochymus,    269 
Gastrophilus  equi.   (Clark),  99,  406,  387 
Geckonidce,   297 

Gelechia  gos.sypiella    (Sndrs.),  400,  423 
Gephyrea,  113,  490,  116,  499 
Geranium  Carolinianum  Linn.,   287 
Germo   germo    (Lacep.),   349,   361 
Gerrida^,    426 

Gleichenia    diehotoma   Hook.,    223 
Grleichenia   linearus    (Burm.)    Clarke=(Gl. 
diehotoma  Hook.),  52.  194,  63.  22S 

longissima  Bl.,  63.  228,  253 
Gobiida;,   355 
Gomphosus  sp.,   359 
Goniodes  stylifer  Nitzzeh.,  400 


SCIKXTIPIC    INDEX. 


•Ill 


Gorgonaeea,   479 

Gostiypium   Barbadeuse   Linn.,   2S1 

drynarioides   Seem.,   20'A,   281 

sp.,    281 

tomentosuiii    Xutt..    199,    203,    281 
Grapsiis    fjrapsus    tenuicnistatiis     ( Ilerhst.) , 

108,   474,   4()9 
Grevillia    nilmsta   Ciuni.,   247 
Gryllodea,   429 

Gryllodes  poeyi  Sauss.,  97,  392 
GrvUotaljia    afrieaua    Fabr..    97,    .■!92.    388, 

430 
Gryllus  innotabilis  Walk.,   430 

sp.,  430 
Guiinera  petaloidea  Gaud.,  52,  194,  225 
Gygis  alba  kittlitzi  Hart.,  78,  310,  318 
Gvmnosarda     alletterata     (Rafinesque),     92, 
3(56,  349 

pelamis   (Linn.),  92,  3G(i,  349,  3(U,  363 
Gyinnothorax,  349,  361 

undiilatus    (Lacep.),   88,   350,  361 

ereodes  Jenkins,  88.  350 

petelli    (Bleekei),    88,    350 
Gyneiiuni   argenteum   Stapf.,  65,   238 
Gynopogon  (.srr  Alyxia) 


H 


Hu'niahiliia   serrata   Desv.,  387 

HaMiiatdjiinus  ui'ius  Nitzsch.,  400 

Haliseris   plagiogramma   Mont.,   222 

Haptoncus  sp.,  388 

Harpa  conoidalis  Lam.,  105,  460,  452 

Harpina>,   452 

Helicida?,  439 

Helic'ina  sp.,  103,  448 

Heleioniscus  exaratus  Xutt.,  105,  4()0,  466 

Heli()|)liila   unipnncta    (Haw.),   396 

Heliutiiis,  422 

Heliothrips  liaemorrhoidalis  Bouche,  428 
rubrocinctus  Giard.,  428 

Heliotropin  n    anomalnm    Hook    &    Ani.,    54 
198,   199 
Cnrassavicum  Linn.,  51,  192,   199 

Helicinida>,    438 

Hemerobiidie,   424 

Heniignatluis    lichtensteini    ^Yils(ln.    83.    332 
obscurus    (Gmel.),   82,   330 
proL-erus  Cab.,  82.  330 

Hemiptera,  389,  400,  402,  412,  425 

Hemiramphidae,  358 

Henii'-amplms  depauperatns  Lav  &   Bennett. 
88,   350,   349,   358 

Herpestes  grisens  Geoff.,  296 

Hei)atica,  59,  214 

Hopatus  aehilles   (Shaw),  349,  372 

Hepatiis  dussnmieri    (Cnv.  &   \'al.),  349 
elungatus    (Lacep.),    349 
giintheri   (Jenkins),  93,  370,  372 
olivaeens  (Bloeh  &  SchneidiT),  93    370 

372 
sandvieensis  (Streets),  91.  362,  349,  372 
xanthopterus    (Ciiv.  &  Yal.).  349 

Hetoractitis    incanus    (Gmel.),    78,    310,    80 
323,  324 


Heterocentrotus   sp.,   4s7 
Heteropoda   regia    Fal)r.,   4(19,   410 
Heterorhyncinis  affinis  Roths.,  84,  334 

hanapej^e   (Wil.son).  82.  330 

hu-idus    (Lieht.),   82,   330 

wilsoni  Rotlis.,  83,  332 
Heteroj)ogon    (.see  tilso  Andropogon) 
Heteropogon  ^  ( Andropogon)    contortiis    R. 

&   S(di.,   2S6 
Hevea  Biaziliensis   .Mnell.,  283 
Hibiscus  (sec  (ils-o  Paritium) 
Hibiscus,  391 

Arnottianns  Gray,  56,  202,  213 

Braekeiiridgei   Gray,   213 

Kokio  Hbd..  213 

tiliaceus  Liiui.,  54,   198 

A'onngianus   Gaud.,    213 
Himantojius   knudseni    Stejn.,   81,   327,   310, 

325 
Himatione  freethi  Roths.,  314 

sangiiinea  (Gmel.),  84,  334,  85,  337,  329 
Hinnites  giganteus  (iray,  104,  456,  445 
Hippa  adaetyla  Fabr.,  "llO,  482 
HippoboscidK,  420 
Hippocampus,  365 

fisheri   (.lord.  &  Evermann).  88,  350 
Hipponyx,   462 
Hipponyx  antiquatus  Linn.,  106.  470.  462 

l)arbatus  Sowb.,  106,   470.  462 

iniliricatus  Goulil.,   106.  470.  462 
Hirundinea,    440 
Histeridse,   417 
Holocentridic,  371 
Holocentrus   spp.,   371 

microstomns  Giinther,  92,  366 
Holothuria    atra    Jager.,    493 

cinerascens    (Brandt),    493 

pardalis  Selcnka,  493 

vagabunda  Selenka,  493 
Holothuroidea,  491 
Homarus  americanus   (M-Edw.),  468 
Hormiphora  fusit'ormia,  483 
Homoiitera,  427 
Hoya  carnosa  R.  Br.,  248 
Hydatina  amplustra  Linn.,  106.  470,  467 
Hydra,  475 

Hydriomenida\  397,  420 
Hydrobius  semicylindricus  Escdi.,  101,  43i} 
Hydrocorallina",    481 
Hydromedusa",    480 
Hydrdiilii.la'.   299 
Hydruphilida",    416 
liymenoptera,  403,  412 
llydrus  platuriis  Linn.,  299 
Hyo])iiorbe  amaricaulis  Mart.,  237 
Hypoderina   liovis   DeG.,  387 

lineata   (N'illiers),  387 
Hyposmocoma,   423 
Hypntlicneinus  sji.,  388 


I 


lantliin.-i   exigna  Tiam..  106.  470.  464 
tragiHs  L:im..  106.  4  7(1.  464 
globosa  S\\;iin..  106.   4  7(i.  464 


518 


SCIENTIFIC    INDEX. 


Iauthini(la\  -463 

Iceiya  piirchasi  IVIask.,  391,  393 

Idioptenis   iiepbrolepidis   Davis,   389 

Ilex  =  (Bvroiiia)     Sandwicensis    Eiidl.,    59, 

2U,  62,  224 
Iml)ricaria,  451 

Iiidio-ofera  Anil  Linn.,  58.  212.  207 
Iiiga    dulcis    Willd.^Pithecolobium    dulce 

(Eoxb.),  54,  198 
Insecta,  409 
Ipomoea  (not  Ipoma^a),  197 

Batatas   Lam.,    197,    284 

bona-nox  Linn.,  56,  202 

chiyseides  Ker.,  248 

insularis  Steiid.,   197 

pes-capra?  Sav.,  51,  192,  60,  218,  197 

tuberculata  Boem.  &  Sell.,  51,  192,  197 
Ischnocliiton  sp..  106,  470 
Isonietrus  maeulatus  De  Geer,  98,  398,  407 
Isopoda,  408 
Isoptera,  402 

Isuropsis  glauea  (Mull.  &  Henle),  86,  340 
Ixora,  249 
Ixorea?,  249 


Jaequenioutia  Sandwicensis  Gray,  51.  192 

Jambosa  (sec  also  Eugenia) 

Jambosa,  216 

Jambosa  ^  (Eugenia)      Malacceusis     Linn., 

256 
Jasniinum  Samliac  Soland.,  248 

grandiflorium  Linn.,  68,  250,  248 
Julis,  359 

spp.,  359 

lepomis    (Jenkins),  93,  370 
Jussiaea  villosa  Lam.,  58,  212 

Kadua  sp..  61,  220 

Klinophilos  (see  Cimex) 

Kuhlia    malo    (Cuv.    &    Val.),   92,   366,   349. 

358 
Kuhliida^,  358 
Kyllingia    obtusifolia^Kyllingia    monoce- 

phala  Rottb.,  58,  212 
monocephala  Rottb.,  53,  19(),  287 


Labridse,  359,  365 
Lagenaria  vulgaris  Ser.,  209 
LamoUiljranchiata,  443 
Laminella,  123,  434 

gravida  Fer.,  103,  448 

sanguinea   Newc,  103,  448 

venusta  Migh.,  103.  448 
Lantaua  Camara  Linn.,  54,  198,  209,  383 
Laridse,  309 

Lasioderma  serricorne  (Fabr.),  395,  405,  418 
Lasiurus  semotus   Harr.   Allen.,   295 
Latania  glauco]ihylla  Hort.^Latania  Lod- 

digesii  Mart.,  237 
Latirus,   450 


Lauracea?,   262 

Laureneia   spp.,  501 

Leguminosa,  203,  205 

Lepadida^,    473 

Lej)idaplois  spp.,  359 

Lepidium   Virginicum   Linn.,    287 

Lepidoptera,  388,  395,  396,  411,  420 

Lepidosaphes   pallida    (Mask.),   391 

Lepisma  saccharina  Linn.,  403,  431 

Leptachatina,  433,  434,  437 

chrysalis  Pfeiff.,  103,  448 
sp.,  103,  448 
Leptastrea,   479 

agassizi  Vaughau,  111,  486 

hawaiicnsis  Vaugban,  111,  486 

sp.,  Ill,  486 
Leptodius  sanguineus  (Milne  Edwards),  110, 

482 
Lepus  sp.,  293 

Leuctena  glauea  Benth.,  54,  198,  207 
Leucania,  422 

Leucopha'a    surinamensis    (Fabr.),    97,    392 
Lichens,  52,   194 
Limua^a  binominis  Sykes,  101,  436,  438 

oahuensis  Soul.,"  101,  436,  438 
Limna'a,  438 
Limnanda^,   438 
Limaeidae,    439 
Linckia  sp.,  489 
Liochoneha   (see  Cytherea) 
Lioeoneha  hieroglyphiea  Conrad.,  446 
Lipocha'ta  integrifolia  Gray,  199 
Litchi  (see  Nephelium) 
Littorina,    447 

obesa  Lam.,   464 

pintado  Wood,  106,  470 

scabra  Linn.,  106,  470,  464 
Littorinid*,    464 
Lobelia   hvpoleuca   Hbd.,   62,   224 

sp.,  57,  206 
Lobeliaeeae,  225 
Loeustoidea,  429 
Lophocateres  pusilla,  405 
Lophortyx  calif orniea  (Shaw),  308 
Lopho7,o7ymus    dodone    (Herbst.),    110,    482 
Loxerates  (ser  Aphis) 
Loxops,  333 

cffiruleirostris   (Wilson),  85,  337 

ochraeea  Roths.,  83,  332,  85,  337 

rufa    (Blox.),  83,  332 
Lucauida>,   417 
Lucilia  caesar  (Linn.),  99,  406,  387 

serieata  (Meigen.),  99,  406,  387 
Lueina   (see  Cadakia) 
Luidia  hystrix  Fisher,  116,  496,  489 
Lutianida^,  369 
Lyca^ia  (see  Thecla) 

Lvcsena      ba?tica      Linn.  =  Thecla      baetica 
(Linn.),  98,  398,  421 

blackburni     (Tuely.)   ==  Thecla     black- 
burni    (Tuely.),  421 
Lyca^nida?,  385,  420,  421 
Lyeopodium  eernuum  Linn. ,59,  214 

paehystachyon    Spr.,   59,    214 

serratum   Thbg.,  59,   214 


SriF.XTIFIC    INDEX. 


519 


Lvctidtv.  418 

Lygan(la\  425 

Lysimachia    ilapluioides   Hbd.,    230 

Lytlnuiii  inaritiiiiuiu  H.  B.  K.,  58,  212 

M 

Maehilis  liotoropiis  Silvestri,  431 
Macrobrachium  graudiiiiaiuis  (Randall),  101, 

43(1,  110,  482 
Macrok'jtidoptera.  420 
Macrosipliuni  rosa-    (Linn.),  3<S9 

sanborni  Gillette,  389 
Macrophthalmus    telescopicus    (Owen),    108. 

474 
jMacriira,  469 
Matireporaria,  475,  476 
Mallophaga,  400,  430 
Malva  rotiindifolia  Linn.,  53,   ]96 
Malvacea',   203,   281 

Malvastruni  tricuspidatuni  Gray,  53,  196 
Mangifera  Indica  Linn.,  69,  258,  241 
Manihot  Glaziovii   Miill.,   281 

utilissima   Pohl.,   284 
Mantoidea,  429 

Mapo  fuscns  (Ruppell),  94,  374,  357 
Marattia   Douglassii   Baker,   223 
Margaritifera  findjriata  Dunk.,  104,  456,  444 
Margiuella,  452 
Marginellida%  452 
Meandrina,  479 
Medicago  sativa  Linn.,  286 
Megachile,  415 

diligens  Smith,  99.  406 
Megaptera,  301 

boops    (Linn.),  302 
Meiobeniia    (see  Desmodium) 
]Melania,  438 

mauiensis  Lea,  101,  436,  438 

iiewconibii  Lea,  101,  436,  438 
Melaniida\  438 
Melia  Azedaraeh  Linn..  244 

sempervirens  8\v.,  244 
Meliua=  (Perna)    ealifornica   Conrad.,   104 

456,  443 
Menibracida\  427 
Metazoa.  499 
Metograpsiis    niessor     (Forskal.),    101,    436, 

108,  474,  110,  482 
Metrosideros    polymorpha    Gaud.,    50      191 
209,  215 

polymorpha  var.  Gaud.,  61,  22(» 

rugosa  Gray,  61.  220 

tremaloides  Heller,  61.  220 
Micranous  hawaiiensis  (Roths.),  78,  .'ilo    80 

323,  311 
Microlepia  strigosa  PresL,  222 

tenuifolia  Metten.,  63,  228 
Microlepidoi)tera,  420.  422.  423 
Microj)terus  salmoides  (Lacep.),  378 
Microvelia   vagans   White,   426 
Milleporida\   481 
Mimosa  pudica  Linn..  287 
Mira])iRs   .Talapa   Linn..   254 
Mirida',  4^6 


.Miro.sternus,    418 
Mitra,   447,   451 

sp.,  106,   470 

tabanula  Lam.,  106,  470 
Mitridaj,  451 
Mobula    japonica    (Muller    &    Henle),    347, 

349 
^loilulus  tectum  (imel.,  106,  470,  465 
Muho  apicalis  Gould,  82,  330,  335 

bishopi  (Roths.),  82,  330 

braccatus    (Cassin),    85,    337 

nobilis    (Merrem.),   82,   330,   333 
Molienesia  lattipinna,  378 
Moilusca,  28,  116,  447 
Molluscoidea,   483 

Monachus  schauenslandi,  76,  294,  303 
Mouotaxis   grandoculis    (Forskal),   92,    366, 

349,  367 
Monstera  deliciosa  Liebn.,  67,  246,  249 
Montipora,   477 

spp..  Ill,  486 
Morinda   citrifolia  Linu.,   201,   205 
Morus  alba  Linn.,  267,  397 

nigra  Linn.,  267 
Mugil  cephalus  Linn.,  91,  362,  349,  359 
'  Mugilidaj,  359 
Mullida?,  372 

Mulloides    auriflamma     (Forskal),    91     362, 
349,  373 

flanimeus   (Jord.  &  Evermanu),  92,  366 
Munia  nisoria   (Temm.),  304 
Mura>nida>,   361 
Murex,  449 
Muricidaj,  449 
Mus  alexandrinus    (Gocffroy),    292 

decumanu.s=Mus  norvegicus  Erxleben., 
291 

musculus   Linn.,    292,    293 

norvegicus   Erxleben.,   292 

rattus  Linn.,  292 
Musa  Cavendishii  Paxt.,  69,  258,  259 

sapientum  Linn.,  50,  191,  222 

textilis  Nees,  280 
Musca  domestica  Linn.,  387 
Muscida',   419 
Mycetophilida,  419 
Myctophidaj,  359 
Myodochidse,    426 

Myoporum  Sandwicense  Gray,  210,  222,  226 
Myripristis   berndti   .lord.   &   Evermanu,   91, 
362,  349,  371 

murdjan    (Forskal),  349,  371 
^Myrnicli'onida',  425 
Mytilus.  109,  478,  443 

crcbristriatus  Conrad.,  104,  45(),  443 
Myzus  ('itrici<lus,  389 

N 

Nabida-.  420 
Xassa,  447,  451 

gaudiosa  Hinds.,  451 

hirta  Kien.,  106,  470,  451 

papillosa  Linn.,  451 

splendidula    Diink..    151 
Nassida',  451 


520 


SCIENTIFIC    INDEX. 


Xastnrtiinii  officinale  E.  Br.,  208 
Natiea.   447 

maroehiensis  (tiiu'1..  106.  470 
Xaticida^,  461 

Naucrates  ductor    (Linn.).  92.  366 
Xehinibium    speeiosum=Nelumbo    nucifera 

Gaertn.,    285 
Nelurabo  (.srr  Nelumbium) 
Nematbelminthes,  28.   116 
Xemertinia,   28.    116.   497 
Xeoliodes  theleproetus  Horm..  401 
Xephelium    Litchi    Cambes  =  Litclii    chiuen- 

sis,  269 
Xephrolepis  exaltata   Schott.   63,   228 
Xertera  depressa  Banks.,  59,  214 
Xerita  pieea  Eeelz.,  101,  436,  102,  442,  106, 
470,  465 

polita  Linn.,  106,  470,  465 

sp.,  465 
Xfiitida?.   439,   465 
Xeritina,   439,   465 

eariosa  Gray,  101.  436,  106.  470,  466 

granosa  8o\vli.,  106,  470,  439,  466 

neglecta  Pease,  106,   470 

vespertiua  Xutt.,  101,  436,  106,  470,  466 
Xerium  Oleander  Linn.,  252 
Xerocila    australasia^    Schioedte    &    Meinert, 

110,  482 
Xesoclien   sandvicensis    (Vig.),   78,   310,    80, 

323,   335 
Xesoprosopis,  415 
Xeiiroptera,   423 
Xe\yeombia,  434 

eanalienlata  var.  wailanensis  Pils.,  103, 
448 
Xicotiaua  glauca  Grab.,  51,  192 

Tabacum  Linn.,  283 
Xitidulidse,  417 
Xotonectidfe,  426 
Xotodontina,  420,  422 
Xoctuidje,  396 

Xovius  cardiualis    (Muls.),  393 
Xiidibraneliiata,  467 

Xumeuius  tahitiensis    (Gniel.).  78,  310,   324 
Xyeticorax   nycticorax   naniiis    (Bodd.),   78. 

310,  325 
Xyniphalidie,  420,  421 
Xysius,  426 


o 


Oceanodroma     ervptoleiicnra     (Ridgw.),     80. 

323,  309 
Octopus   sp.,   102,   442 
Oeypode  ceratophthalnia   (Pallas),  108,  472, 

116,   496,   469 
Odonata,  424 
Odynerus,   414 

nigripennis  (Holm.).  99.  406,  414 
spp.,  414 
(Eehalia  grisea  (Brum.),  98.  398 
(Edemeridfe.   418 
a^Jstridse,  420 
CEstrus  ovis  Linn.,  387 


Olea  Sandwieensis  Gray,  227 
Oliva  carneola  Gniel.,  452 

ervthrostonia   Lam.,  452 
01ivida>,  452 
Olivinae,  452 
Omiodes  aecepta   (Butl.).  388.  395 

blaekburni   (Butl.),  395,  422 

monogona  Meyr.,  395 

meyricki  Swezey,  395 
Ompatrum  serratuni  Boisd.,  395 
Oodemas,  418 
Opeas  juneeus  (Jould,  439 

pyi-giscus  Pfeiff.,   103,   448 
Oplieodesoma  speetaVjilis  Fisher,  495 
Oiihioephalns  striatus  Blocdi,  377 
Ophiothrix  sp.,  491 
Ophiuroidea,   487,   489 
Opuutia  Tuna  Mill.,  209,  269 
Oreus  chalybeus    (Boisd.),  394 
Oreodoxa  regia  H.  B.  K.,  67.  246,  232 
Oreomyza    (see   Oreomystis) 
Oreomystisr=(Oreomv"za),  331,  338 

liairdi    (Stejn.),  85,  337 

maculata   (Cab.),  83,  332 

montana    (Wilson),  83,  332 
Oribata  oriforniis  Pearee,  401 
Oribatida>,   401,   420 
Ortalida-,  388 

Ortliezia  insignis  Dough,  96,  384,  385 
Orthodera  prasina  Brum.,  429 
Orthoi)tera,  388.  428 
Orthurcthra,  121 
Oryza  sativa  Linn.,  276 
Osteomeles  anthyllidifolia  Lindl..  215 
Ostraeiida",    375 

Ostraciou  sebai'  Bleaker,  94,  374,  375 
Ostrea,  117 

lurida   Cpr.,   445 

retusa  Sby.,  115,  445 

rosacea  Chem.,  104,  456,  445 

rirginica  Lister.,   445 
OvulidcT,  459 

Oxya  velox   (Fabr.).  97.  392.  388,  429 
Oxalis  corniculata  Linn.,  53,  196 


Pagiophalus  atoniarius  Simon,  410 
Pahemon    paeificus    (Stimpson),    110.    482 
Palinuridff',  469 

Palmeria  dolei    (Wilson).  82,  330 
Pandanns   odoratissimus  Linn.,  50,   191,  52, 

194,  204,  221 
Panicum  maxima  Jacq.,  286 

MoUe  SW.,  286 

pruriens  Trin..  286 

torridum  Gaud.,  2()9 
Pantala,  425 

flavescens   Fabr..   97,   392,   424 
Panulirus  japonicus  (de  Seebold).  108.  472, 

468' 
Papava     vulgaris     D.C.  ^  Carica     Papaya 

'  Linn..   262 
Papilionina,  420,  421 


SCIKXTlFir    IX!)1-:X. 


521 


Paracirrhites  .•iicatus   {('u\.  ^    \'al.)   3.')4 

einetus   (Ciiinther),  '.'Ad 

forsteri    (P.lo<-h   c^:   Schneider),  9^,  374, 
35-i 

spp.,  354: 
Parasita,   400 

Paratenodera  sinensis  Saiiss.,  97,  392 
Paratrigonidium  pacificuni   (Scudd.),  4:29 
Parexoccrtus    liraehvpterus     (Solander),    92. 

306,  349,  355 
Paritiuni  tiliaceum  yt.  llill=:HibiECUS  tilia- 

ceus  Linn.,  201 
Parribac'us  antartieiis    (Lund),   108.   472 
Partnlina,  434 

coufusa  Sykes,  103,  448 
Paspalnni   conjuugatum   Berg.,   208,   28() 

orbiculare  Forst.,   209,   286 
Passer  domesticus  Linn.,  304 
Passiflora  ca^rulea  Linn.,  268 

edulis  Tims.,  69,  258 

lanrifolia  Linn.,  268 

quadrangularis  Linn.,  70,  264,  268 
Passifloreacea\  268 
Patella  sp.,  106,  470 
Patellida',  466 
Pavonia,  479 
Pecteu.,    445 

sp.,  104,  456 
Pectinida?,  445 
Pedieulida?,  400 
Pediculus  capites  De  Gear,  400 

vestimenta  Nitzsch,  400 
Pelea  anisata  Mann.,  221 

ckisia^folia  Gray,  61,  220 
Pelecypoda,  443 

Pelopaius  caementarius  (Drury),  99,  406,  413 
Penuatulacea,  479 

Peunula  ecaudata  King,  81,  327,  333 
Pentalonia  nigronervosa  Coq.,  389 
Peperoniia  sp.,  56,  202 
Perdicella,  434 

fulgurans  Sykes,  103,  448 
Peregrinus  maidas  Ashm.,  98,  398,  389 
Perinea  tumida  Dana,  110,  482 
Perijilaneta  americana  (Linn.),  97,  392,  402, 
428 

australasia;  (Fabr.),  97,  392,  402,  428 
Peristernia,  450 

ehlorostoma  Sby.,  106,  470 
Peristerniinte,  450 
Pprkin.siella  saccbaricida  Kirk..  98,  398,  381. 

427 
Perna   (see  also  ^Mclina) 
Perna  sp.,  104,  456,  443 
Perottetia  Sandwiceusis  Gray,  5,  40 
Pctrea  volnbilis  Linn.,  68,  250,  248 
Persea  gratissinia  Gaertn.,  69,  258,  261 
Pluvornis  niyadestina  Stejn.,  85,  337 

obscnra   (Gniel.),  84,  334 

l)alnieri  Koths.,  82,  330 

spp.,  331 
I'iuiethon   lepturus  l^accp.  i!c    Dauii.,  309 

rubricauda  Bodd.,  78,  310.  309 
Pliasianus   torquatns  Gniel.,   307 

versicolor    \"i>'ill.,    '.\0S 


{  Linn.), 


Phasianella,  46l) 

IMieidole  niegaeepiiala    (Fab.),  403 

I'lienacasjiis  eugenia-    (Mask.),  391 

Philodendron,  64,   234,   249 

Pliilniiiycidie,  439 

I'liiloiicsia    baldwini    Aiicey,    103,   448 

s],.,  103.  448 
I'lii,f:na  sp.,  116.  496,  491 
I'liu'nix  dactvIitVra  Linn.,  67,  246.  70.  264, 

233 
I'liorinium   tenax   l^inn..   281 
I'litliinis    |)idiis    Linn.,    400 
I'hthorinui'a   oi)erculrlla    (7..),  423 
I'hycitida',   420 

Phyllantlius  roseo-pictus   llort.,  252 
Phyllodroniia   liicroglyjphica    P.rniin..   97,   392 

obtusata   BriiiiM.,   42s 
Phyllostegia     grandiflora     Bentli..     59.     214 

sp.,  59,  214 
Phylodendron,  66.  240 
Pliyinodins  nitidus  Dana,  110,  4^2 
Physalia  ntricula,  113,  490,  481 
Physalis  Peruviana  Linn..  257 
Physeter  macroceplialus  Linn..  301 
Phytophaga.  417 
Pierid*,  420,  422 
Pieris    rapse    Linn.=Pontia    rapae 

399,   422 
Piophila  casei    (Linn.),  405 
Piper   nietliystienni   Forst.,    216 
Pipturus  albidus  Gray,  58,  212,  217 
Pipnncnlida',  419 
Pisania,  450 
Pisaniinte,    450 
Pisces,  28,   116 
Pisidium,   440 

I'isoiiia  iuiil)rllit'era  Seem.,  59,  214 
Pithecolobium  (xrc  Inga) 
Pithecolobinni  Samang  Griselj..  242 
Pittosponun  glal)runi  Tlook.  «.<:   Ai'n..  58.  212 

spatluil.atuni   Mann,  61,   220 
Plagitlimysns,   418 
Planamastra,    434 
Planaxida',  465 

Planaxis  lineatns  DaCosta..  465 
IMantago  major  Linn..  58.  212.  287 
Platyhelmintiies.  28.   116 
Platypodia    ev<lonxii    (A.    Milne    l-Mwards), 

110,  482 
Platyomus   li\idigaster    Muls.,   393 
I'latoplirys  pantlieriims    (Hnppell),  349,  371 
Platyptil'ia  s)).,  383 
I'Icnronectida',    371 
l'luinl)ago  ('apensis  Tliinnl)..   254 
Plumeria  sp..  253 
Plumnlaria.   481 
Plnsi;i  clialcites  lOsp. 
Plusiada\    397,   420, 
Pocillopora.  477 

sp..  112.  488 

spi>..   112.   488 
I'odojiliora  ]i('difi  ra. 
Podoplitliabnns  vigil 
Pirciliida^.  .'wS 
Poinciaiia    regia    Hoj 


397 
422 


422 


116.  496,  487 
(  Fabr.L  108.  472 

..   243 


34 


522 


SCIENTIFIC    INDEX. 


Polistes  aurifer  Sauss.,  404,  414 

hebni^us  (Fabr.).  99.  40<i,  404 
Polycha4a,  497 

Polydactylus  sexfilis    (Cuv.  &  Val.).  .349 
Polypodiuni  speetruni  Kaulf..  63.  228 

tamarisc'iuuiu  Kaulf.,  63,  228 
Polystichum  (.s-rr  Aspidium) 
Polyzoa,  480,  483 
PoTiera    perkinsi    Fore],    413 
Pontia  {.scr  Pieris) 
Pontia  rapae  (Linn.),  97,  392 
Porcellio    scaber    Latr.,    98,    398,    101.    43(i, 

408 
Poiifera,  28,  llO,  499 
Porites,  477 

sp.  112.  488 

spp..  Ill,  486 
Porpita  pacifica,  481 
Portulaca  oleraeea  Liun,  53,  19(i,  287 
Portiinus  sanguinolentus  (Herbst.),  108,  474 
Priacantlnda\  354 

Priacanthus  alalaua   Jord.  &   Evermann,  92, 
36(3 

cruentatus    (Lacep.),   349,   354 
Priofinus  cuneatiis  (Salvin),  78.  310,  81.  327, 

312 
Prionace  glauea    (Linn.).  86,  340 
Pritchardia  Gaudichaudii  H.  Wendl.,   236 

Martii    H.   Wendl.,    236 
Prodelphinus,  300 

attenuatus  (Gray),  300 
Prosopis  juliflora  D."  0.,  66,  240,  242 
Proterhiiii.la',  419 
Proterhiiius,  419 
Protoparce:^(yphinx)     convolvuli    (Linn.). 

399 
Protovertebrata,  484 
Protozoa,  499 

Prozannla  jialineri    Froh.,  314,  318 
Pruniis  Persiea   8ieli.  &  Zuce.,   267 
Pseudoeheilinus  octota'nia   .Tenkins,  349 
Pseudoeoecus  bromelia*   (Bouche),  391 

citri    (Eisso),   391 

filamentosus   (Ckll.).  391 

nipa-    (Mask.),   391 

saccbari   (Ckll.),  389 

saccharifolii   (Green),  389 

sp.,  391 
Pseudolus   longulus    (Boh.),    395,    418 
Pseudonestor  xanthophrys  Eoths.,  82,  330 
Pseiidoscarus  jordani  Jenkins,  93,   370,   3()5 
Pseudoscor])iones,   408 

Pseudosquilla   ciliata    (Fabricins),   110,    482 
Pseudupeneus    l)ifasciatus     Jord.     &     Ever- 
mann, 92,  366,  373 

inultifasciatus   (Quoy  &  Gaini.),  373 

porphyreus  Jenkins,  91,  3(i2,  349,  373 

spp.,    373 
Psidinm  Guayava  Linn.^Psidium  Guajava 

Linn.,  70,  264,  263 

Cattleyannm    (Sal)ine),  263 
Psittacirostra    psittacea    (Gmel.).     85,     337, 

331 
Psocida-.   424.   425 
Psychodida-,   419 


Pteris.   419 

aquilina    Linn.,    223 

decipiens  Hook.,  223 
Pterocera   aurantia   Lam.,   457 
Ptero<liscus,    123,    434 

discus.  Pils.  &  Vann.,  103,  448 

rex.  Sykes,  103,  44S 
Pterophorida^,  420 
Puffinus  nativitatis  Streets,  78,  310,  312 

newelli  Hensha\\',  309 
Pulex  (see  Ctenocephalus) 
Pulex  irritans  Linn.,  401 
Pulmonata,    434 
Pulvinaria  mammese  Mask.,  391 

psidii  Mask.,  391 
Punica  Granatum  Linn.,  269 
Pupa    sp.,    103,    448 
Pupida-,   439 
Purpura,  117,   449 

aperta  Blainv.,  105.  460 

sp.,  105.  460 
Pyralidida',    420 
Pyralidina,  420,  422 
Pyralis  mauritialis  Boisd.,  98,  398 
Pyramidella  mitralis  Ads.,  463 

sulcata    Ads.,   463 

terebellum  Mull.,  106.  47(1,  463 
Pyramidellida?,    463 
Pyraustida",   420,   422 
Pyrrhocorida\    426 
PjTus   Mains   Linn.,   267 


R 


Eaillar.lia,   226 

Rana   eate.sbiana,  299 

Panel  la,  449 

Kanzania  makua  Jenkins,  94.  374.  358 

Ravenala  Madagascariensis  J.  F.  Gmel.,  65,. 

238.  257 
Reduviida-,  426 
Eeduviolus,  426 
Reptilia,   28.    116 

Reynoldsia   Sandwicensis  Gray,   203,   209 
Ricinula,    449 

ricinus    Linn.,    106,    470 
Ricinus  communis  Linn.,   285 
Risella    spp.,    465 
Rissoida^,   465 
Rhabdocnemis  =   (Spheno]iliorous)  obsciirus' 

(Boisd.),  95,  380,  99,  406,  383 
Rhanthus  pacificus  Sharp,  101.  436 
Rhapis  flabelliformis  L'Herit.,  237 

humilis  Blume.,   237 

Cochinchinensis  Mart.,  66.   240.   237 
Rliijiiceplialus    sanguineus.    401 
Rhodacanthis  palmeri  Roths.,  83.  332 
Rhopalosiphum    viote,    389 
Rhvmodius  ungulatus  (^lilne  Edwards),  110, 

482 
Rhynochophora,   418 

Rhynchospora  thyrsoidea  Nees  &-  ^1..  62.  224 
Rhvncogonus.    418 

Rdilandia  calycina  G.  Don..  58.  212.  62.  220- 
Rubiacea-,  249 


SCIENTIFIC    INDEX. 


523 


Kubiis  .laniaieeiisis,  69.   25S 

Maera>i  Gray,  25(5 
Roosevelti  =  (Apsilns)      brii;l;aiiii      (Seale), 

3(i9 
Rotifera,  28.   116 


Sacchaniiu   oflieinaruiii  Linu.,   272 
Sadleria,  50,  lt»l 

cyatheoides   Kaulf.,  63,   22S,   222 

pallida  Hook.  &  Am.,  222 

Soiileytiana  Hbd.,  222 
Saissetia  heniispherica   (Targ.),  391 

nigra   (Xiet.),  391 

olea-    (Bern.),    391 
Salaris   zebra    Vaillaut   &    Sauvage,  94,   374, 

353 
Santalinn  ellijiticum  Gaud.,  219 

Freyoinetianiun  var.   littorale  Hbd.,  51. 
192,    199 

Haleakalae  Hbd.,  219 
Sarcophaga  barbata  Thorns.,  99.  40(5,  387 
Sareopliaga  pallinervis  Thorns.,  38 7 
Sarcophagida?,  419 
Sarcoptes  scabei  Linn.,  401 
Sassafras  officinale  Nees,  2(52 
Saurida  gracilis   ((^uoy  &  Gaiin.),  349 
Scffivola  Chaniissoniana  Gaud.,  56,  202,  222 

Koenigii   Vahl.,    19.   90 

Lobelia  Linn.=S.  frutescens.,  195 

mollis  Hook.  Jt  Arn.,  61,  220 
Scalaria  lamellosa  Lam.,  106,  470,  464 

sp.,  106,  470 
Scalariida".  4(54 
Scaphandrida?,  467 
Scarabeida%   417 
ScaridiP,    365 

Sceliphron   ca^mentarium    (Drury),  404 
Scenopiuida',    419 
Sehinus  Molle  Linn.,  66,  240,  245 
Scincidge,  397 

Scirpus   lacustris  Linn.,   54.    lOS,    199 
Scirpus     palntris     Linii.=Eleochris     palus- 

trus  Linn.,  54,  19S 
Scolopendra  rapens  Wood,  98.  398,  405 
Scolytida-,  419 
Scomber,  349 

japonicus  Houttuyii,   92,   366,   349,    361 
Scomberoides  tolooparah    (Ruppell),  349 
Scomlirida',   361 
Scorjia-nida',   368 
ScorpaMiopsis  gibbosa    (Blcoh  &  Schneider), 

94,  374,  368 
Scoparia,  422 
Scor|)ioni(la,  407 
Scotorythra,    422 
Scrotichuni    {see  Elaphoglossum) 
Scvlharides    s((uannnosus     (^libie    Edwards), 

108.   472.   469 
Scyphomeduste,   480 
Selidosemida^,  420 
Senebiera  didyma  Pers.,  2s7 
Seriola    purimrascciis    Scldcgel.   91.   3(i2,   349 
8erranida',  369 


Sertularia,  4.sl 

Sesuvium   Portuiacastrum    Linn..  51.    192 
Sicydinm  stiinpsoiii  Gill,  94,  374,  3^ 
Sida   cordifolia    Linn.,   209 

fallax  Walp.,  209 

rhonibifolia  Linn.,  209 

spinosa  Linn.,  51,  192,  53,  196 

sp{>.,  203 
Silphida-,  41() 
Simocarcinus  simplex  (Dana),  110    4S2    116 

497 
Simodactylus    cinnamomeus    Boisd.,    99,    406 
Siphanta  acuta   (Walk.),  98,  .'!9S,  402 
Siphonaptera,   401,   419 
Siphonophoras   481 
Sipunculoidea,   49i) 
Sistrnm,   449 

niorus  Lam.,  106,  470,  449 
Sitotroga  cereatella    ((Ji.),  405,  423 
Smaragdiuella  viridis  Q.  &  G.,  106,  470,  4(57 
Smilax  Sandwieensis  Kth.,  56,  202,  213 
Solanum  aculeatissinuim  Jacq.,  58,  212 

triflorum,  58,  212 

tuberosum   Linn.,   284 
Solariida^,  463 
Solarium  cingulum    Kein.,   463 

perspectivum  Linn.,  106.  470,  463 
Soleida^,  371 
Solmaris  insculpta,  480 
Sonchus   oleraceus  Linn.,   53,    Kit) 
Sophora  chrysophylla  Seem.,  226 
Spalangia  hirta   Hal.,  387 
Sparida',    367 

Spatula  clypeata   (Linn.),  328 
Spha-rium  sp.,  101.  436,  440 
Sphecina,  413  o 

Sphegida-,    404,    413 
Spheno{)horous   (see  Rhabdocnemis) 
Sphingida>,  420,  421 
Sphinx    (see   Prot()|>;iree) 
Sphinx  convolvuli  Linn.,  98,  398,  421 
Sphyrtena  helleri  Jenkins,  92.  366 
Sphyra-na   snodgrassi    .rcnkins,    349 
S])hyramida%  353 

Sphyrna   zyga'ua  Linn.,   86.  .MO.  346 
Spoiloptera,  422 

exigua    (Hub.),    396 
mauritia    Boisd.,   306,   388,   396 
Spondias  dulcis  Forst.,  70,  264,  266 
Sporobolus  Virginieus  Kth.,  51,   192 
Squalus  mitsukurii  .Tord.  &   Snvdcr.  86.  340, 

34().   349 
Stapliylinida\  -1  Ki 

Stegoinyia  fasciata    ( l-'ab.)  =  Stcgomyia  ca- 
lopus    (Moigen).  387 
scutellaris    (Walk.).    387 
Stenogyrida'.  4.'i9 
Stenolaphruni     .Vnicricannin     Sdirank.     208, 

28(i 
Sterna  fuliginosa  (ini.l..  78.  .'.in.  312 
Sterna   luiiata    (I'cilr).   78.   :il(i.   .'US 
Stethojulis,  359 

axillaris    (Quov   &   Gaiin.).  92.   3(i(i.   349 
sp..  359 
Stcpanari.-i  sp..  112,  488 


524 


SCIENTIFIC    INDEX. 


8ticlio]iiis  trojiiealis  Fisher.  495 

>Stoasdou     iiariuari     (Euphraseu),     86,     3-±0, 

347 
Stonioxys   ealeitraiis    (Linn.),   387 
Subeniarginula  oljlonga  Pease,  ^idG 
Succinea,  438 

.sp.,    103,    448 
Succineidae,  438 
Sula  cyanops  Sund.,  78,  310 

piscator    (Linn.),  78,  310 
Sus   sp.,    295 
Straiissia    Kadnana   Gray,    61,    220 

Mariniana    Gray,   56,    202 


spp., 


22: 


Strombidse,  457 
Stronibus,   447 

hellii  Eous.,   457 

inaculatvis  Nutt.,  106,  47U,  457 

samar  Dillw.,  457 
Stylasterida-,  481 
Syinpetruni  blaekburui   (McLaeld.),  97,  392, 

425 
Styphelia  (sec  Cyatbodes) 
8yiigiiatliida?,  365 
Synodoutidge,  359 

yynodus  yarius  (Lacep.),  87,  344,  359 
Syrphid*.  419 

Syzygium   {acr  also  Eugenia) 
.Syzvgiuni  ^  (Eugenia)    tSandwiceusis    Gray, 
"61.  220 


Talitrida-,   409 

Tauiarindus  Indica  Linu.,   245 
Tecca   pinnalifida   Forst.,   284 
Tcleoueniia  lautan*  Dist.,  385,  420 
Telespiza  cantans  Wilson,  314 
Tellina  dispar  Conrad,  104,  456,  445 

rugosa  Born.,   104,   456,  445 
Teuebrionida?,  418 

Tenebroides    muritanicus    (Liuu.),    395,    405 
Tenodera  sinensis,  429 
Teplirosia   piscatoria   Pers.,   207 
Terebra  aeieulina  Eve.,  105,  460,  455 

caucellata  Quoy,  455 

creuulata    Liun.,    455 

gouldi  Desli.,  105,  460,  455 

maculata  Linn.,   455 

oculata  Lam.,  105,  4(50,  455 

sp.,  105,  460 
Terel)ratula  sanguinea  Chem.,  483 
Terebrautia,  412 
Terebridse,   455 
Teredo,  113,  490 
Teruiinalia   catappa    ijinn.,   245 
Termitida;,    424,    425 
Terricolae,   440 
Testudo  sp.,  300 
Tetranyehus  s}).,  401 
Tetraodon  hispidus  Linn.,  3()7 
Tetraodontida^,  367 

Tetiaplasandra   nieiandra   Tllxl..  62.  224 
Tettigoniitla^.  427 
Thala,  451 


Thalamita  Integra  Dana,  108,  474 
Thalassouia    duperrey    (Quou    &    Gaimard), 
349 

sp.,  359 

unibrostigma   (Ruppell),  93,  370 
Thecla=(Lycania)  sp.,  385 

agra  Hewiston,  385 

echion  Linn.,  385 
Thespesia   populnea   Corr.,  201 
Theveta  neriifolia  Jess.,  252 
Thumbergia  laurifolia  Lindl.,  68,  250 
Tliysanoptera,  427 
Tbysaimra,  403,  430 
Tinea  pellionella   (Linn.),  405,  423 
Tineida;,  423 
Tinguida",    426 
Torinia,  463 

variegata  Gmel.,  106,  470,  463 
Tornatellinida\  439 

Toucdiardia  latifolia  Gaud.,  56,  202,  217 
Toxoptera  aurantije  Koch,  390 
Trachinocephalus  iiivojjs   (Forster),  87,  344. 

349,    353,    359  ' 
Tracburo])S    orumenophthalma    (Bloch),    91. 

362,   349 
Tramea,  425 

lacerata   Hagen,   424 
Trapa  bieornis^Trapa  natans  Linn.,  2S5 
Trapezia    cymodoce    intermedia    Miers,    110. 
482  ' 

digitalis   (Latreille),  110,  482 
Traehurops  crumenopthalma   (Bloch),  349 
Tribolium    ferruuineum    (Fabr.),    395,    4ilo, 

41  S 
Tribulus  cistoides  Linn.,  51,  192,  199 
Trichomanes   davallioides  Gaud.,  63.  228 
Trifolium,  286 
Triton,  449 

pilearis  Linn.,  105,  460,  450 

tritonis  Linn.,  449 

tuberosus  Lam.,  105,   460,  450 
Tritonida',  449 
Triyia,  459 

Troehalopterum  canorum  Linn.,  308 
Trochida',    46(j 
Troehus,  463 

sandwieeusis  Soul..  105.  460,  466 

sp.,  106,  470,  466 
Trypetida',  420 
Tunicate,  113,  490.  116,  484 
Turb?]laria,  497 
Turbini(bp,   466 
Turbo,   466 

apex  fulya    (Dixon),  431 

chrysostomus   Linn.,   105,   460.   466 

intercostalis  Menke,   105,  460 
Turbonellida?,   463 
Turricula,    451 

Turtur    (Spilopelia)    ehinensis    (Scop.),   305 
Tylosurus   gigauteus    (Schlegel),   349 


u 


TJrticacea?,  245 


SCIENTIFIC    IXI) KX. 


rv2o 


V 

Vaceinium  reticulatum  iSinith.  69.  25S,   225, 
256 

jienduliforniis  var.   Gaud.,   61.   220 
Vanessa   atlanta    Linn..    421 

tammeamea   Esch..   97.   .■'.92.   421 
Yellela   pacifica,   483 
Venus,   446 

reticulata  Linn.,  104,   456.  446 
Verbena  Bonariensis  Linn.,  205 
Vermetida^,  462 
Vermctus   sp.,   105,   460 
Veronicella   sp.,   439 
Vespidae,  404,  414 

Vestiaria  eoceinea  Forstor,  84,  334,  329,  440 
Vexilla,  449 

vexillum   Chem.,   106.   470 
Vinca  rosea  Linn.,  68,  250,  207,  254 
Viridonia  sagittirostris  Eoths.,  83,  332,  335 
Viscum  artieulatum  Brum..  59.   214,  225 
A^itex  trifolia  Linn.,  199 
Vitis  spp.,   267 
Viviparida',  438 

Viviparus  chinensis  Gray.  101.  436,  438 
Volucella   obesa    (Fabr.),  99,  406 

w 

Waltheria   Americana  Linn..  51.   192 
Washingtonia    filifera    Weiidl..   67.    246,    237 
Wikstra'mia    spp.,   227 


X 

Xanthias   canaliculatus   Kathlmu.   110.   482 
Xanthiuin    strumariuin    Linn..    53.    196,    287 
Xiphias  gladius  Linn.,  92.  3(;().  349.  373 
Xiphidiuni      f  uscatuni  =  Xiphidium      Vari- 

penne  SW.,  388 

varipenne  SW.,  97,  392,  429 
Xiphiida^,  373 
Xyletobius,  418 
Xylocopa    lirazilicnsls    rJnn.,    99.    406,    403, 

415 
Xystrocera  globcsa   (Olivier),  99,  406 


Zamia  sp..  67.  246 
Zanclida>,  361 

Zanculus  canescens   (Linn.),  93,  37ii 
Zelus      iiereginus      Kirkl.=:Zelus      renardi 
KoL,  402. 

renardi   Kol.,  98.   ;;9s.   426 
Zingiber,   257 

officinale    Linn.,    215 

Zerumbet  Rose,  56,  202,  221,  213 
Zizania   aquatiea  Linn.,   277 
Zonitida>,   439 


INDEX. 


GLOSSOKV    AND   COMPENDIUM. 

Note. — The  blaek-faced  ihiihIkmis  indicate  that  the  subject  is  illiistrateil  iipoii  the 
page  cited.  In  such  cases  tlie  subject  may  be  referred  to  only  in  the  exphmation  of  the 
plate,  or  it  may  also  be  referred  to  in  the  text.  Scientific  names  used  in  the  text  have 
been  segregated  and  appear  as  an  INDEX  to  SCIENTIFIC  NAMES.  Vernacular  names 
in  English  are  entered  twice  as  Crow,  Hawaiian,  and  Hawaiian  Crow;  Hawaiian  names 
are  entered  but  once.  The  work  is  so  fully  indexed  that  it  will  serve  as  a  synonomy  of 
the  common  names  in  current  use.  Frequently,  where  Hawaiian  and  English  names  are 
given  as  Alae  (Hawaiian  gallinule),  both  names  should  be  consulted  for  additional  informa- 
tion on  the  species.  The  important  subjects  treated  are  indexed  very  fully  with  the  object 
of  rendering  the  volume  useful  to  teachers  and  students  as  a  collateral  refeience  Viook. 
Notes,  exi)lanation  of  terms,  etc.,  api)ear  in  small  type,  and  are  alpliabetically  arranged, 
iisuallv  without  reference  to  the  text. 


A 


A-a  (Rough  lava),  162,  349 
and  pahoehoe  shown,  162 
flows  on   Mauna  T^oa,   ]')■) 
Huge  block  of,  160 

A-a,  0-o=Oo-aa,  337 

Aahumamo.  A  yellow  feather  robe  worn  by  the 
king  or  high  chief. 

Aahunla.  A  royal  cloak  iisvially  adorned  with 
red   feathers. 

Aaka.  A  name  given  to  the  dry  wood  of  the 
bastard  sandalwood  (Mijoporuin  sandwicense 
Gray).  When  dry  this  wood  becomes  very 
fragrant  and  when  bnrned  gives  off  the  odor 
of  sandalwood,  hence  the  name.  T4ie  living 
tree  is  known  as  Xaio,  which  nee.  The  wood 
is  very  durable  and  was  much  used  for 
house   posts. 

Aama,  469 

A'awa,  359 

"Ababai"  (s-rc  Papaya) 

Abbreviations — sp.  =  species:  spp.  =  two  or  more 
species  belonging  to  the  same  genus:  s'). 
indt.  =  an  undetermined  species:  =  the  same 
as:  =  when  following  a  scientific  name  and 
before    a    locality — of    or    from. 

Abdomen  of  insects,  etc.,  (409).  The  hind 
Ixidy :  the  posterior  one  of  the  three  parts 
of  a  perfect   insect. 

Aboral  and  oral  view  of  Sea-urchin.  496 

Abortion  was  commonly  practiced  among  the  an- 
cient   Hawaiians     and    was    accomplished     in 

various   ways,    as   l)y  the   use  of  sharp  pointed 
bamboo    instruments,    jumping,    etc. 

Abutilon   (see  Mao) 

Acacia,  Species  of,  205 

Accidental.        Said    of    a    species    that     only    occa 

sionally     occurs     in     the     islands     and     is     not 

considered    as    an    established    si)ecies.        (See 

also  occasional  visitors.) 
Accidental      visitors      [Birds]      (-stc      Rare 

birds) 
Achatinella    (Achatinelhistruni)    varia,   432 

(Achatenallastruni   crrnr) 
Achatinelidae  [Tree  shells],  434 

Color  variation  in,  432 
Acknowledgments,  Ceneral,  1  1 

Specific,  ]"2 
Acorn  Ijarnacles,  468 

shells,  473 


Active  volcanoes,  Kilanc;!,   \<\l 

Mauna  I^oa,  Is;; 
Activities,  Volcanic,  tabulated,  1  S3 
Adductor  muscles  defined,  444 
Adjustment   of   iiopuiatidu    tn    foiMl   supply, 

45 
Adzes,  how  made,  75 

Sizes  of,  75 

Stone,  75 
Aeae^Koae 
^^gle   {.see  Bhel) 
Aeolian  deposits  at  Mana,  108 

Aerial  roots  (204).  Those  that  strike  from  the 
stem   in    the   open    air. 

Aerial  roots,  PLxanijdes  of,  2il4,  I'l  I 

Banian,  246,  245 
Affinities,  Racial,  of  the  Hawaiians,  25 

with  other  Polvnesians,  J5 
Africa,    2i)s,    213,    245,    2()9,    279,    2.S5,   386, 

388,  397  407 
African  tnole-cricket  388 
Agassiz,   Louis    ((ieologist,    Xatuialist),  94 

Age  of  Hawaiians.  The  census  of  Irtilfi  brought 
to  liglit  several  Hawaiians  who  were  then  110 
years  of  age.  The  well  authenticated  case 
of  Kei)ooIele  -Vpau  was  investigated  by  Hon. 
.\l,it:ni  Atkinson  and  the  i)atriarch  was  ex- 
amined by  Dr.  W.  D.  .VIexander  and  Mrs. 
Kmma  M.  Nakuina.  Mrs.  .Vpau  was  then 
rj4  years  old.  ."^he  was  born  in  Puna,  on 
Hawaii. 

Age    of    Kohala     .Mts.    shown     bv    erosion. 

[Waipio],  154 

of  Oahu,  117 
Ageil  kahuna,  52 
.\griculture   (cattle   raising),  282 

i;n'ects   of   on    |dants  anil   animals,   ■_'()9 

Knemies  of,  381 

(! rowing  cane,  278 

Hawaiian,  63 

in   recent  times,  269 

Rice  growing,  270 

Taro  growing.  270 
Agricultural  in<iustries.  Minor,  270 

industries   (Growing  sugar-cane),  27-t 

Alia.  -V  cord  braided  from  tile  husk  of  cocoanui. 
or  from  human  hair:  or  strings  made  from 
the    intestines    of    animals. 

Ahaaha   (Needle-fish),  350,  349.  :UU 


OZl 


528 


INDEX. 


Aha-aina  (feast),  355 

Ahakea.  Name  of  a  species  of  yellowish  ■wood 
(Bobea  spp.)  used  for  rims  of  canoes,  poi 
boards  and  paddles.  The  tree  in  the  forest 
is  conspicuous  by  reason  of  its  light  green 
foliage. 

Aha-moa.  The  name  of  an  assembly  collected  at 
a  cock  figrht. 

Ahaniii,  206,  22-i 

Ahi,  34ft,  3(il 

Ahinahina   (Silver-sword),  206,  229 

Aholahola,  341 

Aholehole  (Sea-perch),  336,  349,  358 

Ahuhu.  207,  227,  341 

similar  to  digitalis,  207 

Uses  of,  207 
Ahuula  (Feather  cape),  48,  70 

of  feathers,  44 
Aiea=Kaawait 
Aiea,  Mill  at,  274 
Ainahau  Garden.  234 

Lily  pond  in,  234 
Air  breathing  molliishs,  434 
Air-plant,  240,  208,  254 

peculiarity  of,  208 
Akaakai   (Bnl'lrush),  198,  199. 
Akai,  227 

Akai.  Xame  applied  to  the  different  species  of 
the  genus  JVikstro/'min.  The  sliruliby  plants 
have  a  tough  bark  furnishing  a  strong  native 
fiber  and  contain  an  into.xicating  narcotic 
which  was  employed  by  the  natives  to  poison 
fish  in  fresh  water  as  auhnlni  was  used  in 
salt  water. 

Akailoa,   Kauai,   330 

Akala,  25(5 

Akala  Falls,  176 

Akepe,  333 

Akialoa,  330 

Akikihi,  337 

Akilolo,  359 

Akoakoa=genera]  name  for  coral,  486 

Akoko,  192,  212,  220,  2s3 

Aku    (Ocean  bonito),  366,  349 

and  Opelu  tabu  (><rr  Opelu) 
Akule    (Big-eyed   scad),  362,   341,   349,   364 
Akulikuli,  192 
Akulikulikai,  199 

Alaa.  A  name  applied  to  the  species  of  the 
genus  of  trees  Sideroxylon.  The  sap  of  the 
more  common  species  (S.  Sandtvicense  Benth. 
&    Hook. )    was  used   as   a  bird  lime. 

Alaala=(Fig.  9),  482 

Alaalahee.  The  spawn  or  eggs  found  in  the 
■s(juid."  It  was  eaten,  with  kukui  nuts  as  a 
relish. 

Alaalapuloa,  192 

Alaalawainui,  202 

Alae   (Hawaiian  gallinule),  323 

Legend  of,  326 

keokeo  (Hawaiian  coot),  323 

Alahee.  The  name  of  a  tree  {Plertroni'i  odorat  ^ 
Benth.  &  Hook.):  from  its  wood  instru- 
ments were  made  for  tilling  the  soil.  (See 
Oo. )  The  leaves  were  also  used  to  produce 
a  black  dye.  A  shrub  or  small  tree  with 
glossy  leaves  and  ,fragrant,  sweet-scented 
flowers  common  on  all  islands,  but  especiallv 
on  Molokai. 

Alaihi,  371 

Alala   (Hawaiian  crow),  327 


Alalana   (fatalufa),  366 
Alamihi,  466 

Alaneo.  The  name  of  a  cloak,  or  royal  robe, 
made   of   tlio   feathers    of   the   mamo    only. 

Alani,  220 

Alaska,  324 

Alauhiio,  332 

Albatross,  312 

Black-footed,  310 

Black-footed,  following  a  steamer,  316 

care  of  young,  315 

"dance,'"  316,  314 

eggs,  316 

eggs.  Use  of,  316 

Laysan,  92,  294,  316 
Albatross,  U.  S.  Fish  Com.  ship,  351    (fre- 
quent mention  in  subsequent  pages) 
Albinism,  Examples  of  (see  Sparrows) 
Alcyonarians,  479 
Aleihi  lakea,  349 
Alena,  192 

Alexander.  Dr.  William  D..  (Historian),  12 
Alfalfa,  286 
Algse,  500 

Common,  at  AVaikiki,  492 

Edible,  502 

from  the  reef,  498 

How  to  collect,  500 

Literature  on,  502 

on  the  summit  of  Mauna  Kea,  132 
Algaroba,  208,  242 

habitat  of,  243 

bean  weevel,  395 

gum,  243 

honey,  243 

pod  weevel,  395 

Phylodendron  in  an,  240 

scale,  391 

tree  [Kiawe],  240 

trees  at  Waikiki,  116 

uses  of,  243 

when  introduced,  242 
Alkali  fel(ls]iar  lava,  155 

Alii.       One   who   rules   or   has   authority  over   men. 

Aalii  or  Alii.  The  name  of  a  small  hard  wood 
tree  (Dodonwa  vixrosa  Linn.)  common  on  all 
islands  up  to  the  4000  foot  leevl.  The  wood 
is  used  to  some  extent  for  fence  posts:  the 
leaves  were  used  for  medicine  by  the  natives. 

Alii  (Chief ess),  60 

how  buried,  52 

Alii  kapu.  The  high  chiefs  were  styled  alii  kapu 
or  sacred  chiefs  and  almost  divine  honors 
was  paid  to  them. 

Aliipoe,  207 

Allamanda.  248,  252 

Alligator  pear=Avocado  pear,  258,  2(51 

(see  also  Avocado),  262 
Alluvial  plain.  Examples  of  [Hanalei].  106 
Almond,  Demerara,  245 

nuts   of,   248 

Tropical,  245 
Alphabet,  The  Hawaiian,  39 
Alps,  229 
Altars,  Fishermen  's,  339 


INDEX. 


520 


Alteration  of  generations,  Example  of,  391 
explained,  390 

Altfiiiate  (208).  Leaves  placed  one  after  an- 
other: but  one  leaf  growing  out  from  each 
joint   of  the  stem. 

Ama  (the  outrigger),  80 

Amaama  (Mullet),  362,  349,  359 

Aniakaha,  368 

Amaldhi,  329 

Kaiiai.    334 

:Maui,  332 
Amakiias,  49 

Thorny,   196 
Aniastridaj  (Ground  shells),  434 
Aniauniau,  228,  222 

Ama'uama'u=  [amaumauj    which    see. 
Amber  colored  ivory,  how  made,  79 

Fish  [Kahala],'^  362,  365 
Ambergris,  302 

Ambulacral  zones  explained,  485 
America,  293,  297,  325,  376,  394,  397,  410, 

422,  428,  249,  252,  254,  286 
American,  303,  336,  402 

cockroach,  402 

continent,  191,  242,  262,  268,  280,  284 

lobster,  468 

toad,  384 
Amaranth,  Common,  196 
Ampulla^  explained,  489 
Amusements  at  Waikiki,  80 

Hawaiian  ,74 

The  hula,  etc.,  81 

surf  riding,  80 

Anacardinm  (sec  Cashew  nut) 

Anal   tin    (364).       The   fin    on    the  lower   side  of  a 
fish  just  in  front  of  the  tail  fin. 

Anapanapa  204 

Anchorages  (see  Harbor  anchorage) 

Anchovie   [Xehu]  350  351 

Ancient  voyages,  27 

wooden  idol,  52 
Anemonies  attached  to  crabs,  476 

Sea,  490 
Andes,  229 
Angelica,  253 

Angoumois  grain  moth,  405 
Anklets,  78,  82 
Animals  and  plants  brought  to  Hawaii,  27 

dyes,  69 

industry  in  Hawaii,  287 

life,  Effects  of  agriculture  on,  269 

as  gods,  49 

Domestic,  287 

from   the  coral  reef   (part   one),  468 

from  the  coral  reef  (jiart  two),  485 

from  laud  and  sea,  291 

Hawaiian  marine,  294 

Introduced,  231,  295 

Native,  295 

to  be  collected  at  Waikiki. 116 

Annual     plant      (276).         Flowering     and     fruiting 
the   year   it    is   raised   from   seed:    then    d.ving. 

Annual  yield  of  sugar.  271 

Anona,  266 

Anomia  445 

nobilis  (young.)  456 


Antarctic,  229 

Antenna?  (407).  Organs  occurring  in  pairs  on 
the  head  of  insects,  crabs,  etc..  and  serving 
as  feelers  or  tentacles.  They  varv  greatly  in 
size,   shape  and  function. 

Anthicids,   41s 

Ants,  387,  403 

Ants,  bees  and  wasps,  403,  412 

Ant-lion,  425 

Ant,  native,  413 

poison,  403 

White,  402 
Anvil,  Tapa,  64 
Ao=Piifff)ii(st  iieirelli  Henshaw, 
Apahu  (Headfish),  374,  358 
Apapane,  Hawaiian,  334,  337,  329 

Laysan,  320 

Use  of  feathers  of,  77 

Ape,  225 

Apeape,  194,  225 

Apekepeke  (Kauai  elepaio),  334 

Aperature  (447).  An  opening:  hence  the  mouth 
of  a  gasteropod  shell. 

Aphids,  265,  389,  425,  427 

on,  389,  390,  391 
Apii,  225 

Appearance  of  Honolulu,  231 
Apple  banana,  259 

Custard,  266 

Mountain,    256 

Rose,  267 

Tahiti  [Wi],  264,  266 
Apples,  267 
Apuu-u,  364 
Aquatic  beetles,  416 

bugs,  426 
Aquarium,  Fish  at  the  356 

Honolulu,  348,  354,  359,  360,  367,  368, 
375 

Octopus  at  the,  442 

View  of,  356 
Arabia,  379 
Aral)ian  cowry,  459 

jasmine,  248 
J3 
Araucaria,  237 

Arbor  (201).  A  bower  formed  by  trees,  shrubs 
or  vines  usually  trained  over  a  lattice  work 
to  form  a  shelter  from  the  sun. 

Arboreal  (245).  Tree  like:  the  size  and  shape  of 
a   tree. 

Arch,  Ononrea,  150 

ArrhiVi)Jithi)t}iiiiniiinii  sp.   (fig.  4)   398 

Archipelago,     Development     of     Hawaiian, 

290 

Arctic,  3in 

right  whale,  301 

Area  of  various  islands  (see  Length,  etc.) 

Argvreia    (see  TMlikai) 

Ark"  shell.  456.  444 

Aristotle's  lantern,  496,  485 

Armadillo-bugs,  408 

Arm  of  a  starfish,  496 

Armor,  Hawjiiijiii.  79 

Arm\'  ,-;tori's,  51 

worms,  39() 

Arrangement  of  text  exiilained.  In 


Aralia,  '^"'^ 


530 


INDEX. 


Arrow-root,  Hawaiian,  284 
Artesian  sjtrings,  127 

wells,  127 

Cause  of  brackish,  127 

Evidence  from,  220 

First,  127 

how  formed,  127 

Number  of  127 
Arthrojiods.   409 
Artocarpus   (•*>■''''  Jack  fruit) 
Arts,  Hawaiian,  74 
Ascent  of  Haleakala,  143 

Kilauea,  176 

Mauna  Kea,  151 

Mauna  Loa,  loo 
Ash  eruption  from  Diamond  Hea<l,  121 

Punchbowl,   121 

Tantalus,   121 
Ashmead,  Dr.  W.  H.  (Entomologist),  413 
Asia,  23.5,  24.5,  257,  267,  269,  285,  286,  397 
Asiatic,  191,  225 
Assam,  283 

rubber,  283 

Assassin  bug,  4(!2,  426 

Astringent  (217).  A  substance  which  binds  or 
contracts   the   tissues   and   canals   of   the  body. 

Astrologer  51 

Astronomy,  Knowledge  of,  30 

Atlantic,  346,  358 

Atoll,  Example  of,  94 

Attack,   Methods   of,  51 

Au.  The  handle  or  helve  of  an  ax.  They  were 
often   made   of  han    wood. 

A'u  (Swordfish),  366,  373 

Auamo.  The  stick  or  pole  used  to  carry  burdens 
when  balanced  across  the  shoulder.  8ee 
plate   12. 

Auamo  (Carrying  stick),  57,  68 

Auau.  The  stalk  of  loulu  {I'ri  -luirdia  spp.) 
made   into   a    spear. 

Auger  shells,  455 

shells  used  for.  455 
Auhola^Auholo 
Auholo,  207 
Avdiuhn=Ahuhu 

Aukuu  kohili  (Black-crowned  night  heron), 
310 

Aulima.        The    name    of     the     stick    held     in  the 

hand    when    rubbing    to    produce    fire.  The 

name    of    the    stick    rubbed    is    aiinaki.  The 
action   of   rubbing   is   hia. 

Aunaki  (sre  Aulima) 

Australia,  191,  213.  320,  381,  386,  402,  410, 

429 
Australian  cockroach,  402 

grassho]iper,  429 

ladybird  beetles,  384 

ladybirds  introduced  into  Hawaii,  384 

mantis,  429 

oak,  248 
Author,  Photograjihs  by  the,  14 

Portrait  of  (see  Frontispiece),  4 
Autochthonous  (•'*''''  Endemic) 
Averrhoa  (.srr  Carambola) 
Avocado,  261 

or  Alligator  ]iear,  258 

(sec  (tlxo  Alligator  pear),  262 


Introduction  of,  262 

mealy-bug,  391 

Names  for,  262 

not  injured  by  fruit -fly,  262 

Propagation  of,  262 

scale,  391 

Yield  of,  262 

Awa,  67,  216,  227,  236,  249 

(Milk-fish),  350,  360 

-aua,  360 

-awa^=awa-aua 

How  made,  216,  217 

Awa  drinking.  The  root  of  the  awa  plant  pro- 
duces a  numbing  effect  on  the  mucus  mem- 
brane of  the  tongue,  and  is  thought  to  allay 
thirst  by  its  pleasant  aromatic  flavor.  The 
Hawaiians  recognize  six  or  seven  varieties 
of  awa  all  of  which  are  regarded  by  botan- 
ists as  forms  of  the  one  species.  Awa  from 
Puna,  Hawaii,  was  considered  of  the  best 
quality.  In  former  times  the  drink  was  used 
almost  exclusively  by  the  chiefs.  Later,  it 
came  to  be  a  prevalent  habit  among  old  na- 
tives, and  awa  drinking  is  still  quite  com- 
mon throughout  the  group  in  native  settle- 
ments. The  ob.iect  of  drinking  is  primarily 
to  produce  stupification.  The  drink  is  made 
from  either  the  fresh  or  drv  roots.  The 
regular  drink  was  one  cup  full  from  a  cocoa- 
nut  cup,  cut  lengthwise  of  the  nut.  The 
plant  is  an  upland  growth  and  is  found 
where  the  ground  is  both  damp  and  shady. 
It  was,  and  is,  planted  by  the  natives  in 
suitable  localities.  The  ground  is  loosened 
and  a  .ioint  or  cutting  set  in,  after  the  na- 
tive method  of  planting  sugarcane.  After  a 
time  it  is  hilled  and  left  to  grow  without 
further  care.  It  continues  to  grow  and 
spread  its  roots  abroad.  Roots  20  years  old 
are  enormous  in  size — sometimes  being  all 
two   or   three  men   can   carry.       See  awa. 

Awapuhi  (Native  ginger),  202,  215 

Use  of,  215,  221 

Awikiwiki.  Name  of  a  leguminous  vine  (Carta- 
valia  f/aleata  Gaud.)  common  on  all  islands. 
According  to  Andrews  the  "berries"  were 
used  as  a  medicine,  operating  as  an  emetic 
and  cathartic.  The  species  bears  4  to  8 
large  seeds  in   a  pod. 

Awela,  359 

Aweoweo,  349,  354 

Axes  {sec  Adzes) 

Axillary  (Bot.).  Occurring  in  the  axils:  i.  e.,  in 
the  angle  on  the  upper  side  between  the  stem 
and  the  leaf. 

.\xis  deer,  296 


Back-scratcher,  62 

-swimmers,  426 
Bacilus,  Plague,  401 
Bael  (.see  Bhel) 
Bagasse,  275 
Bag-nets,  341 
Baked  taro,  67 

Baked  pig  [])uaa].  Dish  for,  70 
Baker,  E.  J.,  Photographs  by,  14 
Bakery  beetles,  405 
Baking  in  the  imu,  6G 
Bait,  Fish,  242,  339 

Human  flesh  as,  343 

seins,  339 
Balanoglossus,  484 


INDKX. 


531 


Baldwin,    I'rof.   ('harles   W.,    ((leojiraphorj, 
12 

Photogranhs  bv,  14 
Baldwin,  Mr.  E.  D."  1(53 
Balistes,  375 
Bamboo  (or  Banibu)   apliis,  3iM 

beetles,  405,  418 

rattles,  82 

Use  of,  82 
Banana(s),  67,  207,  248,  255 

as  a  fiber  plant,  280 

aphis,  389 

Apjtle,  259 

Blnefield,  259 

Brazilian,  259 

business,  Develo]inient  of,  2(J1 

(  arious  flowers  of,  260 

Cavendish,  259 

Chinese,  258,  259 

introduced  from,  260 

('oolvin^',  259 

Cultivated,  257 

Diseases  of,  260 

Dried,  260 

Eating,  259 

flour,  260 

Home  of,  257 

Jamaica,  259 

Kusaie,  259 

Largo,  259 

leaf-roller,  395 

leaves,  Uses  of,  (^(\ 

Martinique,  259 

Native  varieties  of,  259 

Nomenclature  of,  259 

Pests  of,  260 

Propagation  of,  260 

Eose,  259 

Seed  of,  260 

Sweet  scented,  259 

Varieties  of  wild,  222 

Wild.    190 

yield  ]ier  acre,  2(iO 
Banded  bubble-shell,  467 
Banian,  245 

Aerial  roots  of,  245 

Bengal,  245 

Number  of  species  of,  245 

Rubber  producing,  283 

Sacred,  240 

tree,  246 
Banner  shell,  470 
Banyan  (.srp  Banian),  245 

Barbados  cherry  {Mnl iihihiii  (/lahra  Linn.).  A 
well  established.  thoiiKli  "of  "  coniiiion  fr\iU 
in  Hiinoluhi  aai'dens.  cominj;  nrisinally  from 
the  West  Indies.  It  is  a  small  bnshy  shrub 
with  dull  green,  opposite,  ovate  leaves.  'I'lie 
rose-eolored.  five-parted  flowers  sprinR  from 
the  axils  at  the  base  of  the  leaves:  they  are 
followed  by  a  eherry-si/.ed,  rich,  red  fruit, 
with  acid  pulp  surrounding  a  hard  seed. 
The  fruit  may  be  used  for  .1am  and  preserves. 

Barbadoes,  Pride  of  the,  244 

Barbels  [fishl  (372).  .\  small.  slenil.T.  elon- 
gated process  appended  to  the  mouth  of  cer- 
tain   fishes    (Barbules   i-rnir). 

Barlier's  Point,  li!9 


IJark   cloth  (dothiiig,  38 

lice,  391 

rope,  201 
Barking  sands,  108 

sands,  Makua  station,  122 
Barnacles,  473 

Acorn  ,473 

Coronet,  475 

from  the  sea-shore,  474 

ftoose,  473 

Sessel,  473 

Stalked,  473 

Barnard,  E.  W.,  299 

Barracuda  [Kawalea],  366,  351 

Barrier  reef  at  Midway,  94 

Barter  (.src  Hawaiian  markets) 

Basalt.  'I'lie  term  basalt  is  used,  in  a  some- 
what comprehensive  way,  for  dark  compact 
igneous  rocks  that  ajipear  to  be  neari.v 
homogeneous  owing  to  the  smallness  of  the 
crystals  which  are  usually  so  minute  as  to 
be  identified  only  under  the  microscopo. 
There  is  usually  a  considerable  range  in 
chemical  composition,  but  the  basalts  are 
relatively  poor  in  silica,  but  rich  in  lime, 
magnesia  and  iron.  They  are  classed  as 
basic  rocks  and  are  sometimes  highly  so. 
See   Hawaiian    Igneous   Rocks. 

Basalt  as  building  stone,  129 

Columnar,  109 

Basaltic  craters,  Smali,  115 

Base  of  the  columella  {4o.S).  Applied  to  the  ex- 
treme lower  ))ortion  of  the  inner  wall  of  the 
shell    which    surrounds   the   a.xis. 

Bases  of  Hawaiian  mountains,   155 

Baskets,  Fish,  70 

Pandanus,  70 

stars,  491 
Bas-relief  groups  (Kamehanieha   1.  statue) 

described,  44 
Bass,  Black,  377 
Bast   (fibers),  22 

Bastard  sandalwood.  21  n.  222,  226 
Batavia,  279 
Bath   rulibt'is,  63 
Bathing  beach   at    Waikiki.  116 
Baths,   Hawaiian   medical,   79 
Bats,  295 
Battle(s),  Naval  ami  land.  51 

Notice   of   sent,   51 

Preliminary  to  a,  5  1 

"Women  in  time  of,  46 

Bavs.  Harbors.  handings.  etc.  ON  OAHU — 
Honolulu  Harbor.  Pearl  Locks.  Kaneohe 
Bav.  Waialua  Hay.  Kahann  Hay.  OX  U\ 
^VAII — Hilo  Bay,  Kealakekua  Hay,  Kawnihoe 
Bay,  Kailua  Bay.  Mahukona.  Laupahoelioe^ 
Honuapo,  Hoo)>uloa.  Xai)oo))(io.  Keaiihou  :  ON 
>LVri  —  Kahului.  Maalaea.  liana  Hay.  Kea-. 
nae.  Nahiku.  Kipahulu.  K:iupo.  Makena.  Mc- 
tiregor's  Ldg..  Olowalu,  Lah:iina.  Kaana|>nli 
(Kekaa).  Honolua :  ON  KAl'AI  —  Hanalei 
Hay.  Ilanamaiilii  Hay.  XawMiwili  Hav,  .Vhu- 
kini,  Kaiiaa.  .\iiahol;i.  Kilanea.  Wa  iiiha. 
Koloa,  Kleele.  Ilananepe.  Xlnkaweli.  Waimea. 
Port  .Mien:  ON  MOLOKAI  —  Kaniiakakai. 
Kamalo.  Puko.i.  Ilalawa.  Wailau.  P.'li-kuna. 
Kalaupajia. 

Bay,  Kahana  (Oahu).  128 
Waimea  (Oahii),  128 


532 


INDEX. 


Bays  on  Hawaii,  148 
on  Kauai,  104 
on  Maui,  134 
On  Oahu,  110 
Beach  at  Hilo,  352 

grass.  192 
heliotrope,  192,  ]99 

morning-glory  [Pohuehue],  192,  218 

sand,  use  of,  129 

-worm  shells,  441 

sandalwood  [Iliahi],  192,  199 
Beaches,  Olivene  sand,  129 
Beak  of  the  swordfish,  373 
Bean  leaf-roller.  395 

weevils,  405,  418 
Beater,  Tapa,  70 
Beaumontia,  250 
Beaver,  Sea,  496 
Bedbugs,  402 

Beddard,  F.  E.,  (Zoologist),  440 
Beds,  Sulphur,  at  Kilauea,  170 
Beefwood,  237 
Beer,  Hawaiian,  210 
Bee(s),  412 

Carpenter,  403 

Common,  406 

feeding  on  Palm  blossoms.  232 

Honey,  404 

Leaf-cutting,  415 

Long-tongued,  415 

Solitary,  415 

Wad-cutting,  415 
"Beestill-tree,"  252 
Beetle(s),  395,  405,  415 

Australian  ladybird,  384 

Common,  406 

Japanese,  Enemies  of,  384,  394 

Japanese,  on  grape,  267 


Ladybird,  393 


588 


on  sugar-cane, 

-roach,  3SS 

Salt  marsh,  418 

Water,  436 
Belgian  hare,  293 
Bell-shaped  animals,  480 
Beneficial  birds,  Introduction  of,  308 
Bengal  banian,  245 
Bermuda  grass,  286 
Berry  (Berries),  Christmas,  225 

Coffee,   270 

Japanese    raspberrv    (Thimble    berrv) 
258 

Ohelo,  258,  256 

Thimble,  258 
Betel  nut,  236 

Use  by  South  Pacific  islanders,  236 
Betrothal,  43,  45 
Betting  (see  Gambling) 

among  Hawaiians,  86 

Bhel  or  Bael  fruit  (iEgle  sp.).  This  small, 
strongly-spinose  tree  with  alternate  tri-foliate 
leaves  is  not  uncommon  in  Honolulu  gar- 
dens. It  is  distinguished  from  the  nearlv 
related  Citrus  genus  bv  the  hard  gourd-like 
rind  of  its  fruits  which,  when  ripe,  is  yel- 
lowish-brown  and  3 — 4  inches  in   diameter. 

Big-headed  ant,  403 

"Big-eye"  (Pish),  354 


Big-eyed  flies,  419 

scad    [Akule],  362 
Bignonia,  248 

Biologist  (385).  One  skilled  in  or  a  student 
of  the  science  of  life  and  living  things,  in 
the  widest  sense. 

Bird-catchers  were  an  important  class  in  old 
Hawaii  who  captured  birds  for  their  feath- 
ers. In  addition  to  several  well-known  bird- 
limes (which  see),  they  employed  nets  and 
spears.  They  recognized  two"  seasons  for 
catching  birds:  one  from  March  to  Mav,  the 
other  from  August  to  October.  These  corre- 
spond with  the  flowering  season  of  the  ohia 
lehua.  The  trees  in  tlie  lower  woods  flow- 
er in  the  spring;  those  higher  up  in  the 
fall  season.  The  birds  they  sought  move 
from  place  to  place,  wherever  tlowers  and 
food  is  plentiful.  The  bird-catcher  of  former 
times  said  prayers  and  made  offerings  to  his 
gods  that  the  birds  of  the  forest  might  be 
gathered  into  his  gum-traps  and  held  fast. 
It  is  reported  that  Kamehameha  I  was  the 
first  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  protect- 
ing the  birds.  He  reproved  his  bird  hunters 
for  taking  the  lives  of  birds  they  caught. 

Bird-claw  vine,  250,  248 

Bird  colony  at  Laysan,  Large,  92,  95 
feathers.  Source  of,  98 
Pishing  (Heron),  325 
flies  (Louse-flies),  421 
groups  in  Bishop  Museum,  310 
Island   [see  Xihoal    (volcanic),  88,  96. 

98 
-lice.  Wingless,  400,  430 
life  on  Laysan,  Views  of,  310,  316 

Bird  lime,  226 

Bird-lime  was  usually  made  from  the  juice  of 
certain  Lobelias.  Breadfruit  gum  was  also 
used,  as  was  the  juice  of  the  species  of 
papala  (Ptsoida  spp.).  Oha  (Chnnontia  sp. ) 
was  perhaps  the  best  source  of  gum.  The 
gum  of  the  last  two  was  prepared  by  boiling. 

Bird,  Man-o'-war,  310 
Miller,  and  nest,  316 
notes  (see  species  in  question),  331 
pirates,  318 

poachers  on  Lisiansky  Island,  95 
poachers  on  Midway  Island,  94 
Eed-headed  alae,  328 
reservation,  Hawaiian  Islands.  93 
songs  (see  species  in  question),  331 
White-headed  alae,  328 
Accidental    visitors    (see    Rare    birds), 
310 

Birds  as  food  (see  species  in  question),  311 

Birds  as  pets.  It  was  quite  the  custom  with  bird 
catchers  to  keep  the  o-o.  iiwi  and  apapane 
alive  m  special  cages  to  use  as  decovs  in 
bird  catching.  They  were  feed,  dailv.  on 
the  nectar  of  their  favorite  flower  and  in 
time  became  very  tame. 

Birds  as  ocean  waifs,  308 
as  regular  visitors,  308 
Beneficial,  introduction  of,  308 
Capture  of,  at  night,  311 
Cliff-nesting  species,  311 
Finch-like,  Hawaiian,  331 
Hawaiian,  Peculiar  odor  of,  331 
Identification  of  sea,  309 
Introduced,  304 
of  Laysan  Island,  312 
of  the  marshes,  320 
of  the  mountain  forests.  334,  328 


INDEX. 


533 


of  the  niouiit;iiii  foi'ests,  Some  I'are  ami 
extinct,  332 

of  the  ocean  ishul(l^,  308 

of  the  sea,  308 

of  the  shore,  320 

of  the  streams,  320 

Native,  332 

Night  flying,  304 

Occasional  visitoi-s,  ?,l^^ 

Eare  and  extinct,  332 

Eiee,  277 

Some  rare  and  extinct,  330 

Various  orders  of,  323 

Weaver,  277 

Winter  visitors,  308 
Bird's  nest  fern   [Ekaha],  190,  240,  223 

Natural  habitat  of,  190 
Bishoj)  Museum,  Bird  groujis  in,  310 

Mention  of,  98,  173,  17(3,  188,  223,  291, 
299,  302,  304,  348,  435,  455 

Objects  deposited  in,  57 

Spern  whale  in  the,  298 
Bishop,  Dr.  h^ereno  E.,  (Geologist),  98,  115, 

120,  124 
Bite  of  centipede,  405 
Bivalves,  443 

defined,  443 

Common  marine,  456 
Black  bass,  377 

Introduction  of,  378 
Black  blight,  386 
Blackburn's  butterfly.  421 
Black-crowned  ni^ht  heron,  325 
Black  cutworm,  396,  422 

-eyed  susans,  207 

-eyed  susans,  Uses  of,  207 

fly,  265 

-footed  Albatross,  310,  312,  315 

mamo   [Hoi],  332,  335 

-mouthed  tun.  461 

mulberrv,  2(i7 

rat,  29 1' 

rock  crab,  4(59 

sand,  117 

scale,  391 

slug,  439 

Point,  Spouting  horn  at,   131 

wasps,  414 

wattle,  248 
Blennie,  374,  353 
Blight,  Black,  386 

Maui,  384,  385 

on  the  mango,  242 
Block  of  a-a.  Huge,  160 
Blossoms  of  (.s'fT  ])lant  in  (|iu'stioii) 

from  Honolulu  gardens,  250 

of  sugar-cane,  278 
Blow-hole   (scr  Si)()utiii.i;  horn),  10s,  131 

Specimen  of  a,  184 

BIul)l)er  (:i02).  The  fat  of  wlmles  from  which 
a  fine  oil  is  obtained.  The  blubber  lies  under 
the  skin  and  covers  the  niuscle.s. 

"Blubber,"  Whale  ship   strippinu  off,  298 
Bluebottle  fly,  3s7,  419 
"Blue  bottles,"  4S1 
Blue  butterfly,  421 

dragon-fly,  liig,  124 


lead  wort,  254 

palm,  237 

])arrot  fish,  370,  365 

shark,  340 

-faced  booby,  310,  316 
Bluefield  banana,  when   introduced,  259 
Board,  I'oi,  66 

Surf,  80 
Boar's  tusks,  79 

Use  of,  77 
Boatman,  Water,  436 
Bohra  spp.  {see  Ahakea) 
Bodies,  how  disjiosed  of,  52 
Body  louse,  400 

Body  whorl  (4.52).  The  last  and  usually  the 
larRcst  whorl  or  turn  of  a  shell,  end.ng  in 
the   aperture. 

Bog  flora,  218 

on  Waialeale,  105 

on  West  Maui,  138 
Boilers,  Sugar  (Evaporating  pans),  274 
Boki,  Governor,  279 
Boll  worm.  Cotton,  281,  399 
Bombs  {S('c  Volcanic  bombs) 
Bone,  Implements  of,  74 

meal  beetles,  405 

stone  and,  w^ood.  Uses  of,  75 

Use  of,  63,  73 
Bone-fish  [Oio],  350,  354 
Bone  fishhooks,  242 
Bones,  Concealment  of  {see  jilate  8) 

Human,  use  of,  77 
Bonin  petrel,  323,  360,  312 
Bonine,  E.  K.,  Photograiths  by.  14 
Bonito,  California,  363 

Fishing  for,  363 

Little,  366 

Ocean,  Catching,  344,  366,  361 

Bony  fishes  (351).  Fishes  with  bony  instead  of 
cartifaginous  skeletons.  Sharks"  rays,  etc., 
are  e.xamples  of  the  latter  class. 

Booby,   Blue-faced,   310,   316 

Eed-footed,  310,  316 
Boobies,  314 

robbed  by,  317 
Book,  Contents  of  Book  One,  15  to  19 

Contents  of  Book  Two,  19  to  22 

-lice,  424,  425 

-worm  beetle,  418 
Borer,  Sugar-cane,  380,  383 
Boring  ants  (termites),  402 

Hymeno])tei'a.  412 
Boston  fern,  253 
Bottle  gourd.  Use  of,  61,  209 

Palm,  240,  237 
'Bottomless'  pit  on  Halcakala,   146 

pit  on  Hualalai,  152 
Bougainville,    Louis    Antoine    de    (Xavi'^a- 

tor),  248 
Bougainvillea  in  bloom,  240 

named  for,  24s 

Varieties  of,  248 
l^.oulders,  Field  (Oahu),  130 
liowling  alley,  I'rimatixc,  S3 

stones  I  ubi-maika],  57 
l'>u\\  Is  and  dishes,  59 

Finger,  70 


534 


INDEX. 


Bow  and  arrow,  81 

made  of,  215 

not  used  in  warfare,  81 

Use  of,  293 
Box-fish,  375 
Boxing  [niokoniol\o] 

the  national  game,  83 
Bracelets  of  shells,  79,  465 
Brachiopods,  483 

Brackish  artesian  wells,  Cause  of,  127 
Brackish  water  crab,  436 

fish,  358 

fish  (gobies),  357 

shells,  439 

Bracts  (201).  The  small  leaf  or  scale  from  the 
axil  of  which  the  flower  or  its  stem  proceeds. 

Braided  hair  ornament,  60 

Brain  corals,  479 

Brake,   Common,   223 

Branching  coral,  486,  488 

Brazil,  257,  262,  267,  268,  283,  285 

Brazilian  banana,  259 

Brazilian  plum  {Eugetiia  BrasiUensis  Lam.)  or 
Spanish  cherry  is  widely  known  as  the 
grumichama  of  Brazil.  It  was  probably 
first  introduced  by  Don  Marin,  but  fine  trees 
may  be  seen  in  the  garden  of  Mrs.  Mary  E. 
Foster,  introduced  by  Dr.  Hillebrand.  The 
deep  piirple  fruit  is  the  size  of  a  cherry: 
the  leaves  are  oval  or  obovate  3  inches  long 
by  1 V2  broad  and  occur  scale-like  along  the 
branches.  The  edible  fruit  has  a  very 
agreeable   flavor. 

Breadfruit  [Ulu],  258,  264,  239,  241 

how  cooked,  67 

how  propagated,  (i7,  241 

groves,  old,  138 

stems.  Use  of,  71 

Uses  of,  241 

Wood  of  the,  241 
Breaker,  Canoe,  81 
Breakers  at  Laysan  Island,  92 

on  Oahu,  122 

Breccia.  A  rock  composed  of  angular  fragments 
cemented  together  bv  nature.  It  is  to  be 
compared  with  conglomerate  in  which  the 
fragments    are   rounded. 

Breccia  at  Diamond  Head,  219 

Calcarious,  121 
Breeding  cages,  Entomologist  insect,  380 
Brick,  127 

Lava,  129 
Brigham,    Dr.    W.    T.    (Museum    Director), 

155 
Bristletails,  403,  430 
Bristle-thighed    curlew    [Kioea],    310,    316, 

325 
Bristle-worms,  497 
Brittle  starfish,  498,  485,  487,  489 
Broken  bones,  how  treated  bv  old  natives, 

197 
Brooks,  Capt.,  94 
Broom,  Hawaiian,  76,  62 
Brown  house-spider,  409 

ant.  Big,  403 

grasshopper,  429 

mountain  criclset,  429 

rat,  291 
'Brownie*  ladyl)ird,  m^, 


Brvan.    Dr.    Elizabeth    Letson,    (Concholo- 

gist),  12 
Bryan,  W.  A.,  Photographs  by,  14 
Bubble,  Caved  in  (Kilauea),*186 

dome  in  Kilauea,  186 
Bubble-shell,  470 

Banded,   467 
Bubonic  plague,  292 
Buffalo,  Water,  282 
Bugs,  Aquatic,  426 

Chick-   (Beetle),  417 

True,  425 

Sow,  436 
Bugle,  Hawaiian  [Pu],  449 
Building  material,  129 

sand,  129 

timber,  213 

of  a  house,  58 

stone.  Basalt  as,  129 

Bulb     (213).        Usually    an    underground    leaf-bud 
with   fleshy   scales. 

Bulbs  (Aerial),  213 

Bull  frogs,  299 

Bullhead  catfish.  377 

Bullrush  [Akaakai],  198,  199 

Bulwers  petrel,  310 

"Bunn,"  2S0 

Bureau    of    Agriculture    and    Forestry    (.srr 

Keforesting),  14 
Burial  cave,  Hawaiian,  52 
Burr,  Sand,  287 
Burrows,  Bird,  313 
Bushes  (low)  on  Ocean  Island,  90 
Butter,  Tamarind,  245 
Butterflies,  421 

Cabbage,  392,  399 
Butterfly-fish  [Kikakapu],  370,  353 

Kamehameha,  392 

-like  fishes   (Scorpion),  368 
By-path  in  Ainahau  Garden.  234 
Bvssus  of  Mvtilus  shown,  478 


c 


Cachlot,  301 

Cabbage  butterfly,  392,  399 

butterfly.  White,  422 

tree,  210 

worm,  399,  422 
Cable  ('om]iany,  93 
Cactus,  (!'ommon,  209 
Cadelle  beetle,  395 

worm,  4O0 
Ca-cum  shells,  4(i3 

Calabash   {sec  also  Umeke),  57,  76,  59' 
Calabash  gourd,  57,  (il,  67,  2o9 

nets,  59 

Introduced,    (il 

T^se  of  l>ulp  of,  79 

Diameter  of,  59 
Calabashes,  how  polished,  59 

of  wood.  How  made,  59 


IXDEX. 


5:i.> 


r'alcarious  coiu'retions  on  Maui,  139 
corals,  47;") 
sponges,  5(10 

Caldera.  The  name  often  applied  to  the  bowl- 
shaped  cavity  otherwise  known  as  tlie  crater 
of  a  volcano. 

California,  2&2,  2(i(i,  2.S4,  i293,  295,  299,  3U4, 
3(lS,  345,  353,  3(i3,  37(i;  377,  3S7,  393, 
408,  445 
bonito,  363 
house  finch,  304 
lizards,    299 
oysters,  445 
l)alni,  237 
partridge,  308 
peanuts,  285 
|ie]>per  tree,  240,  245 
Scale  in,  control  by,  393 

Calyx  (257).  The  outer  set  of  the  floral  envelope 
or  leaves  of  a  flower. 

Cameo  shells,  461 

'Camp'   Mooinuini,   136 

Campbell,  James,  126 

Camphor,  262 

Canal  |Molhisca]  (447).  When  the  aperture  is 
notched  or  i)roduced  to  receive  a  fleshy 
tube,    the   resjiiratory   organ. 

Canary,  Laysan,  314,  319,  320 

Laysan,  nest  and  eggs  of,  316 

Yellow,  320 
Canavalia   (see  Awikiwiki) 
Cancillated  auger  shell,  455 
Candle-nut  tree  ([Kukui],  202,  239 
Candolle,   Alphonse  Loius  Pierre  Pyramus 

de  (Swedish  Botanist),  235 
Candy,  Hawaiian,  210 
Cane   (see  also  Sugar-cane  and  Sugar) 

-borer,  388 

car?,  278 

fie'ds,  Rnts  in,  291 

fields.  Spiders  in  tlie,  410 

loader.  Patent,  278 

Canine  (367).  Dog  like  in  reference  to  the 
sharp    pointed,    tearing    teeth    of    a    dog. 

Canna,  207,  257 

Cannibalism.  Dr.  W.  D.  Alexiinder  has  asserted 
in  his  History  of  the  Hawaiian  People  that 
cannibalism  was  regarded  with  detestation 
and  horror.  On  the  same  subject  the  Kcv. 
Sheldon  Dibble,  author  of  a  much  eai'lier 
History  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  states: 
"The  practice  was  not  common,  and  it  is  due 
to  the  Hawaiians  to  say  that  those  few  in- 
stances that  did  exist  were  looked  upon  My 
most  of  the  i)eo]ili'  with  horror  and  detesta- 
tion." 

Canoe   [Waaj,  80 

breaker,  81 

Burial,  52 

Fishing,  339 

liouse,  5S 

ITull  of  a,  80 

model,  57 

races,  86 

surf  riding,  86 

War,  48 

Canoes,  Decked,  29 

Double,  29 

Kimensions  of  large,  29 


Mokupu 
Barber's 


Pt., 
Pt., 


how  made,  29 

of  ko.-i.  21  1 

Single,  80 
<'aiion,  Olokele,  102,  106 

Waimea,  106 

Canons  on  Kauai,  104,  ](i7 

Cape  Gooseberry,  257 

Capes.  On  OAHU — Kaliukii  I't., 
Mokai)UU  Pt.,  Diamoiid  Head. 
Kaena  Pt. :  on  IIAW.MI  —  I'poln  I't.,  Kumu- 
kuahi  Pt..  South  (Ka  Lae)  Pt.:  on  MAIT — 
Kahakuloa  Pt.,  Kauiki  Pt.:  on  KAl'AI — 
Haena  Pt. :  on  MOLOKAI — Kalae  o  Kailio, 
Ka   Lae  o   ka   Laau,    Kajiuupoi. 

Capes  and  Points  on  Oulm,  110 

Feather,  77 

on  Hawaii,  148 

on  Kauai,  104 
Captain  Cook's  death.  Date  of,  84 

Dlaee  of,  84 
Captain  Cook  "s  monument,  84 
Capt.  Walker,   Home  of   (Ship   wrecked  on 

Mid  way), 90 

Carambola  {A  rcrrhna  Cnrambola  T.inn.)  has  long 
been  cultivated  in  the  islands.  It  doubtless 
came  from  China  or  India.  It  may  be 
identified  most  readily  by  its  acid  fruits 
which  are  aliout  the  size  of  a  lemon,  yellow 
in  color,  acutely  five-angled,  with  a  thin  skin 
and  watery  pulp.  The  fragrant  fruit  is  used 
when  half  grown  for  jjickles:  when  ripe  for 
preserves.  The  flowers  are  ro.sy  purple:  the 
tree  usually  15 — '20  feet  high,  has  alternate 
odd  pinnate  leaves.  It  is  said  to  produce 
three   crops   a   year. 

Cardinal-fish,  369 

Cardium,  446 

Care  of  young  (see  species  in  question) 

Carnivorous    (;i57).       Subsisting   on    animal    food. 

Carolinas,  345 

Carj),  376 

Carpenter  bee,  406,  4o3,  415 

Carjiet  beetle,  395 

Carrion  beetles,  41(i 

Carrying  nets,  (il 

stick   |auanu)|,  51,  68,  61 
Carthagenians,  2()9 
Carved  dish,  70 
Carving,  Hawaiian,  59 

Stone,  in  caves,  129 

tools  of  stone,  74 

Case-forming  moths,  423 

Cashew  nut  (A  xiirardiiiiii  orritli'iitalr  Linn.). 
The  kidney-shai)ed  luit  consisting  of  a  kernel 
inside  a  very  hard  slu'll  is  borne  ujion  a 
swollen  i)car-shaped  yellow  edible  stalk. 
Wlien  roasted  the  kernals  are  also  edible. 
The  small  spreading  tree  is  a  native  of  the 
West  Indies.  Inu  occurs  sparinirly  in  Hono- 
hihi  gardens.  One  of  tlu'  first  trees  intro- 
duced was  ])lauted  by  Mr.  Henry  Davis  in 
his  garden  in 
flowers  are  pink  and 
leaves  light  green,  oval 
a    rough   leathery   texture. 

Cassava,  283,  284 

I^ses  of,  284 
Cassia,  205 

flower.  205 

Horse,  244 

Purging,  244 

Species  of,  244 
Cassis.  461 


I'unaliou,      Honolulu. 

sweet-scented  : 
in     shape    and 


Thi 

the 

with 


536 


INDEX. 


Castor  bean,  285 

bean  bean-pod  shells,  iid 
Casts,  Fossil  root-,  140 

Root,  118 

Sand,  118 
Catalufa  [Alalaua],  366,  354,  369 
Cat-claw  vine=Bird-claw  vine 

Caterpillar  (385).  Usually  the  larvae  of  a  moth 
or  butterfly,  but  also  applied  to  the  same 
stage   of   development   for   other    insects. 

Caterpillars  stung  by  wasps,  414 

Catfish,  377 

Cats.  Cats  were  an  early  introduction  into  Ha- 
waii. A  breed  of  bob-tailed  cats  is  com- 
mon— the  tail  having  a  curious  corkscrew 
kink   at   the   end. 

Cats,  293 

cradles,  SO 
Cattle,  effect  on  forest,  226 

Loading,  282 

Introduction  of,  295 

raising  in  Hawaii,  282 

towed  to  steamer,  282 

White-faced,  282 

Wild,  295 

Ca valla  [Omilu],  362 

Cavalla  (small  =  papiopio.  medium  size  =  paupau. 
large  =  ulua). 

Cavalla  [Puakahala],  368 

Cave  in  a  lava  flow  on  Hawaii   (Rainbow 

falls),  160 

dwelling,    Aliandoned,    at    Mooomuuii, 
140 
Caved-in  bubble  (Kilauea).  186 
Cavendish  banana,  259 
Cavengerie,  273 
Cavern  in  Kilauea,  186 
Caves,  Burial,  52,  129 

at  Haena,  108 

in  Kilauea,  170 

Stone  carvings  in,  129 
Cavey,  Cutlers,  293 
Cayenne  cherry,  267 
Ceara  rubber.  Seeds  of,  peculiar,  281 

rubber  tree,  281 
Cenozoic,  117 
Centimeter  (-vrr  Meter) 
Centipede,  398,  405 

Bite  of,  405 

Large  specimens  from,  40" 
Central  America,  211,  266 
Centrifugals,  Sugar,  275 
Century  plant,  280 
Cephalopods,  441 
Cereus,  Night-blooming,  246,  254 

Xight-blooming   (in  flower),  246 

season,  254 
Cerithium,  464 

Certain  foods  forbiilden  to  women,  46 
Cevlon,  221,   296 
Chamberlain,  Mr.  J.  E.,  502 
Changes  produced  by  agriculture,  271 
Channels,  Maui-Molohai,  134 
Channels   (sec  Inter-island  channels) 
Chapter— I,  pages  25-31;  II,  31-37;  III,  37- 

47;    rV,    47-56;    V,    56-63;    VI,    63-74; 

Vn,    74-87;    VUI,    89-99;    IX,    99-109; 


X,  1(19-132;  XI,  132-147;  XII,  147-164 

XIII,  164-1  S3;  XrV,  1S3-1SS;  XV,  189 

210;     XVI,     210-230;     XVII,     231-243 

XVIII,    243-254;     XIX,     255-269;     XX 

2(i9-2S7;  XXI,  290-304;  XXII,  304-30S 

XXIII,  308-320;  XXIV,  320-328;  XXV, 

328-33S:   XXVI,   338-347;   XXVII,   348- 

360;     XXVIII,     360-375;     XXIX,     376- 

378;    XXX,    379-390;    XXXI,    390-410 

XXXII,     410-431;     XXXIII,     431-440 

XXXIV,     440-453;      XXXV,      453-467 

XXXVI,  468-485;  XXXVII,  485-503. 
Character  of  the  native  insect  fauna,  411 

fish  fauna,  351 
Character   of  the    (see  order  family  genus 

or  species  in  question) 
Characteristic  gulch  on  Hawaii,  150 

shore-line  (Hawaii),  150 

trees   [Lauhala]   on  the  shore  line,  150 

undershrub  (Middle  forest),  200 
Chastity,  42 
Checkered  beetles,  417 
Checkers,  Hawaiian,  86 
Cheese  maggots,  405 
"Cheeses,"  196 
Cheribon  cane,  273 
Cherimoya,  266 
Cherry,  French,  267 

Ground,  257 

Surinam,  267 
Chest  shell,  444 
Chewing  gum,  made  from,  266 
Chicken  louse,  400 
Chickens,  Wild.  295,  308 
Chick-pea  shells,  450 
Chief  food  fish   (Mullet),  359 

industry  (Cane  growing),  274 

magistrate.  The  King,  55 
Chiefess  [alii],  60 
Chiefs  and  common  people  one  race,  38 

and  intrigue,  55 

Council  of,  55 

feared  by  common  people,  55 

Marriage  of,  45 

Powers  of,  54 

Rivalry  among,  55 

Size  of  the,  accounted  for,  39 

Stature  of,  39 

Superiority  of,  54 

superior  to  common  people,  38 

The,  54 
Children,  Hawaiian,  32,  45 
Chile,   360 

Chilian  strawberrv,  255 

China,  210,  222,  236,  260,  266,  269,  276,  281, 
285,  291,  304,  305,  307,  320,  376,  377, 
399 

fish,  377 

goldfish,  376 
Chinch  bugs,  425 
Chinese  banana   [Maia],  258,  259 

catfish,  377 

ginger,   215 

harrow,  282 

horned  nut,  285 

lotus,  285 

nuintis,  429 


IXDEX. 


537 


branches,    and 


362 


orange,  26fi 

palm,  237 

pheasant,  307 

reed-warbler,  308 

snail,  436,  438 

si)arrow,  304 

thrush,   308 

turtle-dove,  305,  430 

violet,  248 

Chitons,  4(i7 

Chocolate,  or  cacao  (Theohroma  Cacao).  Is  a 
small  evergreen  tree  from  16 — 40  feet  high 
in  its  native  wild  state  in  tropical  America. 
Its  fruit  is  a  somewhat  pearsha])ed  i)ointed 
pod,  10  furrowed,  from  5 — 10  inches  long 
and  contains  numerous  large  irregular  seeds 
embedded  in  a  sweet  pulp.  These  seeds  are 
very  nutritive  and  agreeable  in  flavor  and 
are  used  both  fresh  and  dried  as  articles  of 
food.  They  are  roasted,  ground  into  a  paste, 
mixed  with  sugar  and  flavoring  matter  tni 
make  the  chocolate  of  commerce.  A  few  ex- 
perimental trees  are  growing  in  Hawaii. 
They  may  be  recognized  by  their  large 
pointed  leaves,  the  wine-colored  new  growth 
and  the  small  flowers  with  inflexed  petals 
hanging  from  the  trunk  and 
by   the  pods. 

Chocolate-lined  cone,  460 

Choice  Hawaiian  market  fish, 

Chordate,  4,S4 

Christmas  berry,  225 

flower,  249 

island   shearwater,  310,  312 

Chrysanthemum  ajihis,  389 

Chrysolite  or  olivine  occurs  commonly  in  Ha- 
waiian lavas  as  green  or  olive-greeji,  some- 
times yellowish,  orthorhombic  crystals.  Thev 
are  essentially  a  magnesium-iron  silicate :  with 
vitriou.s  luster  and  a  hardness  between  6 
and  7.  The  name  olivine  is  more  commonly 
used  by  geologists. 

Chrysophyllum  (.srp  Star  apple) 

Cigarette*  beetle,  395,  405,  418 

Cinder  cone,  160 

Cinnamon,  262 

"Circassian  seed,"  203,  2(14 

Circumcision  (.vrr  Omaka) 

Cirrhitida',  354 

Cirrhitoid  fish   [  i'ilikoa  |,  374 

Cistelid,  beetles,  418 

City  of  refuge,  48,  51 

at  Honaunau,  182 

Cities  on  Oahu,  110 

Cities.  Towns,  Villages.  Places,  etc.,  on  OAHT^ — 
Honolulu,  Aiea,  Pearl  Citv.  \Vai))ahu,  Ewa 
Mill,  Waianae,  Waialua,  Wahiawa.  Kahuku, 
Laie,  Hauula,  Heeia,  Kancohe.  K.jilua, 
Waimanalo:  on  HAWAII — (In  Kohala) 
Puako,  Kawaihae.  Mahukona.  Hawi,  Ka- 
paau,  Makapala.  Waimea  ;  (In  Ilaniakua) 
Waipio,  Kukuihaele,  Honokaa,  Paauhau, 
Paauilo,  Kukaiau  :  (In  Hilo)  Ookala,  Laupa- 
hoehoe.  Papaaloa,  Ilakalau,  Honomu,  Ono- 
niea,  Pajiaikou.  Hilo  Town:  (In  Puna) 
Keaau,  Nine  Miles.  Mountain  View,  Palioa, 
Kapoho,  Kabniana:  (In  K';iu  )  Paliala,  llilca. 
Honuai)o.  Xaalchu.  Waiohinu:  (In  Koiia) 
Papa,  Hookena.  Honaunau,  Xaixio)""'.  Kai 
naliu,  Keauhou,  Holualoa.  Kailua :  on 
MAUI — Lahaina,  Olowalu,  Waikapu,  Wai- 
luku,  Waihee,  Kahului,  Puunene,  Sprcckcls- 
ville,  Paia,  Haiku,  HamakiKUioko.  Makawao. 
Pauwela.  Huelo,  Kc.-inae,  Hana,  Kii),iliulu. 
Kaupo,  Ulupalakua.  Kihci:  on  KAI' A I  — 
I^ihue,  Ka'iaia,  Hananiaulu.  Kapaa.  Ke.'ilia. 
Anahola.     Kilauca.     Kaliliiwai,     Hanalci.     Wai- 


niha.  llaina.  Koloa,  I.awai,  Klcele.  Hana- 
pepe,  Makaweli,  Waimea,  Kekaha :  on 
MOLOKAI — Kaunakakai,  Kawela,  Kamalo, 
Kalaeloa,  Pukoo,  Honomuni,  Pauwalu,  Waia- 
lua, Halawa,  Lepau,  Wailaii,  Pelekuna, 
Kalawao,  Kalaui)apa:  on  LAX.VI — Mauna- 
lei,    Manele. 

Citron,  2(i5 

Citrus  fruits,  248 

fruits,  Pests  of,  265 

leaves,  8caie  on,  384 
Clam(s),  443 

Tresh-water,  436,  44(i 

Heart=Heart  shell,  456 

Eound,  445 

Tent,  446 

Venus,  456 
Clark,  Dr.  A.  H.  (Zoologist),  497 
Classes  among  the  Hawaiians,  54 
Classification   {xcc  Xoinenclature) 

of  {.sec  species  in  question),  415 
Clavicorn  beetles,  416 
Clay  not  used  in  pottery,  59 
Cleanliness  of  Hawaiians,  38 
Cleghorn,  Hon.  A.  S.,  307 
Chick  beetles,  417 

Cliff  disintegration,    Exam]de   of,   136 
Cliffs,  Napali,  107 

Sea,  at  Wailau  valley,  136 

Sea-formed,  on  Hawaii,   15il 
Climate,  33 

Climate.  While  the  Hawaiian  language  does  not 
have  a  word  which  is  the  equivalent  of  our 
word  climate,  the  language  is  rich  in  weather 
words.  The  dictionary  gives  86  words  per- 
taining to  clouds,  82  to  precipitation,  139  to 
wind  movements,  23  to  temperature,  11  to 
optical  meteorology,  18  to  electric  meteor- 
ology,   and    12   general   weather   words. 

Climate,  changes  in.  Abundant  evidence  exists 
to  prove  that  the  climate  of  the  islands  has 
undergone  changes  in  the  past  sufRcient  to 
seriously  effect  the  jilants  and  animals.  (See 
Diamond  Head,  Geology  of.  Forests,  De- 
forestation  ,etc.) 

Clinkstone.  A  name  applied  to  i)honolite  he- 
cause  of  its  metalic,  clinking  .so\ind  when 
struck.  It  is  a  common  product  of  Ha- 
waiian volcanoes  and  was  used  by  the  na- 
tives  in   making  stone  adzes,    etc. 

('linkstone,   uses   of,   74 

Cloak   [ahuula]   of  feathers,  44,  75,  333 

Clothes-moth,  405,  423 

Clothing  (.SYf  Tai>a) 

of  Hawaiians,  38 
Clouil  iKdt  on  Haleakala,  143 

(•a]i  o\er  Kamalo.  Molokai,  142 

etlects,    Hilo   Bav,  352 

in   Haleakala,  1-15 

Clover,  286 

Club-Mosses     (Li/rdiittiliacir) . 
dred     or     more    sjjccies 

They  grow  in  crcvaces  of  rocks,  forks  of  trees 
;ind  among  other  plants  usually  occurring 
ill    llic   higher  forested  regions. 

Chill   rush.  198 

-spilled  urcdiins,    |s7 

Clubs,  War,  79 

Coan,  Dr.  Titus  Minison,  -15 

Coan,  Kev.  Titus   (Karly  ilissionary),  157, 

172,  173 

(  o.-ni 's  account  of  I  s52  eruption,  157,  158 


Perhaps    one    hun- 
occur     in     the     group. 


35 


538 


INDEX. 


Coast  line  of  Oahii,  129 

of  Molokai,  Northwest,  142 

scenery  on  Hawaii,  344 

scenery  (Oahu),  130 
Coastal    (208).       Pertaining  to  the   coast  or  sliore. 
Coastal  i^lain  of  Maui,  138 
Coccids,  427 

Cofk-figiiting.        At    Pan     o     Keokeo,     on     Hawaii, 

immense    crowds    of    Hawaiians    gathered    to 

witness   the   cocli-flghts   in    former    times.     The 

pens   still   stand   as   they   were   in   the   time   of 

Fmi — three    and   a    half   centuries   ago. 
Cock  fijihtino-,  86 
Cocklebur,  196,  287 
Cockroaches,  402,  428 

Number  of  species  of,  428 
Coco  grass,  287 
Cocoanut  cups,  62 

cord,  Uses  of,  75,  81 

fiber.  Use  of,  73 

hula  drum  [pahu  hula],  64 

Island  (Volcanic),  150,  175,  176 

Island,  Palm  trees  on,  150 

leaf-rib  broom,  76 

leaf-roller,  395 

leaf.  Use  of,  65 

milk   (juice),  235,  236 

oil,  Uses  of,  222,  236 

palm  as  a  symbol  of  hospitality,  233 

pialm   {■■<i-r  also  Palm),  233 

Habitat  of  the,  233 

History  of  the,  235 

leaf-roller,  422 

shell  drums,  82 

spoon,  62 

tree,  28,  234 

trees  (Laysan  Island),  92 

trees  protected  from  rats,  235 

Tree  rats  in  the,  235,  292 

uses  of  the,  236 

Varieties  of  the,  236 

wood  hula  drums,  70 

Yield  of  a,  235 
Cocoanuts,  67 

Falling,  danger  from 

how  distributed,  236 
Cocoon,   Silkworm,  399 

Cocoon  (309).  The  silky 
larva>  of  many  insects 
for  themselves  in  the 
stage. 

CodiEPums,  249 

Varieties  of,  251 
Coelenterata,  4Si) 
Coffee,  190,  279 

aphis,  391 

-bean  shells,  459 

-bean  weevil,  39<") 

berries,  Size  of,  270 

Harvesting  of,  2Si) 

How  gathered,  270 

Kona,   219 

native  of,  279 

Picking,  270 

Types  of  Hawaiian,  280 

when  introduced,  279 
Coffer-fish,  375 


235 


envelope     which     tlie 

spin    as    a    covering 

resting      (chrysalis) 


Coiled  snail  shell,  439 

Colburn,  J.  F.,  445 

Coleus,  251,  386 

Collumella  defined,  450 

Collecting  ground  at  Waikiki,  116 

on  the  reef,  478 

outfit,  478 

Water  glass  for,  478 
Collection  of  taxes  (-vcc  Taxes) 
Colonial  habit.  Example  of,  402,  404 

hydroids,  481 
Colony  of  Hawaiian  tern,  316 
Color  of  Hawaiians,  38 

variation  in  land  shells,  432,  433 
Colors,  Tabu,  73 
Columnar  basalt,  109 
Commelina  (sec  Honohonowai) 
Comments,      notes,      observations,      where 

found,  10 
Commercial  Pacific  Cable  Company,  93 
Common  amaranth,  196 

beetles,  wasps,  bees,  flies,  etc.,  406 

brake,  223 

corals,  486,  475 

crabs,  482 

crabs  from  the  coral  reef,  474 

dolphin   [Mahimahi],  362 

ferns  on  Oahu,  228 

Hawaiian  birds,  337 

Hawaiian  fish,  366 

Hawaiian  sponges,  494 

insects,  392 

littoral  species,  195 

marine  Ijivalves,  456 

marine  plants  at  Waikiki,  492 

mealy-bug,  391 

people.  Houses  of  the,  58 

people,  How  ruled,  55 

])eo])le.  Marriage  among  the,  45 

people.  The,  54 

plants  of  the  lower  forest  (Oahu),  202 

roadside  plants,  198 

sea  shells.  460 

side,  196 

tunicates,  490 

weeds,  196 

('omjiass.   Variation  of,  88 
Complete  domestic  arrangement,  58 
( 'omposite,  214 

High   mountain,   227 

Compounded  fish  bait,  242 

Compressed    (364).       Flattened   from   side   to   side; 
narrower   than    high. 

Concealment  of  bones  (xrr  plate  8) 

Conch  shells,  457 

Spotted,  470 
Concrete,  129 

Condensed  history  of  Kilauea.  ls3,  188 
Cone,  Cinder,  160 

building  in  Halemauinau,  174 

Chocolate-lined,  460 

Hebrew,  460 

Lettered,  460 

shells,  453 
Conqueror,  Spoils  of  war  belong  to,  53 


INDEX. 


539 


Conger-eel,  355 

Conglomerate.         A     rock     (•nmi)().sed     of     femented 
gravel. 

ronnectiui;-  ]>ars   |i;ik()|   of  liau,  80 
Conoiil  harp  -shell,  i60,  4.12 
Conservation,   Kaniehameha    I    on,    lii'l 

of  fish  supply,  S.iy 
Consonants,   Hawaiian,  39 
Conspicuous  insects,  392 
Contents,  15-22 

Convergence,  Examples  of,  481 
Convict  fish   [Manini],  372 
Convolvulus,   197 

Cultivated,   24.S 
Cook,   Capt.   James    (Navigator),   153,   IfiS, 
182,  209,  287,  291,  295 
Cook   killed   at,   182 
Cook's   monument,  lnscrij>tion   on,  84 
Cooke,    Dr.    C.    Montague    (Conchologist), 

435 
Cooking  (.si'c  imu,  ulsu  plate  4) 
bananas,  259,  2(50 
birds,  Hawaiian  method  of,  324 
shellfish.  Native  method,  443 
Coot,  Hawaiian,  323,  32(3 
Coral (s),  475 

and  coral  rock,  488 
Branching,  486,  488 
Collecting,  142 
(Common,  486 
Common  genera  of,  477 
Dead,  488 
Eight-rayed,  479 
growth  i)revented  by,  211 
How  to  clean,  479 
lime,  129 
Mushroom,  488 
Organ  pij^e,  479 
polyp.  Work  of,  93 
Reef -building,  486,  488 
rock.  486 

ro(dv,   Worms  from,  490 
"tree,"  2i)3 
Worms  in,  497 
Corallines,  498 

Coral  reef(s)  at  high  ti.le.  478 
at  Molokai,  135 
at  W^aikiki,  131 
Early  formation  of,  220 
P^levated,  115 

Elevate.l  (Ford  Is.,  Pearl  Harl)or),  130 
Elevated  (Pearl  Harbor),  130 
Geologic  significance  of,  477 
MiscellanCDns  animals  from,  490 
on  Oahu,  110 
Plants    and    animals    from    (part    one), 

468 
Plants    and    animals   from    (part    two), 

4S5 
The  glowing,  476 
Cord  (xcr  aha) 

Cordage   from    morning-glory    vines,    197 
Corduroy    road    (fern    stems),    200 
Cordyline,   251 

Corolla     (19.5).        The    leaves    of    the    flowr    within 
the  caly.x:   usually  bright  colored. 


Corn  a])his,  389 
cutworm,  396 
leaf-hopi)er,  389 
moth,  423 
Coronation  celebration,  Hula  dancers  at,  78 
Corpulency  among  the  Hawaiians,  38 
Coronet  barnatdes,  475 
Cosmetics,  Hawaiian,  215,  222 
Cotton,  203 
aphis,  391 

boll-worm,  281,  399,  423 
Early  exi)ort  of,  281 
Native,  199 

peculiarities  of  the  fiber,  281 
Pests  of,  399 
Sea  Island,  281 
tree,  281 
Upland,  281 
Varieties  of,  281 
T'ottony  cushion  scale,  391 

guava  scale,  391 
Council  of  (diiefs,  55 
Cowboys,  282 
Cowries  as  food,  458 
Cowry,  447 

Ancient  pule  to  the,  459 
Hnmi)-backed,  460 
Isabella,  470 
Madagascar,  470 
Money,  470 
Snake-head,  470 
used  as  medicine,  459 
shells,  457 
shells  as  bait,  458 
shells  as  leis,  458 
Crabs,  468,  469,  491 

Brackish  water.  436 
common.  How  to  identifv,  471 
Hermit,  474,  471 
Sand,  496 
Small,  482 
Crab-like  animals,  482 

louse,  400 
Crack  in  the  the  fioor  of  Kilauea,  184 
Crater  formation  shown  bv  Dewev  crater 
160  .  .  , 

Hotel,  177 

Koko  (Oahu),  frf^m  Hauuama  Fav,  128 

"lake"  on  Hawaii,  160 

of  Mokuaweoweo,  186,  155 

on   Halcakala,  143.  152 
I'rawfish,  4(iS 
Creeper,  Mexican,  248 

^lountain,  250 
Creeping   fig,   245 

grass,  208,  286 

Crenulated  auger  shell,  455 
Cri(d<ets,  428,  429 

Common,  chirj)  of,  430 
(  rime,  55 
'  riiioids,  495 

Cross,   Dr.   Whitman    ((ieologist),   153 
"Cross  bill  "  fiimdi,  333 
Crotons,  234,  249 
Croton  scale,  391 
Crow-foot,  196 


540 


INDEX. 


Crow,  Hawaiian,  327,  335 

Crowns,  Pineapple,  261 

Crystal  cave,  14(J 

Crystallizers,  Sugar,  275 

Cryptogams  (191).  Plants  of  low  order:  flower- 
less  plants  having  no  stamens  or  pistils,  but 
reproducing  by  spores    (as  ferns,   fungi,   etc.). 

Cub-shark,  Hawaiian,  3-40 

Cucumber  fly  (melon  fly),  387 

Cultivated  fruits,  258  " 

plants  (.srr  Garden  plants) 

plants,   246 
Cultivation,  Effect  of,  on  native  flora,  2(H 
Curculios  {sec  (tlso  weevils),  418 
"Curiosities,'"  Shells  as.  4(i9 
Curlew,  Bristle-thighed,  310,  316,  324 
Curious  fishes,  374 

forms  of  lava,  186 

Hawaiian  fish,  366 

insects,  392 

native  plants,  206 

]ilants  and  plant  like  animals,  498 
Custard  apple,  2(i(i 
Cuscuta  (-sTf  Popolo) 
Custom  the  basis  of  law,  5 
Cup  and  saucer  limpets,  462 
Cutter's  cavey,  293 
Cutting  and  stripi)ing  sugar-cane,  278 
Cuttlefish,  302 
Cutworms,  396 

Black,  422 
Cuvierian  organs,  495 
Cycads,  237 
Cycas,  240 
Cyclones  are  unknown  in  Hawaii 

Cymes  (219).  Flower  cluster  in  which  the  cen- 
tral flowers  are  first  to  open. 

Cyprtea,  447 
Cyperus  (scr  Ehuawa) 
<'ypress  roach,  388 
Monterey,   237 
Cytandra   (xcf  Majiele) 
Cytheria,  Hawaiian,  456 

D 

"Daddy  long-legs,"  4(I9 
Daggers,  79 

Dall,  Dr.  W.  H.  (< 'onchologist),  117 
Damage  by  wild  goats,  221 
Damsel-bugs,  426 

flies,  424 
Dana,  James  D.  (Geologist),  94,  113,  477 
'Dance,'  Albatross,  314 
Dancing  (xcr  Hula) 
Darkling  heetles,  418 
Dark-rumped  petrel   [Uau],  310 
Darwin,  Charles   (Evolutionist),  94,  435 
Date,  Indian,  245 

palm,  238,  246,  236 

palm,  Fruit  of,  236 
Dates,  264,  236 

of  erujitions  of  Halemauinau,   183-188 

of  eruption  of  Mauna  Loa,  183-188 
Day  mosquito,  387 
Dead  coral.  Worms  from,  490 


Death  caused  by  gods,  49 

in  the  royal  family,  presaged  by,  354 
Decay,  (Geologic)  Period  of  (Oahu),  121 
Deci<luous  tree,  Poinciana,  244 

Examples  of,  194,  203 
Deer  axis,  296 

introduced,  296 

Molokai,  29(i 

Spotted,  296 

Defense,  Method  of,  51 

Deforestation.  Less  than  a  century  ago  the  trees 
on  the  mountains  of  east  and  west  Maui  met 
on  the  low  \>\iun  connecting  them:  Lanai  and 
Molokai  were  well  covered.  The  plain  at  Wa- 
hiawa,  on  Oahu,  was  well  covered  with  large 
trees,  while  the  native  forest  extended  well 
down  to  Honolulu.  Kauai  was  also  well 
covered  well  down  toward  the  sea-shore.  The 
changed  condition  now  existing  is  generally 
ascriljed  to  over-stocking  the  forest  with  cattle. 

Deformed  inflorescence,  220 

Degration  through  quiescence  Example  of, 

473 

Deification  of  nature  {xcc  Religion) 

Demerara  almond,  245 

Dentate    (217).       Toothed. 

Depth  of  Kilauea,  170 

Depths  of  harbors  (.scf  Harbor  anchorages) 

Depths  of  Inter-Island  channels  (greatest  depths 
obtained  in  fathoms):  Xiihau — Kauai  chan- 
nel, .5.50:  Kauai-Oahu.  1872:  Oahu-Molokai, 
374:  Molokai-Lanai,  73:  Molokai-Maui,  135; 
Lanai-Maui,  42:  Maui-Kahoolawe.  100; 
Maui-Hawaii,  1032.  Depth  five  miles  south 
of  Keauhou  (Hawaii),  1285  f . :  five  miles 
south  of  Diamond  Head,  337:  five  m.les 
south  of  Waimea  (Kauai),  1019.  Granting 
a  uniform  elevation  of  the  group  sufficient  to 
connect  the  islands  from  Xiihau  and  Kauai 
to  Kohala,  on  Hawaii,  with  dry  land  as  sug- 
gested by  Dr.  H.  A.  Pilsbry  and  others,  the 
old  nioutitttinii  on  the  various  islands  in  their 
youth  doubtless  stood  much  higher  than  at 
present,  but  in  no  case  would  their  youthful 
altitude,  of  necessity,  be  greater  than  that 
shown  by  Haleakala.  Mauna  Kea  and  Mauna 
Loa  as  they  now  stand.  Assuming  the  exist- 
ance  in  reniote  time  of  a  large  pan-Hawaiian 
island  there  is  much  reason  to  suppose  that 
the  old  mountain  cones  were  slowly  built  up 
by  additions  of  new  lava  as  their  bases  sank 
beneath  sea  level,  so  that  elevation  of  the 
cones  and  general  submergence  of  the  great 
island  might  proceed  at  the  same  time. 
Should  submergence  take  place  as  postulated 
Kauai  would  first  be  detached:  Kohala  (and 
Hawaii)  next:  Oahu  third.  Xiihau  fourth, 
and  Molokai,  Maui,  Lanai,  Kahoolawe  last 
and  at  about  the  same  time.  There  is 
much  biological  evidence  to  substantiate  this 
view  of  the  order  of  separation  of  the  high 
islands  of  the  group. 

Dermestes,  417 

Descent  into  the  crater  of  Kilauea,  17S 

of  rank,  46 

Description  of  (xrr  order,  family  or  species 

in   question) 
Destructive  insects,  380 
Develo])ment  of  a  fern  frond,  228 
"Devil's      ]iicture      frame,"'      The      (lava 

forms),  186,   ISO 
Devil,  Sea,  34  7 
Dewey    ciater    (^NFauna    Loa)    in    eruption, 

160^   Kil 
Diagram  of  sutrai'  mill,  274 


INDEX. 


541 


Diamond  Hea.i,  80,  115,  121 

Age  of,  12+ 

Breccia,  at,  219 

Concretions  at,  131 

Fossils  from,  118 

Fossils  at,  2 lit 

from    Waikiki,   116 

Heioht  of,  11.1 

History  of,  219 

Map  of,  118 

Plan  ma]i  of,  118 

Pot-holes  at,  131 

Boot  casts  at,  131 

Sea  slo]ie  of,  131 

Speculations  liased  on,   11.") 

Tufa  cone  of,  80 

A'ertieal  section  through,  118 

Diiitoines.  Both  marine  and  fresh  water  species 
ahound  in  the  group.  Recent  study  of  ma- 
terial collected  l)y  the  Albatross,  and  by  the 
writer,  has  added  many  species  to  the  list  of 
this  group  of  single-celled  plants  from  this 
region. 

Dibble,   Eev.   Sheldon    (Historian),   (is,   :221 

"Die-bajck,"'  2«.5 

Digger,  The  [oo],  75 
wasps,  413 

Dikes,  121 

Examjdes   of,  on   Punchbowl,   121 

Dioecious  plant,  Papaya,  e.xamples  of,  263 

Dip  nets,  341 
Large,  344 

Dipthongs,  Hawaiian,  39 

Dipthongs.  A  dipthong  is  a  union  of  two 
vowels  pronounced  as  one  syllable.  In 
uttering  a  dipthong  both  vowels  are 
sounded  but  are  so  lilended  as  to  be 
considered  as  forming  one  syllable. 
In  scientific  nomenclature  projter  diph- 
thongs occur  frequently  an<l  are 
usually  indicated  by  the  union  of  the 
letters  involved.  Tn  the  present 
volume  the  italic  a'  and  ff  used  in  the 
Latin  names  occuring  in  the  foot-notes 
and  the  explanation  of  ]»lates  are  so 
similar  in  aiipearancc  that  as  a  con- 
venience, in  the  varification  of  spell- 
ing, those  words  formed  with  an  a' 
have  been  here  collected.  Those  oc- 
curring in  the  descrijition  of  the 
1  dates  are:  Ba-rhaavia  diffusa,  Cler- 
montia  coerulea,  Ccelastrea  tenuis, 
('oelenterata,  Crangon  =  (Aljiheus) 
loevis,  T])omoea  spp.,  (Kchalia  grisea, 
Parexocirtus  l)ra(diypterus,  i'hin'ma 
sp.,  Phcenix  dactylifera,  Scu'vola 
Koenigi.  Those  occurring  in  the 
foot-notes  for  the  text  are:  Hadimeria 
nivea,  ('oelenterata,  Cddophora  spp., 
E.xoc(i'tida\  Fxocirtus  volitaus,  Fpo- 
mcea  spj).,  (Edemeri<la',  (Fstrida;, 
(Fstrus,  Parexocfftus  lirm  liyi>terus. 
T'hi(cnia,  Plui'iiix  d;ictylifcra,  INpcil- 
liiihe. 

Disease,  caused  by  gods,  49 

Diseased   inflorescence,  202 


Diseases  of  the  Ijanana,  260 

I'inea])ple,  261 
Disemboweling  weapon,  81 
Dishes,  5^^ 
Disk-head  fish,  367 

Distances  by  sea  from  Honolulu  to  Kalaui)apa,  52 
miles;  Lahaiiia,  72  m. :  Kahuhii,  90  m. ; 
Hana,  128  m. :  Maaleae,  8(i  m.  :  Makena, 
90  m.  :  Mahukona.  i:i4  m.  :  Kawaihae.  144 
m.  :  Kailua  (on  Hawaii),  l.")7  ni. :  .South 
Point  ( Ka  Lae),  2:i:5  m.  :  Honuapo,  244  m.; 
Hilo  (direct),  192  m. :  Hilo  (via  Kawai- 
hae), 230  m. :  Nawiliwili.  98  m. :  Koloa, 
102  m.;   Waimea,    120  m. :   Hanalei,   125  m. 

Distances  on  Hawaii,  148 
on   Kauai,   104 
on  IMaui,  134 
on  Oahu,  110 
(s)'c  Overland    Distances) 

Distilling  {>«■(■  Okolehao) 

Distribution  of  fauna  and  flora  explained, 
290 

Distributors,  This  volume  is  privately- 
published  and  may  be  secured,  at  the 
net  price  $5.50  per  copy  postpaid,  from 
the  author  direct  (address)  P.  O.  Box 
38,  Honolulu,  Hawaii,  or  from  the  fol- 
lowing authorized  book  dealers  and 
distributors : 

Thrum's,  Limited,  Fort  St.,  Honolulu,  Ha- 
waii. 

H.  S.  Crocker  Co.,  565-571  Market  St.,  San 
Francisco. 

G.  E.  Stechert  &  Co.,  151-155  W.  25th  St., 
New  York. 

G.  E.  Stechert  &  Co.,  2  Star  Yard,  Carey 
Street  W.  C,  London. 

Districts:  On  OAHT  —  lioiicihihi.  Kwa.  Waia- 
nae,  Waialua,  Koolauloa,  Kn(il;ni])oko.  Ho- 
nolulu, with  about  one-fourth  the  ])oi)ulatioii 
of  the  whole  group,  is  the  capita!  city.  On 
KAUAI — Waimea,  Koloa,  Lihue,  Kawai- 
hau,  Hanalei  (including  Napali):  on 
MAUI — Lahaina,  Wailuku,  Makawao,  Hana: 
on  HAW.\II — Kohala  (divided  into  North 
and  South  Kohala),  Hamakua,  Hilo  (divided 
into  North  and  South  Hilo),  Puna,  Kau, 
Kona  (divided  into  Xorlh  and  South  Kona): 
on    MOLOKAI — Undivided. 

Divergeiu-e  (433).  Differentiation  in  aclion  or 
character. 

Diviners   (sec  Nana  uli) 

Diving  beetles,    Preilaceous,  4 Hi 

boys  in   Honolulu  harbor,  60 

from  high  places,  S6 
l)i\ision  of  lands  {src  King  and  the  lands) 
Dixon,  Capt.  George   (Navigator),  431 
Doctor-fish,   372 
Dodder,    199.  204 
Dodouii'a    (■>>■"    -Mii) 
Dog-llca,  4111 
Dog  wlu'lks,  4."il 

-fish,  Hawaiian,  346 

l"'o()d    for,  ()7 

fish,    Hawaiian,  346 

-shark.  340 

teeth,  use  of.  82 

-tick,  401 

travs,  (il 

Wild,   29.-1 
Dogs'  teeth,  use  of.   77 


542 


INDEX. 


Dolinm,  460,  461 
Dolphin,  300,  354 

Common,  362,  301 

Whale,  355 
Domestic  animals,  287 

animals,  Hawaiian,  295 

arts  of  women,  46 
Dorsal  fin    (353).       The  fin  on  the  back  of  a   fish. 
Dosalane   (srr  Hawaiian  igneous  rocks) 
Double  canoes.  29 

gang  jilow,  278 

pronged  fish  si)ear,  344 

war  canoe,  48 
Dove,  Chinese  turtle,  305 

Eggs  of,  305 

shells,  453 

shell,  470 

shooting,  305 
Dowsett,  Capt.,  67 

Reef,  88,  97 
Dracaena,  251 

[ki],  190,  251 
Dragon  fly  [Pinau],  392,  423 

larvaj,  44(1 

nymah,  436 

tree,  211 
Dredger  dump.  Shells  collected  on  the,  447 
Drepanididae,  Genera  of,  332 

Various  genera  of,  330 
Dress  of  Hawaiian  women,  3S 
Dried  fish,  364 
Drill,  Rotary,  35 
Drive,  Date'  palm,  234 

Drowned    vallev     (Hanalei),    Example    of, 
106 

Kahana  a,  131 

Kahana,  Oahu,  an  examjde  of,  128 

on  Kauai,  Exam]ile  of,  106 

Waiiiio  a.  154 
Drum  fish   (Puffer),  367 

heads,  Hula,  346 
Drums,  Cocoanut  shell,  82 

Gourd,  82 

Hula,  82 

Drupe   [Bot.].      A  stone-fruit. 
Dryland  tare,  225 

taro  culture,  (i5 
Duck,  Foreign,  328 

Hawaiian,  323,  328,  335 

Lavsan,  318 

Pintail,  328 

Shoveler,  328 
Dunes,  Erosion  of,   142 

Root-casts  in,  140 

{sec  Sand  dunes),  131 

Dung  beetle,  417 

Dutch  East  Indies.  279 

Duties  of  Hawaiian  women,  46 

Dwarfs,  Work  of,  359 

Dyes  for  tapa,  69 

Dye  stuff.  The  Hawaiians  liad  an  extended  list 
of  materials  which  served  as  dye  stuff 
for  ornamenting  their  tapas.  Among  the 
plants  so  used  were  akoa.  awapuhi.  haa,  niu, 
holei,     mao,     na'u,     noni.     ohia,     olema,     koa, 


pili    (charcoal  of),   walahee   ,etc.       Other  dyes 
were    made    from    earth,    charcoal,    ashes,    red 
ocher,    etc. 
Dye  stuff.  Source  of,  205 


Eagle  fern,  223 

rays,  347 
Early  voyages.  26 

Difficulties  encountered  in,  29 
Ears  slit  as  a  mark  of  humiliation,  51 
Earth  oven  [imu],  36,  66 
Earthquake  of  1,S6S,  159 

Earthenware    not   made   by   Hawaiians,   59 
Earthworms,  440,  497 
Earwigs,  415,  428 
E-a  (Sea  turtle),  299 
Eastern  oysters,  445 
East  Indies,  235,  346,  407 
Eating  bananas,  259 

poi,  76 
Echinoidea,  487 
Echo  trail,  178 
Economic  entomology.  Study  of,  380 

insects  (part  one),  380 

insects  (part  two),  391 

insects.  Some,  384 

study  of  native  plants,  283 
Edible  aigae,  502 

mussel,  Hawaiian,  456 

ohia,  216 

snail,  438 
Eel(s),  355 

-conger,  355 

fishing,  242,  355 

-like  fish,  361 

spear,  341 

Sjiecies  of,  355 

and   other  curiously  shajied   fishes,  350 

Egg  fruit  (Luciiiiia  Rivicoa  Gwtn.).  A  native  of 
Brazil  and  of  rare  occurrence  in  Hawai'. 
The  fruit  is  described  as  being  "about  the 
size  and  shape  of  an  egg  and  tastes  like  the 
yolk    sweetened." 

Egg  parasites,  382 

of  (><('('  Species  in  cjuestion) 

shells,  459 
Eggs,  Albatross,  316 

Fossil,  315 
Eight-marked  ladyljird,  394 

-rayed  corals,  479 

-rayed  starfish,  489 

Ehrhorn,    E.   M.    (Economic    Entomologist), 

12,  410 

Ehuawa.  A  species  of  sedge  (Ciipcrtis  lac>-if;atiis 
I>inn.)  from  which  a  strong  cord  was  made; 
but  its  chief  use  was  in  the  manufacture  ot 
of  the  fine  Xiihau  mats.  It  is  common  in 
shallow    sweet    and    brackish    water. 

Ekaha  (Birds-nest  fern),  190,  240,  223,  253 

Ekaha,  228 

Ekaha-ula=  Ekaha 

ElaBocarpus  (kcc  Kalia) 

Elei)aio,   329 

Hawaii,  337 

Kauai,  334 

Oahu,  337 


INDEX. 


543 


Elevated  coral  reefs,  evidoiu-e  from,   li'7 

coral  roof  (Pearl   Harbor),  130 

reef  at    Kahuku,    132 
Elevation  and  submergence  (xcf  Dejiths  of 
Inter-island  cliannels) 

of    Hawaiian     Islands    (s(r    Dojiths    of 
Inter-island  channels) 
Elevations  on  Maui  indicated,  ISi 

on  Molokai,  indicated,  134 

(sec  Mountains) 

Elliptical  (216).  Oblong  or  oval  with  the  ends 
similarly  rounded. 

Ellis,    Rev.     William     (Earlv    Missionary), 

42,  154,  169,  171,  172,  182*  221 

Embalming,   Hawaiian   method    of,   52,    223 

Embalming.  Sometimes  the  human  body  was 
partially  embalmed  by  being  salted  and  dried. 
See  plate  8. 

Embayed  shore-line,  270 
Emerald  shell,  470 

Emerge  (382).  To  come  out  of  the  covering: 
to   come   forth,    as   a   butterfly   from    a   cocoon. 

Emergency  diet.  69 

Emerson,  Jos.  S.,  342 

Emerson,  Dr.  N.  B.  (^ethnologist,  Hawaiia-i 

scholar),  459 

Emoloa,  224 

Encampment  shell,  446 

Endemic  (193).  A  species  peculiar  to  the  islands: 
'autochthonous'  is  often  used  in  the  same 
sense.  Peculiar  to  and  hence  characteristic 
of   a    given    locality. 

Endemic  fauna.  Dr.  Perkins  estimates  that  nine- 
teen-twentieths  of  the  endemic  species  now 
existing  in  Hawaii  have  their  home  in  the 
true  forest  belt  on   the  islands. 

Endemic  plants,  191 

Endogenous  jdant,  Palm  examjile  of,  233 

End  of  new  flow   (1907),  162 

of  book  one,  288 

of  book  two,  504 
Enemies,  bones,  use  of,  63 

of  lantana.  The  natural,  384 
Engines,  Traction,  on  a  plantation,  274 

used  in  plowing,  278 

England,  291,  307,  401 

Engli.sh  names.  The  approved  as  well  as  cur- 
rent English  names  are  given  in  the  text, 
and  are  referred  to  proper  scientific  names. 
(.SV^   also   Nomenclature.) 

English,  304 

skylark,  3(17 

sparrow,  277,  3(14 

sparrow.  Eggs  of,  304 

Engraver  beetle,  418 

Entire  [Bot]  (252).  The  edge  of  the  leaf  is 
perfectly  .smooth,  not  being  notched,  toothed 
or  otherwise   modified. 

Entomological  collection.  Portion  of.  380 
Entomological  Society,  Hawaiian,  411 

Entomologists  (383).  One  versed  in  or  engaged 
in   the  study  of   insects. 

Entomology,  FJconomic,  Tlie  study  of,  380 

Entrance  to  Pole's  Reception  room,  184 

Environment  otfect  of,  441 

effect  on  habits,  39 

its  effect  on  the  people,  31 

Natural,  its  ett'ect,  31 


Koi'on 


220 


Epidermis      [Mollu.scal      (4.50).         The     outermost 
covering  of  the  body  of  an   animal. 

Erect     (Bot.).        Said    of    plants    when    they    grow 
upright   from   the  root. 

Erosion  by  the  sea,  Examjilo  of,  142 
K.xamples  of,  Molokai,  136 
Examjile  of  in  sandstone,  140 
in  the  Waianae  range,  122 
Koko  Head  example  of,  472 
of  the  Koolau  range  shown,  112,  130 
of  Waipio  valley  ,154 
on  Kauai,  PLxample  of,  106 
on   Molokai,  Examjile  of  (Halawa),  140 
Sea,  on  Hawaii,  150 

Erujition  and  flow  of  1S40,  172 
General  view  of  (1905),  162 
on  Mauna  Loa   (Dewev  crater),  160 
1905,  Party  visiting,  162 

Eruptions  of  Kilaueu,  174 

Escaped     (205).        Introduced    as    a    domesticated 
plant  or  animal  but   now  run   wild. 

Escaped  introduced  plants,  200 
Establishment  of  the  Hawaiian  race,  30 
Ethnographic  collection,  Hawaiian,  57 

groups  in  the  Bishop  Museum,  64 
Eugenia,  267,  268 
Eulima  shell,  470,  462 
Euphorbias,  249 

Rubber  jiroducing,  283 

Wild,  196 
Europe,  208,  249,  269,  286,  292,  377,  42S,  451 
Europeans,  191,  205,  215,  259,  284,  297,  316 
Evaporating  pans.  Sugar  niill,  274 
Eva])orators,  Sugar,  275 
Evergreen-like  trees,  237 
Evidence  from  artesian  wells,  220 

of  elevation  at  Pearl  Harbor,  130 
Kvolution,   Material   for  studv   of    (shells), 
435 

of  the  Hawaiian  binls,  338 
Example  of  color  variation,  432 

of  fore-plain   (Kamalo),  142 

of  Pahoehoe  in  Kilauea,  184 

of  promontory  [Kohala|,  148 

of  rain  forest,  190 

of  sheet  lava  flows,  122 

of  sub-aerial  erosion,  136 

of  Talus  debris,  136 
Exchanyo  of  wares  among   Ilawaiitms,  74 
Exchantios,  Shell,  441 

Executix'e,    jvidii-ial     and     Icgislat i\  o     t'unc- 
tions,  54 

E.xicutions  were  anciently  in  the  form  of  assas- 
sinations, without  any  trial  or  any  publ'c 
sentence,  and  were  jierformed  in  the  most 
rude  and  barbarous  manner  bv  assault 
usually  at  night.  Often  the  vict-m  was 
attacked  from  the  rear  and  done  to  death 
by    strangulation    or   by    breaking   the   back. 

llxilo-oil,  252 

Exotic  (381).  Not  native:  introduced  from  a 
foreign    country. 

Exotic   flora,  231 

plants,  246 

jdants    ((Jovernmont    Nursery),   238 
Exjjosed  fossil  root-casts,  140 


544 


INDEX. 


Extinct   birds,   Explanation   for,   335 

Hawaiian  birds,  333 

oyster,  444 
Eyes  of  Hawaiians  (characteristic),  38 


Fairy  tales.  The  stories  of  the  achievements  of 
the  menehune  people  correspond  with  the 
fairy  tales  of  other  races.  The  menehunes 
are  -sometimes  represented  in  Hawaiian 
legends  as  a  race  of  industrious  dwarfs  that 
employed  themselves  in  many  ways,  as  build- 
ing heiaus,   fish   ponds,   etc. 

Falling  (palm)  leaf,  232 

Falls  in  Halawa  vallev,  142 

of  Moaula,  Middle,  136 

Wailua,  102 

False  [Mynah]  (306).  Having  some  superficial 
resemblance   to   a   given    species   or   thing. 

False  geranium,  ' '  Cheeses, ' "  196 

koa,  198 

mallow,  196 

operculum,  439 

scor]iions,  4(IS 
Familiar  Hawaiian  birds,  337 

insects,  392 
Family,  42,  43 

discipline  among  Hawaiians,  45 

(■sfr  Nomenclature) 
Fan  palm,   240,   23(3 
Fans,  57,  (52 

Hawaiian,  70 
Fan-tailed  fly  catcher,  Hawaiian,  329 
Farmer,  Chinese,  282 
Farming,  Small,  industries,  270 
Father  of  race.  Home  of,  50 

Fauna  (328).  The  animals  living  in  a  given 
area. 

Fauna     and     flora,      r'istril)ution     of,     ex- 

plaineil,  290 

Hawaiiensis,  4n7,  414 

Isolation  of  exjjlaineil,  290 

Native  insect,  41 1 
Fearless  birds  on  Laysan,  314 
Feather  cape  [ahuula],  70 

cloak   [ahuula],  48,  75 

leis,  57,  77 

ornaments,  75 

robes,  how  made,  75 

robe  of  Kamehameha  T,  75 

-stars,  497 
Feathers,  Use  of,  75,  77 

Use  of  (xi'c  sp)ecies  in  question) 
Features  of  Hawaiians,  38 
Federal     Ex])eriment    Station,    U.    S.     (sec 

Hawaii  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.) 
Feeding  habits  of  (xcc  species  in  question) 
Female  children,  how  regarded,  4(i 

line.  Rank  descended  through,  46 
Females,  Special  tabus  for,  4(5 
Fern  or  ferns 

aphis,  389 

Bird's  nest,  223,  253 

Birds  nests    (Cultivated),  240 

Boston,  253 

Eagle,  223 


Fish-tail,  253 

frond,  r)evelo|)ment  of  a,  228 

Giant    [Heii],  190,  223 

Maiden  hair,  223,  419 

roots,  uses  of,  223 

stem   road,   200 

Tree,  222,  253 

Uses  of,  221,  223 
Ferns,  253 

along  Olymjius  trail,  206 

in  the  moist  woods  (Hawaii),  190 

in  upper  forest,  227 

Number  of  species  and  genera  of,  223 

Pulu,  222 

Staghoru,  228 
Festooning  vines,  234 
Feudal  organization   of  Hawaiians,  47 
Feudalism,  55,  56 
Fiber,  Cotton,  281 

plant.  Banana  as,  280 

plant,  Sisal  as,  280 

plants,  69,  280 

l)lants,  Native,  217 

Sisal,  First  step  in  making,  270 
Field  and  roadside  plants.  Common,  198 

boulders   (Oahu),  130 

boulders   (Waianae  range),  122 

Introduced  ]dants  and  animals  of  the, 
231 

laborers,   278 

mice,  293 

of  cane  in  ])]ossom,  278 

and  lower  forest.  Plants  of,  212 

stone   as   buiMing   material,   129 
Fig,  Banian,  2S3 

Common,  245 

Creeping,  245 

native  of,  267 

Smyrna,  267 
Figs,   266 
Fiji,  397 
Files,  Stone,  75 
Finch,  California  house,  304 

-like  birds,  Hawaiian,  331 
Finches,   "Cross  bill,"   Hawaiian,   333 
Finger  bowls,  70,  61 
Fire,  62 
Fire,  How  carried,  62 

Hawaiian  method  of  lighting,  62 

lake  in  Kilauea,  174 

Legend  of  origin  of,  326 

Method  of  making,  40 

how  made,  328 
Fire-cracker  vine,  250,  248 
Fireplace,  59 

in  the  Volcano  house,  184 

Fires,  Forest.  Forest  fires  of  a  more  or  less  de- 
structive nature  occasionally  occur.  The.v 
were  also  known  in  ancient  Hawaii.  Fire 
was  used  to  some  extent  by  the  natives  to 
clear  land   in   the  forest   for  native   crops. 

Fires,  trash,   275 

First  fruits.  When  the  first  fruits  of  any  crop 
were  ripe  they  were  offered  to  the  family 
gods   on    the   proper   day   of   the   moon. 


INDEX. 


545 


First  impressions  of  llouolulu,  '2oi 

land  shell  described  by,  431 

slain  in  battle  ,a  sacrifice,  53 
Pish,  Anil)er,  362 

bait  242 

bait.  Method  of  securinji,  343 

Baking,  349 

-baskets,  Hawaiian,  70 

-baskets.  Native,  341 

-baskets  shell,  470,  451 

Blue  parrot,  370 

for  boiliiiji,  349 

Butterfly,  370,  353 

Cirrhitoid,  374 

Common,  362,  366 

Conservation  of,  359 

Dried,  364 

eaten  raw,  355,  365 

fauna,  Character  of  the,  351 

Floating,  355 

Flying,  366 

Flying   gurnard,   374 

Fresh  water,  376 

Frying,  349 

Goat,  362,  366 

Gobies,  374 

Lizar<l,  350 

market,  Fish  at  the,  34S 

Moorish  Idol,  370 

-moth,  403,  430 

Needle,  350 

nets,  73 

Pan,  349 

Parrot,  370 

pens,  341 

photographers    (How  made  indicated), 
356 

Pilot,  366 

pond,  270 

pon<ls,  The  first,  when  built,  27 

poison,  341 

use  of,  35S 

Poisonous,  a,  367 

Porcupine,  370 

Protection  of,  359 

Scorpion,  374 

snare,  242 

-spear,  Double-jironged,  344 

Spearing,  344,  341 

Species  of,  34S 

Squirrel,  362,  366 

Sucking  fish  attached  to.  368 

Surgeon,  370 

Surgeon,  striped,  362 

Sword,  366 

-tail  fern,  253 

Thread,  366 

traps,  341 

traps,  Hawaiian,  70 

Trigger,  370 

Truin]>et.  350 

Trunk,  374 

Wrasse,  366,  370 
Fisherman  with  a  tlirow  net.  344 

Hawaiian,  472 


Fisher,   Dr.   Walter  K.   (Zoologist),  12,  489, 
493,  314 

Photogarphs   by,    14 
Fishes  at  the  .Ac|uariuni,  356 

Curious,  366,  370,  374 

r'uriously  sha|)ed,  350 

Ueej)  sea,  354 

Hawaiian  (Part  one),  338 

Hawaiian   ( I'art  one),  348 

Hawaiian   (I'art  two),  374 

Fish  gods.  Several  species  of  flsh  arrive  in 
large  numbers  on  the  coast  every  year  in 
their  respective  seasons.  The  fish  first  se- 
cured was  always  carried  to  the  fisherman's 
heiau  and  there  ottered  to  the  fish  god  whose 
influence,  it  was  thought,  had  driven  the 
school  of  fish  to  the  land.  It  is  suggested 
that  the  natives,  at  some  remote  date,  liad 
seen  the  fish  pursued  thi'ough  the  islands  by 
sharks  and  that  the  occurrence  may  have  led 
them  to  respect  the  shark  as  a  powerful 
god  of  the  fishermen. 

heiaus,  50,  73 

Fish-hooks,  Bone,  ivory,  tortoise  shell,  242 

Fish-hooks  were  made  of  shell,  bone,  tortoise-shell 
and  ivory:  iron  was  substituted  in  most  cases 
at  an  early  date.  But  few  tishlKHjks  [he 
makau]    are  now  made  in  the  ancient  style. 

Fishing,  73 

Ancient  method  of  shark,  343 

and  idol  worship,  73 

apparatus,  64 

at  night,  242 

birds,  325 

equipment,  Ancient  Hawaiian,  339 

from  sailing  vessel,  344 

from  the  jibboom,  344 

Hand,  242 

in  former  times,  339 

in  Hilo  Bav,  352 

Beef,  344 

Eeligious  ceremony  observed,  339 

Shark  oil,  346 

with   a   net,  344 

Fishing  torcli.  Torches  were  made  of  kukui  nuts 
strung  on  a  rush,  or  on  a  cocoanut  midrib 
and  bound  together  with  ki  leaves.  They 
would  burn  in  almost  any  kind  of  weather. 
The  natives  lielieved  that  when  the  torch 
burned  ijoorly.  the  fishing  would  be  poor, 
but  if  it  Ijurned  l)right  the  fishing  would  be 
good.  The  light  from  the  torch  blinds  or 
dazzles  the  fish.  Sometimes  a  fire  is  made 
on  the  bow  of  the  boat  to  aid  in  fishing. 
Often  the  Ijlindcd  fish  may  lie  killed  with  a 
club. 

Fish-lice,  46S 
Fish-line  container,  57 

of  olona.  217 
Five-fingereil  morning-glory  I  Koali  ai],  192 
Five-sided  starfish.  4s9 
Flamboyant  tree,  244 
Flame  tree,  244 

Flashlight  \iew   iNdc's  rece])tion  room,  170 
Flat  black-scale,  391 
Flatfish,  360,  371 
Flat-worm,  490,   177 

Fleabane  or   Horse-weed    |lliohc|,  262,  287 
Fleas,  4111,  419 
Flesli-colored  cowrv,  458 
Flesh  fly,  387,  419' 


546 


INDEX. 


Flies,  419 

Coinmoii,  406 
Flightless  rail  killed  as  sjiort,  293 

rail,  Laysan,  314 
"Floating  out"  algse,  501 
Floor  at  Haleakala,  145 

of  Keaiiakakoi,  186 

of  main  crater,  Kilauea,  166 

Flooring,  Hard  wood,  215 

F''lora  (189).  The  plant  life  of  a  given  region: 
in  a  similar  way  the  "fauna'  includes  the 
animal  life. 

Flora,  Bog  (Molokai),  218 

Development  of  the,  1S9 

Exotic,  231 

Isolation    of   explained   bv   subsidence, 
290 

Isolation  of  the,  189 

Littoral,  195 

Mountain  bog,  229 

Native.  192 

of  the  group,  189 

Eelations  of  the,  189 

Sources  of  the,  191 

The  island,  189 

Variation    in,    from    island    to    island,, 
193 
Floral  zones,  195 

zones,  Lee  and  windward  sides  differ, 
222 
Florida,  364 

red  scale,  384,  391 
Flounders,  371 
Flow  from  Halemaumau,  174 

of  1832,  170 

of  1907,  End  of.  162 

of  ropy  lava,  162 

structure  of  lava.  186 
Flower  leis,  77 

of  the  taro,  (36 

peddler,  246 

"Flower  pots,"  Lava  (I'una),  156 

Flowering  plants  (native).  Except  for  the  red 
flowers  of  the  ohia  tree  there  is  very  little 
in  the  way  of  conspicuous  flowering  plants 
in  the  native  flora.  Other  species  with 
interesting  flowers  and  foliage  occur  such 
as  Gardenia.  Hibixrus,  liUU'hrandia,  certain 
Composite.  Freycinetia.  Sophora,  the  Lo- 
belias, etc.,  hut  thev  seldom  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  casual  observer  by  reason  of 
their   color    alone. 

Flowers  as  ornaments,  38 

form  for  a<lornment,  38 
Flume,  Modern,  28 
Flute,  Nose,  82 
Fluted  scale,  391 
Fly,  Black,  265 

Dragon,  392,  436 

transmitting  infant   i)aralysis,  419 
Fly-catcher  [Elepiao],  337 

catcher,  Hawaiian,  329 

Fly-flaps  were  small  kahilis  used  as  insigna  of 
chieftainship  and  also  as  flv-flaps.  (See 
plates   6   and    13.) 

Fly-flaps,  60,  77 

Flying  fish   [Malolo],  366,  355,  364 

fish.  Curious,  357 

fish,  Food  for,  318 


fish,  shooting,  355 

gunard  [Lolo-oauJ,  374,  357 
Folk  songs,  41 
Food  fish,  348 

fish,  Abundance  of,  351 

fish.  Chief,  359 

of  Hawaiian  goose,  255 

of  (see  species  in  question) 

sujiply  and  po]»ulation,  45 

Two  mollusks  used  as,  442 
Foot  racing,  83 
Forage  jilants,  285,  286 
Forbes,  Charles  N.   (Botanist),  12,  226 
Forbes,  Rev.  Mr.  (Early  Missionary),  139 
Ford  Island,  Map  of,  110 
Foreign  duck,  328 

Forel,   Prof.  A.    (Entomologist),  413 
Foreplain  at  Kamalo,  142 
Forest     (xcc    also     Deforestation    and    Re- 
foresting) 

Birds  of  the,  328 

Effect  of  animals  in.  287 

Introduced  plants  and  animals  of  the, 
231 

jungle,  View  in  a,  200 

on  Oahu,  View  in.  218 

Plants  from  the  lower,  2nl 

Vegetation  in  the,  200 

zone,  Lower,   201,   210 

zone.  Middle,   228 

zone,  Upper,  227 

Forms  of  lava.  Curious,  186 

Formation   of  sand  hills,  90 

Fortifications,  Hawaiian,  51 

Fossil  (193).  The  petrified  forms  of  plants  or 
animals. 

Fossils  from  Diamond  Head,  118,  131,  219 

eggs,  315 

roots,  118 

root-casts,  Ex])osed  140 

shells  at  Pearl  Harbor,  130 

tree  moulds,  181 
Fossores,  413 

Foster,  Mrs.  Mary  E.,  300 
Foundations   of  houses,  58 
Four-banded  fly,  388 
Four-footed   butterflies,  421 
Four  o  "clock,  254 
France,  205 

Frear,  Hon.  W.  F.,  Photographs  by,  14 
French  cherrv,  2(i7 

Frigates  "Shoal   (volcanic),  88,  96,  97 

Frigates  Shoal,  Discovery  of,  97 
Fresh  water  clam  ,436,  440 

fishes  (Goliies),  357,  37(i 

fauna  of  Oahu.  436 

Hydra,  475 

limu,  503 

shells,  431,  438 

shrimp,  436,  409,  469 

Fresh  water  springs.  Springs  often  oeour  in  the 
ocean  about  the  islands,  as  about  Diamond 
Head,  along  the  southern  foasi  of  Molokai, 
the  east  end  of  Maui,  at  Hana.  at  Kawaia- 
hae,  Keauhou  and  Punaluu.  In  some  sec- 
tions they  determined  the  location  of  villages 
as    they     furnished    a     dependable     supjily    of 


INDP^X. 


547 


fresh    water.        S)iriiii;s   are,   of  course,    abiiiid- 

ant    in    the    mountainous    districts    on    all    the 

large  islands. 

sprino's  in  the  sea,  127,  131 
Frigate  bird  {xrc  Maii-o'-war  Ijird),  312 

mackerel,  3fil 
Frog  fish,  374,  355,  449 
Frogs,  297,  440 

Species  of,  297 

Fronds  (225).  The  leaf  of  a  fern:  that  which 
corresponds   with   tlie   leaf   in   higher   plants. 

Froiitisjiiece    (Portrait    l).v    Hochlit/.,    New 

York,  1909),  4 

Frost  Shoal,  97 

Fruit  culture  in  Hawaii,  255 

-fly,  Mediterranean,  265,  38(i,  419,  421 

-fly,  not  serious  j)est  of  Avoca<lo,  2(i2 

Pineapple,  2()1 

trees  in  the  tropical  setting,  36 

Introduced,  255 

Island,  255 

Native,  255 

Native  and  introduced,  258,  264 

Tropical,  in  Hawaii,  255 

Wild  and  cultivated.  258 
Fulgens  grouj)  (Land  shells),  433 
Fulgur  shells,  450 

"Fulgurites"    (Root  casts  which  •srr),118 
Fullawav,    David    T.    (Entomologist),     12, 

427 
Fuller's  rose-beetle,  394 
Fumes,  Sulphur,  on  vegetation,  170 

Fungi.  Many  species  occur  in  the  islands, 
usually  in  the  native  forests.  An  ed  ble 
species  occurs  on  decaying  kukui  wood.  A 
number  of  species  have  been  introduced  since 
the    islands   were    first    discovered. 

Fungi,  Beetles  in,  418 

on  Japanese  beetles,  394 

Fungus  (242).  Fungi  consist  of  slender  cells 
which  form  thread-like  filaments.  The  grcmp 
is  a  very  diverse  one  including  mushroom 
molds,  etc.,  and  forms  one  of  the  lowest 
orders   of  Cryptogams. 

Fungus  gnats,  419 

Furnishings  for  a  house,  59 

Fusability  of  lava.  The  Hawaiian  basalt  is 
among  the  most  readily  fused  of  lavas.  It 
melts  at  a  temperature  of  about  2.500^  Fahr., 
depending  somewhat  iiixm  its  cbemical  com- 
position. 

Future  state,  The,  50 


(Jalapagos,  300 

land  tortoise,  300 
Galingale.  198 

Gallinule,  Hawaiian.  323,  32(j 
(Jails  on  Lantana.  3S5 
Gambia,  Whaleship,  303 
Gambler  Shoal,  94 

Discovery  of,  94,  95 

Position  of,  94 
Gambling,  S(i 
Gamboge  tree,  246 
Games  and  amusements — 

Bathing,  86 

Boxing,  83 


cats  cradles,  86 

cock   fighting,  86 

diving,  86 

flying  kites,  86 

jumping  the  rope,  Sfi 

hiding  the  ])ebble,  86 

foot  racing,  83 

mocl\   fights,  83 

noa,  86 

of  chance,  86 

Pahee   (.s-rr  Pahee) 

sjiear  throwing,  84,  83 

"summer  tobogganing,"  86 

Surf-riding,   86 

toj)  siiinning  (which  xcc) 

Maika  (srr  Ulu) 

Wrestling,  83 
Gaps  on  Haleakala,  Significance  of,  144 
Garcinia   (srr  Mangosteen) 
Garden  grass,  196 

Introduced  plants  and   animals  of  the 
231 

looper,  397 

plants,  240 

Ramble  in  a  Honolulu   (jiart  one),  231 

Ramble  in  a  Honolulu   (part  two),  243 

spider,  409.  410 

spurge,  196 
Gardenia,  386 
Gardens,  Submarine,  476 

Ainahau,  234 

Tropical,  234 

Views  in  Honolulu.  246 
Gardner  Island,  88,  97,   lo3 

Discovery  of,  97 
Gar-like  fish,  364 
Gartley,  A.,  Photooraphs  liy,   14 
Gasteropods,  441,  44() 
(iathering  jiipipi,  442 

sisal.  270 

sugar-cane,  274 
Gang  plow,  Double.  278 
Geckos,  296 

Species  of,  297 
Geese,  Foreign,  328 
(Genealogies  and  History,  26 

Hawaiian,  26 

Time  measured  by,  2(i 

Genealogy.  The  genealogv  of  the  more  ancient 
Havvaiian  chiefs  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  Society  Islands:  the  names  of 
the  important  idols  in  one  group  are  the 
same  as  those  in  the  other.  The  names  of 
the  principal  gods  were  also  much  the  same 
and  all  pointing  to  the  common  remote  origin 
of  the   Polynesian   race. 

Genera   (xcc  Nomen(dature) 

of  coinomn  corals,  486 

of  common  ferns,  228 

of  plants,  Number  of,  191 
General  view  1905  erujitiou,  162 

Koko   Head.  472 

summit  of  Manna  Kea.  154 

of  Haleakala.  145 

of  Kilauea.  186 

of  a  lava  flow.  162 

of  Moana   vallev,  270 


548 


INDEX. 


of  month  of  Halawa  valley,  140 

of  the  Aquarium,  356 

of  the  Pali,  125 

of  Waianae  range,   122 

on  Hawaii,  162 

on  Hawaii,  154,  156,  160,  162 

on  Oahu  shore-line,  270 
Genesis  of  the  Polynesian  race,  2o 
Geologic   ilevelopment  of  Kauai,  Stages  in 
thej  290 

economic  proiluets  (Oahu),  127 

history  of  Oahu,   219,  220,  221 
Geological  survey,  U.  S.,  153 
GeogTa])hic  ]»osition  of  the  islands,  93 
fieogra])hy  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  S9-188 
Geology  of  the  Hawaiian   Islands,  89-188 
Geranium,  229 

False,   196 

Wild,  2S7 
Giant  fern  [Heii],  190,  223 
Giants  among  the  Hawaiians,  37 
Gill  nets,  339 
Ginger,  221,  257 

Chinese,  215 

Native,  202,  213 

Species  of,  215 
Glass-bottomed   boat.   Use   of,   on   the   reef, 

131 
Glenwood,  1  7(i 
Gnats,  Fungus,  419 
Globe-fish,  365,  367 
Globular  mealy-bug,  391 

snail,  43s 
Goat(s),  introduced,  287,  295 

-fishes,  372 

-fish   [Kumu],  362 

-fish    [Mumu],  366 

Forest  damaged  bv,  287 

Wild,  295 
Gobies,  355 
Goby  [Oopu],  374 
God  of  war   [Kukailimolui],  52,  77 
Goddess  of  the  hula,  82 
Gods  as  spirits,  49 

Fish,  73,  339 

in  human  form,  49 

Lesser,  49 

of  ancient  Hawaii,  49 

Plants  and  animals  as,  49 

Sacrifice  to,  in  war,  53 
Golden  plover,  321 

plover,  Migrations   of,  322 

plover.  Pacific,  310 

saddle  oyster,  445 

shower,  244 
Goldfish,  Varieties  of,  376 
Goobec-nuts,  285 
Goodrich,  Rev.  .losej)!)   (Farly  ^Missionary), 

155 
Gooneys  (Albatross),  316,  312 
Goose  barnacles,  473 

-berry,  257 

Hawaiian,  310,  323,  335,  336 

mussels,  473 
Gossamer-winged   butterflies,   385,   421 
Gould  augur  shell,  455 


Gourd,  Bottle,  209 

Bottle,  uses  of,  61 

calabash,  57,  61,  2(i9 

containers,  68 

drums,  82 

fish-line  container    []>oho   aho],  57 

hulu  drum  [pahu  hula  J,  57,  70,  78 

masks  worn,  48,  79 

water  bottle   [huewai],  57 
Gourds,  how  ])reiiared  for  use,  61 

Ornamentation  of,  2l)9 

uses  of,  209 
Government  collection,  Portion  of,  57 

Nursery,  01<1  (King  St.),  238 
Graft,  A  natural,  218 
Granadilla,  268 
Grampus,  301 

Grai)e,  lsal)ella   {\'itis  Lahnixeii)   267 
Grape  fruit,  265 
Grapes,   26(i 
Grass  armv-wonn,  388,  396 

Beacdi',  192 

BernuKla,  286 

Coco,  287 

Creeping,  208,  286 

Garden,  196 

Guinea,  286 

Hilo,  208,  286 

Introduced  species  of,  286 

.Japanese,  287 

Native,  286 

Nut,  196,  2S7 

Pampus,  238 

Para,  286 

Pepper,  287 

Pili,    209 

Stick -tight,  196 
Grasses,  208 

Forage,  285,  286, 

used  for  thatch,  286 
Grasshoppers,  388,  428 
Gray,  Dr.  Asa  (Botanist),  283 
"Great    crack"    in    floor    of   Kilauea,   184, 

187 
Greatest  active  volcano,  164 
Green-breasted  pheasant,  308 

garden  looper,  397 

grasshopper,  429 

islet  (in  distance)  Midway.  90 

Lake  in  Puna,  160,  176 

pool,  Puna,  160 

-scale.  391 

silversword,  229 

turtles  [Honu],  294,  300 
Greenhouse  pest.  A,  384 
Grenadilla,  264 
"Grey  backs"   (Louse),  400 

-backed  tern,  310,  31  s 

-crowned  tern,  311 

rats,  291 

shells,  453 

sugar-cane   mealy-l)Ug,  389 
Grimshaw,      P.      H.      (Entomologist),     419 
(Grinisliani   crnn-) 


TXDEX. 


r)4!) 


(iriiulstdiu',    (ir   iiKirt' 
hooknlii )      were 
less    Ki'itfy     rock 
cient    times    for 
and     ill     modern 
seen    in    use   for 


Ijroix'i'ly  wlu'tstones  (pohaku 
made  from  hard,  more  or 
They  were  used  in  an- 
shari)eninfr  stone  imi)lenients 
times  may  oceasionally  lie 
whetting    knives,    etc. 


Grindstones,  75 
Ground  cockroach,  388 

beetles,  416 

cherry,  257 

nesting  birds,  311 

-nuts,  285 

pine  [Wawae  iole|,  214 
Group,  The  flora  of  the,  1  S9 

in  Bisliop  Museum,  Bird,  310 

in  the  Bishop  Museum,   Ethnograjdiic, 
64 
Grouper  [Hapuujiuu  |,  362,  369 
(irowing  coral  reef,  476 

of  taro,  63 
Grubs,  Beetle,  defined,  416 
(luano  beds  on  Laysan,  315 

Lighter  load  of,  92 

Loading,  92 

on  Lavsan,  95 

rock.   Pile  of,  316 

Kate  of  deposition  of,  97 

Guava.  The  genus  Psidiutii  is  represented  in 
Hawaii  by  several  species  and  varieties,  all 
introduced  from  the  West  Indies,  South 
America  and  China.  The  common  guava 
(P.  Oiiajara  var.  pijriferum  Linn.)  is  the 
yellow  fruited  form  common  everywhere  by 
the  roadside.  The  sweet  red  species 
(P.  Gun  jam  Linn.)  is  also  common  and  has 
a  sweet,  firm,  red  pulp.  A  white  lemon- 
shaped  form  is  also  common  in  certain  locali- 
ties: it  has  a  white,  sweet  pulp.  Another 
variety  of  early  introduction  known  as 
waiawi  has  small  pear-sliaiied  fruits  with 
yellow  flesh  and  numerous  large  seeds.  The 
strawberry  guava  (P.  Cntteiatrum  Sabine) 
is  a  very  different  species  with  round  red 
fruits.  A  variety  {P.  ('.  iucidiiin  Hort.) 
with  small,  round,  yellow  fruit  is  also  culti- 
vated. 

Guava,  263 

Effect  of  on  soil,  263 
Lemon,  264,  263 
Species  of,  263 
Strawberry,  263 


Uses  of,  263 


a,  78 


Guessing  game  |  I'uhcnehene],  I'layiiij 
Guinea   grass,  286 

fowl,  308 

pigs,  293 

|dgs,  how  used,  293 
(iubdi,   A   characteristic,  on    Hawaii,   150 

crossed  by  flume,  274 
Gulick,  Dr.  Jolui  T.  (  Kvoliiti.niist ),  12,  119, 

435,  437 
(iiiiii   (.s-rr  Varnishes) 

Algaroba,  243 

disease,  265 

Knkui,  239 
Gnnard,  Flying, 
Gunnera,  225 
(iiintlier,  Dr.  A. 
(lunwale  |  moo  | 
Gurrev,  A.  R.,  .Ir.,  Photogrn 
Gutter-tile  shells,  451 


374,  357 

(  b-lithyologist),  37 
of  ulu,  80 

hs  liv. 


If 


H 


Haae.      The  name  applied  to  a  beer  made  of  sugar- 
cane after   it   is  fermented   and   foaming. 

Haliitats,   Bird,  showiLSlO,  316 

Habitat  of  (.s'('<'  s])ecies  in  (juostion) 

Haena,  Caves  at,  108 

Hair  of  Hawaiians,  38 

how  cut,  62 

Hairy  tritoii   |  l'u)iu  ole|,  460,  45() 
Hala   (sec  Lauhahi),  2i)4 
leaves.   Dried,  60 

Halapepe,  202,  210 

Uses  of,  21  1 

Halawa  falls,  140,  148 

valley,  140,  133 

valley.  Falls  in,  142 

valley,   Hipuajma  falls  shown,  140 

valley,  Moaula  falls  in,  136 

valley,  Sacred  grove  in,  140 

valley.  Sea  beach  of,  140 
Haleakala,  138 

Ascent  of,  143 

Clouds  in,  145 

Craters  in,  143 

described,   139 

Floor  of,  146 

General  view  of,  145 

Hawaii  peaks  seen  from,  144 

Height  of,   139 

History  of,  146 

Inside   of,   145 

Last  eruption   on,   147 

Lateral  craters  in  (indicated),  134 

Legend  of,  139 

Maj.  of,  134 

Old  mountain  house  on,  145 

Secondary  craters  in,  134,  145 

Small  craters  on,  143 

Silversword   from,  206 

Sunrise  on,  described,   144 

Sunset  from,  descidbed,   143 

Trail  up,  134 

Halemaumau,  after  a  lircakdow  ii,  166 

by  day  and  night,  isii 

Condensed  history  of,  183-188 

Cone  building  in,  174 

Flow  from,  174 

from  the  Voh-ano   House,  166 

in    LsiM,  174 

in    1909.  174 

Map  sliovving,   148 

Near  \ie\v  of,  166 

overflowing,  174 

Rise  anti  fall  of  la\a   in.    I(i7 

smoking,  166 

Spatter  cone  near,  184 

Steam  <-l(iiid  (ixer,  166 

Vapors  from,   166 

\'ie\v  looking  down  into.  174 
Halema 'uma 'u   (vrc  Ma'u) 
Hatiling  sugar-cane.  274 
Half  beak    |  lheihe|.350 
Half  bill,   Hawaii,  332 

Maui.  334 


550 


INDEX. 


Half -bills  (Fish),  358,  364 

Haleone.  A  shelter  built  as  a  temporary  resi- 
dence   {see  plate  5,   fig.   4.) 

Ham  maggots,  405 

shell   [Hihiwai],  456 
Haiiiakua  coast,  151 

Hawaii,  150 

Shore  line  of,  150 

spider,  410 
Hamnier-heailed     shark     [Mano     kihikihi], 

340,  34(5 
Hana,  139 

Haiiai  poepoe,  57,  70 
Hanalei,  Coast  view  at,  102 

river,  106,  107 
Hanamaulu,  Kauai,  102 
Hanapepe  valley,  1"7 
Hanauma  Bay  (Oahii),  111,  128,  131 
Hand  fishing,  242 
Handles,  Kahili,  77 
Hand-picking  coffee,  270 
Hanging  valleys  on  Hawaii,  151 

Haniu.  The  thick,  heavy  end  of  a  cocoanut 
leaf,  used  in  beating  the  bottom  and  sides 
of  a   tare   pond  to  render  it  water-tight. 

Happiness,  Abode  of,  50 

Hapu  ili  [Heii],  222 

iii   (sec  Hajiu  ili) 

Hapu  'u  pu  'u,  369 

Hapuupuu   (Grouper),  362,  349 

Harbor.  Anchorage  (Depths  in  fathoms).  HA- 
WAII— Hilo  Bay,  2-7  (deeper  at  entrance)  ; 
Kawaihae,  7;  Kaihia,  7:  Keauhou,  2-8; 
Kealakekua.  8-20.  MAUI  —  Kapuehokahi 
(Hana)  Bav,  6-8:  Kahului,  4-7:  Napali,  3-5: 
Lahaina  Road,  10-20:  Maalaea  Bav,  6-10; 
Makena,  8.  MOLOKAI — Kaunakakai,  3-10. 
OAHU — Honolulu  Harbor,  3.5  feet  (33  feet 
at  entrance),  well  dredged:  Pearl  Harbor 
dredged  channel  31  feet  (East  Loch  3-6, 
Middle  Loch  1-5,  West  Loch  1-9):  Ha- 
nauma, 4-8:  Kaneohe  Bay,  4-10  (at  en- 
trance 15  feet):  Laie  Bay,  4-5:  Wainiea,  9: 
Waialua,  2-6:  Port  Waianae  (open  roadstead 
and  steamer  landing).  KAL^AI — Hanalei, 
5-7  :  W^aimea,  3-4  :  Hanapepe,  3-6  :  Nawiliwili 
Harbor,  3-5  (at  entrance  22  feet):  Hana- 
maulu Bav,  3-6.  MIDWAY  —  Seaward 
Road  41/2-7    (into  Wells  Harbor,  31/2). 

Harbor,  Honolulu,  109 

Pearl,  109,  211 
Harbors  (><('('  Bays,  etc.) 

and  landings  on  Hawaii,  148 

and  landings  on  Kauai,  104 

and  landings  on  Maui,  134 

on  Oahu,  110 
Hardwood  flooring,  215 
Hare,  Sea,  467 
Harrow,  ("hinese,  282 
Harp-shell,  C'oncoid,  460,  252 

Hau.  Usually  meaning  the  name  of  a  tree  the 
bark  of  which  was  made  into  tapa,  ropes, 
etc.,  but  the  word  also  means  snow,  ce, 
frost,    and    is    apiilied    to    a    cool    breeze. 

Hau,  198,  201 

moth,  397 

Native  use  of,  80 

Uses  of,  201 

tree  bark,  use  of,  71 
Hauhele,  202 
Ilaukeuke,  487 


Haupu,  105 

Hawaii,  A  round-up  on,  282 

Agricultural   Exi)eriinent   Station,   281, 
2.83 

Agriculture  in,  2(i9 

Bays  on,  148 

Capes  on,  148 

Cattle  raising  in,  282 

Cave  in  lava  flow  (Rainbow  falls),  160 

Characteristic  gulch  on,  150 

Characteristic  shore-line  on,  150 

coast  scenery,  344 

Cocoanut  Island,  150 

'Crater  lake'  on,  160 

Distances  on  (.s'rr  Overland  Distances) 

Districts  on,  148 

elepaio,  337 

Elevations  on  indicated,  148 

Fishing  scenes  in,  344 

Forest  scenes  on,  200 

General  views  on,  154,  156,  160,  162 

half-bill,  332 

Hamakua,  150 

Hanging  valleys  on  ,151 

High  flumes  on,  274 

Highest  ]>oint  on,  147 

Hilo  Bay,  view  of,  352 

Tee  on  mountains  of,  151 

Island  of,  147 

Kilauea  on,  166 

Kohala  range  on,  149 

Kona  district  on,  182 

Landing  at  Laupahoehoe,  154 

Lava  boulder  on,  160 

Light-houses  on,  148 

Livestock  in,  282,  287 

Maj.  of,  148 

Map  showing  recent  lava  flows,  148 

Mauna  Kea  on,  154 

Miscellaneous  views  on,  150 

Natural  environment  in,  9 

Northeast  coast  of,  154 

No  snakes  in,  299 

Number  of  peculiar  i)lants  on,  193 

Onomea  arch  on,  150 

Part  in  whaling  imlustry,  303 

Position  of,  100 

Pele  's  .journey  to,  89 

Points  on,  148 

Ports  and  landings  on,  148 

Pheasants  in,  307 

Rainbow  Falls  on,  160 

Rice  in,  276 

Rivers  on,  147 

Roads  on,  148 

Scenery  on,  150,  156,  170 

Sea-cliffs  on,  154 

Sea-formed  cliffs  on,  150 

Sea-snakes  in,  299 

Secondary  craters  on    (indicated),  143 

Size  and  position  of,  147 

Snow  on  mountains  of,  151 

Spirit  leaps  on,  50 

Stages    in    geological    development    of, 
290 

Streams  on,   148 


INDEX. 


551 


Steamship  lines  to,  100 

Siij^ar  ])rO(iuctii)ii   in,  -"•'' 

Territory  of,  99 

Tropical  fruits  in,  iM.") 

Valleys  on,  148 

Vegetation  on,  156,  160 

Volcanoes  on   (indicated),  148 

Volcanic  scenerv  on,  156,  160,  162,  166, 

170,   174 
Waterfalls  alonj;  the  coast   of,   154 
Waterfalls  on  [Akala|    (.lOO  feet),  162 
Waipio  valley  on,  154 
Hawaii's  Volcanoes,  Work  of,  163 

Hawaiian    a    name   language.       The    Hawaiian    lan- 
guage   is    sometimes    classed    as    a    name    lan- 
guage   owing    to    the    great    number    of    name 
words   it    contains.        Definite   names   were   ap- 
plied  to   almost    every   ol).iect    in    their   environ- 
ment. 
Hawaiian  {sec  alsn  Native),  429 
aquatic,  294 
agriculture,  (Jo 

alphabet,  Pronunciation  of,  39 
alphabet,  The,  39 
amusements,  74 
Ancient  gods  of  the,  49 
armor,  79 
arrow-root,  284 

archipelago.  Development  of,  290 
arts,  74 

back-scratchers,  62 
bark-cloth  clothing,  38 
bat,  295 
bed,  72 

birds  becoming  extinct,  338 
birds.  Common,  337 
birds,  Evolution  of  the,  338 
birds.  Extinct,  333 
bird  groups,  310 
birds.  Origin  of  the,  338 
birds.  Peculiar  family  of,  336 
birds.  Rare,  333 
birds,   Six   interesting.   327 
birds.  Various  or<lers  of,  323,  £27 
broom,   (52 
boy,  32 

1)0W  and  arrow.  Si 
Brownies,  Work  of,  3o9 
burial  cave,  52 
cabinet  wood,  21 1 
candy,  210 
carving,  .19 
children.  32 

children,  how  dressed,  38 
centi]>e.ies.  390,  407 
checkers,  sti 
crickets,  429 

coot  [Alae  keokeo),  323,  326 
cosmetics,  215 
crow  [Alala],  327,  335 
cub-shark   lMano|,  340 
Cytherea,  456 
dialect,  27 
dirge,  42 
divers.   S() 
dogfish,  346 
domestic  aiiinials,  295 


duck    IKoloa  maoli],  323,  328,  335 
Experiment  Station   {xrc  Hawaii  Agri- 
cultural Exp.  Station) 
edible  mussel   |Nahawele|,  456 
Entomological  Society,  I'roc,  411 
fans,  70,  62 

flora.  Striking  plants  in,  194 
feudalism,  55,  56 
fish  baskets,  70 
fish  ])askets  and   nets,  341 
fish,  L'ommon,  366 
fish,  Curious,  366 
fish,  Species  of,  351 
fish  traps,  70 
fishes,  374 

fishes   (I'art  one),  338 
fishes  (Part  two,  348 
fishes,  (Part  three),  360 
finch-like  birds,  331 
fire})lace,  59 
forest  birds,  328 
folk  songs,  41 
fortifications,  51 
fruits,  264 

Gallinule   [Alae], 323 
games  of  chance,  86 
girls,  32,  84 
genealogies.  2(i,  41 
goose  [NeneJ,  310,  323,  335,  336 
goose,  food  of,  255 
grouj).  Affinities  of  ])lants  of,  193 
grouj).  Biologic  evidence  of  subsidence 

of,  124 
group,  Geologic  develoi>ment  of,  290 
group,  low  islands  of,  89 
group,  Positio!!  of,  100 
group.  Theory  of  formation  of,  121 
group.  Stages  in  isolation  of,  123 
group.  Submarine  base  of,  123 
group.  Subsidence  of  shown,  290 
hawk   [lo],  323,  327,  336 
heralds,  53 

herring  [Makiawa],  350 
honey-dew  honey,  391 
historians,  41 
history,  41 
house,  40,  56 

house.  Furnishings  for,  56 
implements,  74 

Hawaiian  igneous  rocks  (analyses  of):  Various 
samples  analyzed  by  Dr.  Washington  exhibit 
the  following  variations  in  chemical  composi- 
tion given   in   per  cent. 

Class  DOSALANK.  including  specimens  of  Ande- 
site,  Augite,  Basalt,  etc..  contains;  SiOj 
from  58.06  to  45.61:  AU)..,  from  18.21  to 
15.98:  Fe-.0:i  from  8.2."5  to  2.2:i :  KeO  from 
11.60  to  2.01:  MgO  from  4.85  to  1.59:  CaO 
from  11.85  to  :i.29:  Xa.O  from  6.12  to  .S.50: 
KjO  from  2.80  to  0.80:  TiO-  from  5.:^5  to 
trace:  H.O  from  0.27  to  none:  Pi-O.-,  from 
0.72  to  trace:  MXO  from  0.36  to  trace:  SO:- 
from  0.20  to  none:  S  from  0.05  to  none: 
CuO  from  0.05  to  none;  Sp.  Gr.  from  3.0:i 
to   2.94. 

Class  SALFRMAXK.  including  specimens  of 
Basalt.  Pele's  Hair.  etc..  contains:  SiO; 
from  56.79  to  47.61:  Al.O:,  from  16.09  t. 
12.10;  Fe.O.i  from  9.65  to  :5.09;  FeO  from 
11.97  U)  2.61;  MgO  from  9.40  to  1.90; 
CaO   from    10.25   to  5.92:    Na-O   from   5.95  to 


552 


INDEX. 


2.98:  KoO  from  1.80  to  0.30:  H.O  from  1.19 
to  none:  TiO^  from  3.97  to  none:  P0O5  from 
0.76  to  trace:  MnO  from  1.72  to  O.'lO :  SO3 
from  2.54  to  none;  CiiO  from  0.48  to  none  : 
S  from  0.02  to  none:  Cr-Os  from  trace  to 
none:  Sp.  Gr.  from  2.93  to  2.74. 
"INFERIOR  ROCKS',  including  specimens  of 
tuff.s,  ashes  and  decomposed  rocks,  contains: 
SiO-.  from  50.00  to  4.54:  A1.,0-,  from  41.35 
to  12.10:  FeoOa  from  40.87  to  7.82:  FeO 
from  8.20  to  trace;  MgO  from  11.75  to 
0.37  :CaO  from  13.39  to  trace;  Na..O  from 
5.23  to  trace:  K^O  from  1.77  to  trace:  HoO 
from  1.87  to  none;  TiO^  from  8.99  to  trace; 
P2O5  from  1.25  to  none:  MnO  from  1.13  to 
trace:  CO2  from  5.56  to  none:  SO3  from  0.55 
to  none:  CuO  from  0.14  to  none:  S  from 
0.14  to  none;  FeS  1.40  to  none;  CoO  from 
0.04  to  none;   sp.   Gr.  from  2.80  to  2.77. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  Climate  of,  31 
Bird  Reservation,  93,  94 
Extent  of,  93 
Geography  of,  89-188 
Geology  of,  89-188 
Leeward  islands  of,  88 
Pilsbry  theory  of  isolation  of,  121-124 
Principal   ])orts   in,   100 
Position  of,  100,  93 
Teniiieratiire  in,  33 
To]iography  of,  89-188 
Jew's  harp,  83 

land  shells.  Important  genera  of,  448 
language,  Character  of  the,  39 
language.  The,  39 
language,  when  first  written,  39 
legends,  41 

lips   (characteristic),   38 
lobster,  468 

mahogany  [Koa],  194,  211 
markets,  74 

medicinal  jdants  numerous,  79 
medicine,  79 
medical  diagnosis,  79 
method  of  cooking  birds,  324 
method  of  embalming,  223 
mistletoe    [Kaumahanal,  214,   225 
keeper   [kahu],  57 
kissing  bug,  402 
mirror,   62 
Middle-aged,  60,  68 
moon  flower,  202 
modern  music,  42 
mountains.  Ice  on,  1.)1 
mouse,  295 
napkins,  62 

nose  of  (characteristic),  38 
ornaments,  38 
Old,  25,  60 
oyster  [Pioeoe],  466 
]>eoi)le  and  their  natuial  history,  86 

Ancestors  of,  26 

Bearing  the  names  of,  37 

Giants  among  the,  37 

Height  of,  37 

Literary  efforts  of  the,  41 

Note  on  text  on  the,  1 1 

Personal  appearance  of  the,  37 

Physical   characteristics  of,  24,  37 

Point  of  origin  in  the.  26 

Stature  of,  37 

The  (Section  one),  25-87 


Hawaiian  j)erfumes,  21 

pillow  [uluna],  57,  62 
pipe,  284 
poets,  41 

poetry.  Example  of,  41 
poltice,  79 

race,  Development  of,  31 
race,   Early  and   later  conditions   com- 
pared, 31 
race.  Early  immigration  of,  26 
race.  Early  records  how  preserved,  41 
race,  establishment  of,  30 
race.  Progress  of,  31 
race.  Transformation  of,  31 
rats,  291 

rays  and  sharks,  340 
red  birds,  329 
reefs,  485 

reef  at  low-tide,  472 
rail  [Moho],  327 
rice,  276 
rubber,  283 
salt,  73,  129 
sanctuaries,  51 
seal,  294,  303 
sharks   and    rays,  340 
shore  birds,  Groups  of,  310 
short-eared  owl,  336 
singing,  42 
soap  (jdant),  204 
songs,  41 
spearing  fish,  344 
sjionges.  Common,  494 
spoon,  62 
starch,  284 

stilt  [Kukuluaeo],  310,  327,  325 
stormy  petrel  [Oeoe],  323,  309 
sword,  81 

temples  of  refuge,  51 
tern   [Noio],  310,  316,  323,  311,  318 
tern,  Colony  of,  316 
thrush  [Om'au],  334,  331 
tobacco,  2S4 
traditions,  41 
tools,  74 

top  shell,  460,  466 
traveler,  68 
ty]ie,  68 
white  ant,  425 
woman,  60 
women  's  dress,  38 
words  when  first  written,  39 
youth,  80 
Hawaiians,  adornment  of,  38 
An  appreciation  of,  3] 
and  the  struggles  for  existence,  45 
as  native  i)eo]de,  31 
at  home,  84 

attachment   for  children,  45 
Betting  among,  S(i 
Characteristics  of   (■*>•''    nxJo  nose,  hair, 

eyes,  etc.),  31,  38 
Cleanliness  of,  38 
Color  of,  38 
Corimlency  among,  38 
<  Idthiiig  of,  3S 


INDEX. 


553 


Descent  of  rank  aiiioii"^,  46 

Division  of  labor  among,  59 

Early  achievements  of,  27 

Early  Settlement  of,  2() 

excelled  in  tapa  making,  77 

Exchange  of  wares  among,  74 

Eyes  of  (Characteristic),  38 

Features  of,  38 

Family  (;liscii)ine  ani6ng,  45 

Feudal  organization  of,  47,  54 

Hair  of,  38 

Habits  of,  due  to  environment,  39 

ideal  of  personal  beauty,  38 

ignorant  of  continents,  27 

Infanticide  among,  45 

Insane  among,  45 

Large  skeletons  of,  38 

Life  of,  in  the  open,  39 

Long  voyages  of,  2tj 

Lyric  talent  of,  42 

Marriage  among,  42,  45 

Nose  of  (Characteristic),  38 

Old.  84 

Old  age  among,  45 

Occupations  of,  63 

Political  development  of,  31 

Polynesian  affinities  of  the,  25 

Polynesian  ancestry  of,  25 

Physical  conditions  effecting,  36 

Rank  and  position  among,  54 

Eeligion  of  the,  47 

Separation  among,  45 

Sex  relations  among,  42 

Tattooing  among  the   (-s't'c  also  Tattoo- 
ing), 38 

The  chiefs  and  common  jieople  among, 
38 

The  culture  of  the,  31 

the  first  settlers,  25 

their  methods  of  warfare,  47 

Traditions  of  origin,  etc.,  26 

Types  of  old,  24 

Use  of  material  at  hand  by,   75 

Use  of  whale-ivory  by,  302 
Hawaii-nei,  Position  of,  101 
Hawk,  Hawaiian,  323,  327,  336 

-moth,  421 
Hawks-bill  turtle,  300 
Headfish  [ApahuJ,  374,  358 
Heart-shaped  clam,  446 

-shaped  urchin,  487 

shell,  456,  446 
*' Heart's   desire,"   The   land   of,   231 
Heat  cracks  at  Kilauea,  1  79 

Popping  corn  over,  184 
Hebrew  cone,  460,  455 
Hedge,  Cereus,  254 

plants,  251 

Hei  [Cat's  cradle],  which  -s'T" 

Heiau.  Usually  meaniiiK  a  large  temple  i)f 
idolatry  among  the  Hawaiians,  but  it  was 
also  the  name  of  the  house  for  the  gods  in 
every  man's  regular  establisliment,  as  well 
as  for  the  small  secret  enclosure  in  the 
large  temple. 


Heiaii  at    Kavvaihae,  Entrance  to,  48 

lliiliopai,  on  Molokai,  140 

of  Mookini,  343 

of  I'liukihola,  48 

])yramidal  type.  48 
Heiau s,  5u 

dedicated  to  sj)ecial  gods,  5(t 

Fish,  339 

Milo  in,  203 

Number  of,  50 

The  priests  for,  50 
Heii  (tree  fern),  190,  194 
Helmet  [Mahiole],  44  77,  333 

shells,  4()l 
Heliotrope,  Beach,  192,  199 
Helix,  439 

He  makau  (see  fish-hook) 
Hemerobians,  424 
Hemisplierical  scale,  391 
Henshaw,  Prof.  Henrv  W.   (Biologist),  12, 

14,  299 
Hepatica,  214 

Hepaticae.  In  1877  D.  D.  Baldwin  eiuunerated 
73  species.  Dr.  C.  Montague  Cooke  and 
others  have  added  several  species  since., 
bringing    the    total    up    to    near    one   hundred. 

Heralds,  Hawaiian,  53 

Heralds'  horn  shells,  464 

Herb.  A  plant  not  woodv  alx)ve  the  ground,  if 
at   all. 

Herbert,  Allen   (Agriculturist),  445 

Herbivorous  (365).  Feeding  upon  vegetable 
matter. 

Hercules '  club,  252 

Hereditary  jioets  and  historians,  41 

Hermit  crab,  474,  471 

crabs.  House-hunting  by,  471 

shell,  460 
Heron,  P>lack-crowned  night,  310,  325 
Herring,  358 

Hawaiian,  350 
Hevea,  rubber,  283 
Hia   (see  Aulima) 
Hibiscus,  213 

Cotton  related  to,  2^1 

Cultivated,  251 

Varieties  of,  251 
Hides     and     tallow,     Animals     slauL'htereil 

for,  287 
Higgins,  J.  E.  (Horticulturist),  12 
High  cliiefs,  how  buried,  52 

mountains.  Plant  life  of,  210 

points  on  Oahu    (indicated),  110 

-tide,  The  reef  at,  478 
Highest  mountain  in  the  Pacific,  147 
Height   of  Hawaiians.  37 

of  Polynesians,  37 
Hiiiimanu  (Sjiottcd   stingray).  340,347,349 
Hihiwai.  436 

Hihiwai,  (Hnni  shell),  456 

Hiliu.        'I'hc    sdiiiid    iiiiiiliici'd    by    a    shell    trumpet 
iiiiak;i.  41 
Hil]e])ran(i,   Dr.   \V.   F.   (  I'.otanist),  189.   191. 

195.  21)1,  2i)S.  21 1,  3nfi 
Hilo  Bay,  Cocoanut   island  in,  150 

Bay,  Fishing  scene  in,  352 

Bay.  Mauna  Kea  in  distance,  352 


36 


554 


INDEX. 


coast  (fig.  4),  194 

coast,  151 

coast  at  Lauiiahoehoe.  154 

described,  175 

Distances     from     (srr     Overland     Dis- 
tances) 

grass,  208,  286 

grass,  when  introduced,  28(5 
Hilu,  349,  359 

Hilu  lauwili  (Wrasse  fish),  370 
Hihi  pilikoa,  354 
Hinahina,   198 
Hinalea  lauwili,  349,  359 
Hind,  369 
Hinnites,  445 
Hijijioiiyx,  462 

Hipuapua^(Hii)Uiiua)  falls,  140,  133 
Histerid  beetles,  417 
History  of  Diamond  Head,  219 

of  Oahu,  219,  22(l,  221 

of  Kilanea,  Condensed,  183-188 

of  Mokuaweoweo,  155-163 

of  the  eruptions  of  Mauna  Loa,  155 
Historians,  Hawaiian,  41 
Hitchcock,    D.    Howard    (Artist),    Painting 

of  Halemaumau,  Plate  47,  No.  2 
Hitchcock,    Prof.    Charles    H.    (Geologist), 

12,  101,  115,  119,  120,  152,  153,  155 
Hoarv  Head  range,  105 
Hoawa,  212,  220 
Hog  louse,  400 

HoiK  plum  (SpuiicUas  hitea  Linn.)  or  golden  apple 
of  Jamaica  or  Jamaica  plum  is  rare  in  Ha- 
waii although  cosmopolitan  in  the  tropics.  It 
is  a  tall  tree  with  yellow  ovoid  fru'ts  some- 
times 2  inches  long,  and  odd-pinnate  leaves 
in  panicles  6  inches  to  a  foot  long. 

Hogs,  287 

teeth  bracelets,  82 

Wild,  295 
Hoi  (Black  mamo),  335 

(Yam),  213 

Hoilo.  The  season  of  the  year  answer'ng  to  win- 
ter in  the  northern  latitudes.  The  opposite 
season   or  kau   was  the  hot   summer  season. 

Hollyhock,  281 

Holoku  or  dress,  32,  60 

Home  life  of  {^cc  species  in  question) 

scene,  Hawaiian,  84 
Honaunau,  City  of  refuge  at,  48,  182 
Honey,  391 

Algaroba,  243 

bee,  404,  415 

dew,  381 

dew,  secreted  by,  391 

-eater,  Laysan,  314,  320 

-eater,  Yeilow-tufted.  330 
Honu  (Green  turtles),  294,  299 
Honuapo,  Eoad  from  Kilauea  to,  182 

Honohonowai  (often  contracted  to  'honohono'). 
The  name  of  the  day-flower  (CommeUna 
iiinlifldrn  Linn.),  a  representative  of  the 
s])iderwort  family,  sometimes  called  spider- 
wort,  bearing  small  liliie  irregular  flowers. 
Growing  on  alluvial  banks  and  moist  places 
throughout  the  group.  This  Amer'can  plant 
with  jointed,  creeping,  often  branching  stems. 
bearing  parallel  nerved  leaves  with  sheathing 
jietiole   is   much    used   as   feed   for   livestock. 

Honolulu  as  the  center  of  the  grou]!.  101 


Appearance  of,  231 

compared  witli  Kew  Gardens,  232 

First  imjiressions  of,  231 

flower.  Hibiscus  as  the,  251 

gardens,  Blossoms  from,  250 

garden,  Ramble  in  a  (Part  one),  231 

garden.  Ramble  in  a  (Part  two),  243 

gardens.   Views  in,  240,  246 

harbor,  109 

statue,  The,  44 

Streets  of,  232 

Name  derived  from,  211 

to  various  island  ports   (.s-rr  Distances, 
etc.) 

to    various    Pacific    ports    {sec    Ocean 
distances) 

Position  of,  110 
Honomu,  176 

Akala  falls  (500  ft.)  in,  162 
Hook,  Fish  (iter  fish  hooks) 

Shark,  343 
Horn-worm,  Sweet-potato,  399 
Horned  helmet  shell,  461 
Horned-nut,   Chinese,   285 

-l>out,  377 
Hornets,  414 
Horse  Cassia,  244 

chestnut,  283 

-hoof  shells,  462 

-weeil,  212 

Horses,  287 

introduced,  295 
Horn  fly,  387,  419 

shell,  470 
Horse  bot-flv,  387,  421 

-hoof  shell,  470 

Sea,  350 

Hotel  at  Kilauea,  166 

Horticulture,  Enemies  of,  381 

Host.       An    animal    or   plant    upon    which    a    para- 
site  habitually   lives. 

House,  A  temporary,  40 

cockroaches,  428 

fly,  387,  419 

fly  parasite,  387 

for  idols,  58 

for  isolation,  58 

foundation  for  a,  58 

furnishings,  59 

lizards,  297 

Men  's  eating,  58 

mouse,  293 

Rethatched,  59 

Sleejdng,  58 

s]>iders,  4(l9 

Thatching  for  a,  ."9 

The  building  of  a,  58 

Timbers  used  in  a,  58 

Time  emjiloyed  in  building  a,  59 

Women's  eating,  58 
Household  implements,  61 

pests,  405 

pets,   Sjdders  as,   410 

utensils,  56 
How  to  collect  algsE,  500 
Hu    (-scr  Top  sjiinning) 


INDEX. 


555 


Huahekili   (Hua  =  pgg.  liekili  =  thun(h'i-).       A   "tliuii 
der  egg":   a  hailstone.       It   pcncrally   tlniiulers 
during    hailstorms    in     tlii'    mountains    of     Ha- 
waii. 

Huahua  akai,  479 

Huakai.        Una,    foam   of   the   sea.   henee   a    sjmnfre. 
Hualalai,  \r>-2 

Eruption  of  1801,  152 

Position   of,  indicated,  l-iS 
Hue,  490 

Hukaa.  A  general  name  for  pitch,  resin  or  gum 
from  a  tree. 

Hula.  A  term  ajjplied  by  Hawaiians  to  music, 
singing  and  dancing.  The  dance  took  man>' 
forms,  usually,  however,  a  few  danced  while 
others  sang  and  played  instruments.  The 
hula   god   was   Laka    {see   plate    15). 

ala'a  papa  (stanaz  from),  41 

anklets,  78 

dancer,  40 

dancers,  Six,  78 

drums,  82 

drum,  Gourd,  57 

drum  heads,  346 

drum  [pahu  hula].  Large,  64 

drums  of  cocoauut  wood,  70 

girl,  78 

musicians,  78 

Musical  instruments  for  the,  82 

skirt,  82 

The,  81 

The  profanation  of  the,  82 

Translation  of  stanza  from,  41 
Hulas,  41 

Hull,  The,  how  planted,  (io 
Hull  of  a  canoe,  how  made,  80 
Humahuma,  37.5 

nukunuku  a  pua  "a,  375 
Human  hair,  Leis  of,  79 

hair,  use  of,  81 

flea,  401 

sacrifice  (see  Sacrifice) 

teeth  as  ornaments,  70 
Hummino-bird  moth,  398,  399,  421 
Huin]i-liacked  cowry  [Leho],  460,  458 
Humjtback  whale,  301 
Humuhumu      nukunuku     ajaia 'a      (Trigger 

fish),  370,  349 
Hunting  land  shells,  437 

-spider,  409 
Hut  built  on  Green  islet,  90 
Hybrid  pheasants,  308 
Hydra,  Fresh  water,  475 
Hydrocorallina',  481 
Hydroids,  475,  480 

I 

Tako  (part  of  outrigger),  80 

Tanthina,  464 

Tao  vallev   (Maui),  134 

valley,  138 
Ice  on  Hawaiian  mountains,  151 
Ideal  of  personal  lieautv  among  Hawaiians 

38 
Idlewild,  141,  143 
l.lol,  57 
Idolatry,  49 


Idol,   Moorish.   370,   MCI 

Small,  57 

Wooden,  52 

worship,  49 

worshij)  and  fishitig,  73,  339 
Idols  carved  from,  211 

House  for,  58 

how  disposed  of,  52 

of  wood  and  stone,  49 

used  in  warfare,  53 

worshiped  bv  fishermen,  73 
1  'e  dcfiiied,   339  " 
leie,  190,  202,  211 

Natural  habit  of,  190 

roots.  Use  of,  77 

T^ses  of,  211 

vines,  Natural  habitat  of.  200 
le  kuku  (scr  Tapa  beaters) 
Iheihe  (Half-beak),  350,  349,  358 

Ihi.  The  name  of  the  pigweed  (Pntutacn  olrraee  i 
Linn.),  the  roots  of  which  were  used  in  na- 
tive  medicine   as   a    mild   cathartic. 

Ihi  (I'urslane),  196 

Iholena.  A  variety  of  banana  which  was  permitti-d 
to  be  eaten  under  the  Icapu   system. 

Iholena,  259 

liwi,  334,  329,  430 

Use  of  feathers  of,  77 
Hiiliopai,  Heiau  of,  140 

Information  about  60 
Hiiopoi  (error  sir  Iliilio]>ai) 

Ilikala.  The  name  of  the  rough  shark  skin 
fastened  over  a  cocoanut  shell  to  form  a 
drum. 

Iliki.  A  kind  of  varnish  made  of  kukni  T)ark, 
etc. 

Hima,  192,  203,  209 

lei,  78 

Species  of,  209 

uses  of,  209 
Ilioha=Iliohe 

Iliohe  (Fleal)ane  or  horse-weed).  212,  2S7 
Illuminating  oils,  62 
Illustrations,  Credit  for,  14 

Number  of,  7 

Immigrations,  Early,  26 

Immigrant.  A  species  occurring  elsewliere  but 
having  reached   the   islands  by   natural   means. 

Implements,  Hawaiian,  74 

of  stone,  bone  and  wood,  74 

of  warfare,  79 
Tm])ortant  economic  insects  (I'art  one),  38) 

economic  insects  (Part  two),  391 

food   fish,  348 

Tmu.  \  place  for  baking  made  by  healing  stones 
under  ground    {xcr  plate  4). 

llliu.    210 

how  made,  (i() 

Shells  cooked  in   an,  465 
In a,   4S5 

eleele.  485 

keokeo,496,  485 

liilii,  496 

Inamona.  The  meat  of  the  kukui  luit.  roasted 
and  pounded  ui)  with  salt,  used  as  a  relish 
at    table. 

Incas  of  I 'cm.  293 


556 


INDEX. 


Index  to  glossary,  Note  on  the,  10 
India.  219,  221,  225,  242,  245,  27(i,  29r),  36:i. 
400,  407 

cotton  l)oll  worm,  4(t() 

Pri<le  of,  244 

rubber  tree,  245 
Indian  <1ate,  245 

licorice,  207 

shot,  207 

shot,  uses  of,  207 
Indigenous  grasses,  286 
Indigo  [Tnikoa],  212,  207 

Uses  of  wild,  2()7 

When  introduced,  207 
Indo-China,  2(53 
Industries,  Agricultural,  270 

Coffee,  279 

New,  Cassava,  284 

New,  Castor  bean,  285 

New,  Fiber,  284 

New,  Peanuts,  285 

New,  Eubber,  281 

New,  Sisal,  280 

New,  Tobacco,  283 

Potato,  284 

Eice,  284 

Sugar,  284 

Tropical   {see  Sugar,  coffee,  rice,  etc.) 
Industry,  Animal,  287 

Chief,  271 
Infanticide,  45 

Explanation  of,  45 
Infantile  paralysis  transmitted  by,  419 
Inferior  rocks  (see  Hawaiian  igneous  rocks) 

Inflorescence.        The    arrangement    of    the    fliiwers 
on  the  stem. 

Inflorescence,  Deformed,  220 

Diseased,  202 
Inhal^ited  islands,  100 

islands.  The,  101 

islands,  Position  of,  lol 
Iniko  {error  see  Inikoa) 
Inikoa  (Indigo),  212,  207 
Injurious    plants    and    animals,    how    intro- 
duced, 271 
Ink,  Squid  {see  Pikopiko) 
"In  Memory  of  K-eeaumoku''  (dirge),  42 
Insane  among  Hawaiians,  45 
Insect  caliinets,  380 

fauna.  Character  of  native,  411 

fauna   {see  Total  insect  fauna) 
Insectory,  Interior  of  an,  380 
Insects  aft'ecting  {see  ]ilaiit  in  (|uestiou) 

Collecting  of,  38i) 

Common,  392,  398 

Conspicuous  Hawaiian,  392 

Control  of  by,  381 

Curious,  392 

Economic  (Part  one),  3so 

Economic   (Part  two),  391 

Familiar,  392 

groups  uot  yet  studied,  412 

Highest  order  of,  412 

important  <lestructive  sjtecies,  380 

Injurious    introduction   of    {xee  si^ecies 
in   rpiestion),   387 


Lantana,  383 

Lowest  living  order  of,  430 

on  Mamaki,  411 

Native,   44o 

Native  and  introiluced,  S92 

Nerve-winged,  423 

Some  economic,  384 

Study  of,  380 

Sugar-cane,  388 

Two-winged,  419 

Inside  of  Haleakala,  145 

Insigna  of  rank,  75 

Instrument,  Modern   [ukulele],  78 

Intensive  study  of  mamaki  insects,  411 

Intercourse  resumed  with  Polynesia,  27 

Inter-island   channels,   100 

Inter-island  channels.  Width  of:  Oahu-Molokai 
[Kaiwi],  23  miles:  Molokai-Maui  [Pailolo], 
8  m. :  Mani-I^anai  [Auau].  7  m. :  Hawaii- 
Maui  [  Aleiiuihaha  ],  26  m. :  Oahu-Kanai 
fKaieie  Waho],  63  m.  l  Kauai-Niihau 
[Kuraukahi],   15  m. 

Inter-island  (diannels  {srr  Depths  of) 
Inter-island  distances  by  sea  (.svr  Distances, 

etc.) 
Inter-island  variation  in  flora,  193 
Intoxicating  drink  [  Awa],  216 

[Okolehau],  210 
Intrigue  among  chiefs,  55 
Introduced.       A    species   imported   by    man. 
Introduced  and  native  fruits,  264 

animals,  231,  295 

birds,  304 

fish,  376 

fruits,  255 

grasses,  danger  from,  286 

plants,  205,  231 
jilants,  Effect  on  native  flora  of,  205 

jilants  ,Escaped,  200 

When   {see  species  in  question),  296 
Introduction  of  birds,  320 

of  destructive  insects,  380 

of  leaf-hopper  parasites,  382 

of  i)lants,  283 

of  sugar-cane,  271 

Invisible  dou])le,  49 

lo   (Hawaiian  hawk),  323,  327,  336 

loli,  291 

Ipecac,  Wild,  212 

Ipti.  The  general  name  for  all  kinds  of  gourds, 
calabashes  ,etc.,  and  for  containers  of  any 
kind  made  from  them. 

Tl>u,   209 

hula.   (Gourd  di'unis),  78 

nui,  209 

Ipu  Lono.  The  name  egiven  to  a  certain  class 
of  small  heiaus  liuilt  in  order  to  induce  rain 
in  time  of  drouth.  The  same  term  was  ap- 
plied to  a  sacred  calaljasli  kept  in  jjrivate 
houses  in  which  offerings  were  made  to  the 
family   gods. 

Irish   potatoes,  284 

lronwoo<l,  Australian,  237 

Irrigation   ditches,  27 

flume   (high),  274 

flume.   Modern,   28 

of  taro,  270 


INDEX. 


557 


Isaliella.  fowry,  470,  459 

^n-ape,   2()7 
Island  fruits,  255 

Gardner,  88 

Hawaii,  147 

Kauai,  88 

Kaula,  88 

Kahoolawe,  182 

Lahua,  88 

Lanai,  132 

Laysan,  88 

Lisianskv,  88 

Maui,  132 

Midway,  88 

Molokai,  132 

niorninj,f-<i]oi'v,  107 

Neeker,  88,  96 

Nihoa,  96 

Niihau,  88 

Oahu,  88,  109 

Ocean,  88 

The  pan-Hawaiian,  290 
Islands,  Leeward,  Klevations  of,  93 

Shoals,  etc.,  Mai>  of,  88 

The  inhabited,  100 
Isolation    of   fauna    graphically    cxjilained, 
290 

of  flora  praphicallj'  explained,  290 
Isthmus  of  Maui,  139 

"Neck  of  Maui,"  Example  of,  134 
Itch  mite,  401 
Ivory  and  tortoise  shell,  use  of,  60 

fishhooks,  242 

necklaces,  79 

hook   [palaoa],  60 
Ivy  scale,  391 
Twa  (Man-o'-war  biii 
Iwaiwa,  223 
Ixora,  249 
Ixora  named  for,  2-19 


310, 


J 


Jack  fruit  (Artornr/nis  iiiti'f/rifdiin  Linn.).  A 
tree  belnnsing  to  the  lireadfruit  genus,  and 
having  a  milky  .jniee.  The  leaves  are  4-6 
inches  hmg  and  are  variously  shai)ed.  The 
fruits,  which  are  usually  oval,  are  often 
enormous,  occasionallv  weighinjc  .oO  jjounds. 
They  occur  on  both  the  trunk  and  branches. 
The  green  rind  resemliles  the  breadfru't  in 
being  covered  with  rough  six-sided  knobs. 
The  pulp  is  seldom  eaten  owing  to  the  of- 
fensive odor.  This  tree  should  not  be  eon- 
fused  with   the   durion    (wbich   .sre)    . 

Jam,  Guava,  263 

Poha,  257 
Jamaica,  244,  296 
Jambosa  (.s'pc  Ohia  ai) 

Jamestown  weed  (limson  weed),  198,  2S7 
Japan,    23(5,    2(i{),    296,    297,    3(is,    345,    346, 

360,  376 
Jai>anese  beetle,  394,  415,  417 

beetle,  Enemies  of,  384 

beetle  on  grape,  267 

flower  peddler,  246 

goldfish,  376 

grass,  287 

palm,  237 

liheasant,  307 


plum,  266 

jioai-liers,  95 
Jasmine,  248 

Arabian,  248 

Snow-white,  248 

Sj.anisli,  250 
Jassids,  427 
Java,  207,  279,  280 

plum,  268 
Javelins,  79 
Jellv,  Guava,  263 
Jellyfish,  475,  480 
Jew-fish,  369 
Jimson    weed     [Kikaiiia]     (srr    .Tamestown 

weed),  198,  2S7 
Jingle  shell,  456 
Job's  tears,  198,  2(»7 

Uses  of,  207 
Jour)iey  to  Kilaiiea,  175 
Judd,  i)r.  A.  F.,  2S6 
Judd  street  cave,  129 

.Tujubi  (Zizi/iihiis  Jiijiihn  Ijam,).  Occ\irs  in  Ha- 
waii, having  been  introduced  originally  from 
China.  The  small  tree  is  characterized  by 
thorny  liranches  and  triple-nerved  leaves, 
which  are  alternate,  1-3  inches  long,  green 
above  and  nearly  white  beneath.  The  small 
axillary  flowers  are  followed  by  the  fruits, 
which  are  about  the  size  of  a  cherry  and 
yellow-green  when  ripe  and  bitter  to  the 
taste;  they  make  excellent  i)reserves.  Sev- 
eral varieties  are  grown  in  China  and  India 
and  more  than  one  occurs  in  Hawaii:  one  is 
known  as  the  Chinese  date. 

Jumping-spider,  409 

Jumping  the  rojie,  Game  of,  86 

Jungle,  Fern,  194 

K. 

Kaala,  132 

Vision  point  of  the  grouji,  132 
Kaapeape,  228 
Kaawau,  214 
Kadua  (scr  Ko)ia) 

sp.,  220 
Kaena  I'oint,  1(I9 

Surf  at,  122 
Kaeo,  the  high  ])oiiit  on   .Xiihnu,   liil 
Kahala  (Amber  fisli),  362,  349 
Kahana  a  drown(>d  vallev,   131 

bay,  128,  21  I 

bay,  Natives  fishing  at,  344 
Kahilvi,  27 

Useful     ])lants     and     animals     bionglit 
from,  29 
Kahili  (fly-flap),  60 
"  Kaliili"  Lobelia,  224 
l\;iliilis,  57,   77 

how    iii.'KJc,   77 

Siii;ill,  60,  70 

Kahoolawe  was  for  a  time  used  as  a  place  of 
exile  for  state  otTenders.  The  only  article  of 
food  produced  on  the  island  at  that  time  was 
sweet   potatoes,    in    a   small    quantity. 

Kahoolawe,    135 

Area  of,  237 

Island   of.  132 

Position  of,  100 

Kats  on,  291 


558 


INDEX. 


Kahoalii   (vr  Oi)elu  tabu) 

Kahii,  57 

Kahuku  Point.  109 

Kahului  Bay,  ]3s 

Distances     from     (scr     Overlaml     Dis- 
tances) 

Kahuna.  A  general  name  applied  to  such  per- 
sons as  have  a  trade,  an  art  or  practice  or 
profession.  Some  qualifying  term  is  gener- 
ally added,  but  in  Hawaiian  antiquities  the 
word  kahuiw  without  any  qualifying  term 
refers  to  the  priest  or  person  who  offers 
sacrifice. 

Kahuna (s),  54 

An  aged,  52 

and  the  tabu,  4(1 

doctors,  79 
Kahuna  lapaau    (Medicine  men)- 
Kaihia  Bay,  211 
Kaitnuki,  115 
Kaiulani's  flower,  248 
Kakonakona,  2(19 
Kaku,  349 
Kala,  372,  349 

Kalaipahoa  (Poison  god),  70 
Kalakaua,       Coronation       celebration       of 

(hula),  78 
Kealakekua  Bay,  182 
Kalalau  valley,  108 
Kalau=Kilau 
Kalauhauoni   peak    (3282    ft.)    [Kalawao], 

136 
Kalaupapa,  135 

Landing  at, 134 
Kalawao,  135 

Kalauhauoni  i)eak  shown,  1S6 

Leper  Settlement,  134 

Olokui   (460(J  ft.)   in  the  distance,  136 

Kalia.  A  common  tree  (Elwocarpus  bifidus  Hook, 
and  Arn.).  Its  flowers  are  stung  by  an 
insect  (see  plate  .56)  which  causes  them  to 
be  deformed.  The  red  growth  is  sure  to 
attract   attention. 

Kalia,  202 

Kaliumaa,  131 

Kaluha  (Nut  grass),  196,  212 

Kamaa  (Sandals).  Sandals  made  of  lauhala 
leaves,  etc..  were  worn  when  traveling  on 
rough  lava  and  similar  ])laces  in  the  open 
country. 

Karaakahala.  A  name  applied  to  several  speces 
of  Hawaiian  plants  belonging  to  the  same 
genus  (Luhordea  spp.),  but  especially  to  the 
yellow  flowered  species  on  Molokai  and  Oahu. 
Leis  made  of  these  sweet-scented  flowers  were 
tabu  to  the  common  people,  being  reserved 
for  the  use  of  the  high  chiefs  alone. 

Kamakua  peak,  133 
Kamalo,  Cloud  cap  over,  142 

Mountain  of  (Molokai),  142 
Kaniani,  59,  2(11,  222.  245 

grove,  Sacred,  140 

Native,  248 
Kamau,  337 
Kamehameha  butterfly.  392,  421 

Brig,  97 
Kamehameha  I.,  211,  221,  281,  295,  343 

Feather  robe  of,  75 

on  conservation,  221 

Statue  of,  44 


Kamehameha  111.,  300 
Kamehameha  V.,  266 

Kamole.  The  name  of  a  plant  (Polygonum 
ylabniin  Willd.)  common  about  taro  patches 
and  running  water  extending  its  rang  along 
the  water  courses  and  swampy  land  well  into 
the  mountains. 

Kamole,  212 

Kanae  valley,  144 

Kanaka  (Pacific  islander),  25 

Kanaloa,  49 

Kanapi.       Hawaiian   for   centipede. 

Kanawau,  224 

Kane,  49 

Kaneohe,  115 

Bay,  211 

craters,  121 
Kao  (fish  spear),  344 
Kapana,  214 
Kajiena  nehu,  341 
Kapiolani  breaks  the  spell  of  Pele,  171 

Park,  Drive  in,  234 
Kapoho,  1  76 
Kau    (see  Hoilo) 
Kau,  183 

Hawaii,  Dodder  in,  2()5 

The  summer  season  {see  Hoilo) 
Kauai,  103 

Age  of  (shown  Ijy  erosion),  106 

akialoa,  330 

Amakihi,  334 

Boys  on,  104 

Coast   line   of,   Tio 

Canons  on,  102,  104,  107 

Capes  on,  104 

Coral  reefs  aV)0ut,  103 

Description  of,  10] 

I'istances  on,  104 

Distances  on   (xcr  Overland  Distances) 

Districts    of,    104 

Exam])les  of  erosion  on.  106 

Geologic  development,  290 

Hanalei  bay,  102 

Hanalei  river  on,  106 

island,  88 

Lighthouses  on,  104 

Ma],  of,  104 

Miscellaneous  views  on,  102 

Number  of  native  jdants  on,  193 

(31okele  canon  on,  106 

Points  on  sea -coast,  104 

Position  of,  100,  104 

Relief  map  of,  104 

Rivers  and  streams  on.  104 

River  view  on,  102 

Roads  on,  104 

Secondary  craters  on,  104 

Secondary  volcanic  cones  on,  105 

Shore  scene  on,  102 

Soil  of,  105 

Sperm  whale  on.  298 

the  oldest  island.  193 

thrush,   330 

To{)ographic  maji  of,  104 

Towns  and  villages  on.  104 

Typical  village  on,  102 


INDEX. 


559 


^'alleys  on,  104 

^'illaJ)e  of  llanaiiiaulu,  102 

Villages  and  towns  on,  104 

Wailua  falls  on,  102 

Waterfalls  on,  102 

Wainiea  canon  on,  106 
Kauila,  213 

Native  use  of,  80 

uses  of,  '21o 
Kaula  Island,  88,   101 

Kauniahana    (Hawaiian   mistletoe),  214 
Kaumana  eaves,  1  7(i 
Kaunoa,  460 

Kau])o  sai'   (Maui),  134,  139,  144 
Kaupu    (Blaek-footed   albatross),  227,  319 
Kawaihae  Bay,  149 

Keiau  at,  48 
Kawakawa    (Little    tuna    or    Ijonito),    366, 

349,  363 
Kawalea  (Barracuda),  366 
Kawau,  224 

Kawelea   (Lizard-fish),  350,  349,  359 
Kealakekua  Bay,  84 
Keanakakoi,  a  pit  crater,  186,  178 

Floor  of,  186 

Map  of  showing,  148 
Keauliou,  Toboggan  slide  at,  1S2 
Keke,  367 

Kendricdv,  Caj-t.,  219 
Keona,  183 
Kewelea,  353 

Kevv  Gardens,  Honolulu  {'om]iared  with,  232 
Keyhole  limpets,  466 

wasps,  414 
Kiawe  (Algaroba  tree),  240 
Ki^Lielia  (xcc  Sausage  tree) 
Kihikihi,  Moorish,  370,  361 

Kiholo.        The    name    of    a    large    kind    of    a    hooli 

formerly    made   of   wood,    used   to    catch   sharL 

and   other  large   fish. 
Ki,  190,  59,  67,  221,  251 

leaf  skirt,  78 

leaves,  uses  of,  •i6 

roots,  use  of,  21  (• 

(see  Ti),  210 

uses  of,  190,  210 
Kikakapu    (Butterfly   fish),  370.  349,  353 
Kikania   (.limson  weed),  198 
Kilua,  223 
Kilau,  228 
Kilauapueo^Kilua 
Kilauea,  a  bubble  dome  in,  186 

Activitv  of  in   1902,   173 

Activity  of  in  1907,  173 

Ahanui'at,  206 

an  independent  cijiter,   165 

an  exjiloded  mountain,  167 

Ascent  of,  176,  1  77 

Cavern  in,  186 

Caves  in,  170 

Condition  at  in   1823,  169 

Condition  of  from  year  to  year,  1S3-188 

Condensed  historv  of,  183-188 

Dates  of  erui)tions  of,  183-188 

Depth  of,  170 

Descent  into  crater  of,   1  78 

Dimensions  of,   1<)5 


l-;rn|itions   of,   174 

Kru|>tion  of    17s!t,    ]()> 

Eruption  and  How  of  1840,  172 

Eruption  and   How  of  1892-94,   173 
l<;x,'ini])les   of   pali()(dioe   in,   184 

Explosive  eruption  at,    16s 

Fire  lake  in,  174 

l''irst  view  of  the  ciatci'.   177 

flow  of  1868,  159 

General  view  of,  166 

"Great  crack"  in  the  floor  of,  184 

Heat  cracks  at,  1  79 

Hotel  at,  166 

-iki,  170,  17S 

Floor  of,  170 

Map  of,  148 

showing  lava  streams,  170 

Koa  forest  at,  1  SI 

Lava  falls  in,  186 

Lava  floor  of,  166 

Lava  flows  in,  166,  174 

Lava  mounds  in,  186 

Lava  pool  in,  174 

Location  of,  164 

Maj)  of,  148 

Model  of,   173 

Number  of  eruptions  of,  169 

on  Hawaii,  166 

Pahoehoe  flows  in.  166 

Painui  at,  206 

Pele,  Goddess  of,  91 

Popi)ing  corn  in,  184 

Rise  and  fall  of  la\a  in,   li)7 

Ropy  lava  in,  186 

Scenes  along  the  road  to,  200 

Side  trips  f lom,  1  SI 

Spatter  cones  at,  1  79 

Staghorn  fern  at,  194 

Steam  cracks  at,  177 

Suljihur  banks  at,  170,  177 

Vegetation  at,  166,  170,  200 

Views  in,  174,  184 

Visit  to  in  1909,  175 

Waldron  's  ledge  at,  170 

Walls  of  shown,  184 
Killer,  3ol 

w-hale,  34(i 

Killifish,   37S 

Kilohana   crater.    1  o5 

Kingfisher.  A  strav  i):iii'  has  lieeii  reported 
by  Prof.  H.  W.  Heiisli.iw  from  Hihi.  The  skin 
of  one  of  them  is  now  in  Iln>  IJishoj)  Mnseiim, 
They  were  evidciUly  ocean  waifs,  as  tlie 
pail'  nieiUioncd  coiistitiite  tlie  onlv  record  of 
the  occnrrence  of   tlie   species   in    Hawaii. 

'King  of  the   heniiig, '  358 

of  the  nia(d\erel.  The,  358 

Street,  Government    Nursery,  238 

The,  and  the  lanil,  55 

The,  and  the  ]'ower,  54 

The,  and  the  tabu,  46 
Kinys,  The,  sacrifice,  51 
Kiokio,   83 
Kipahulu,   Ma\ii,   i:!'.t 
Kipi.   332 
Kipu   kai,    19:i 
Kirkaldy,  (i.   W.    (Entomologist),  425 


560 


INDEX. 


Kissing  bug,  Hawaiian,  4(il2,  42(5 

Khi=Kolu.  198,  205 

Knee-cap  shells,  4(i7 

"Knife-edge"  ridges   (Koolau   range),  130 

Knife  fishes  (Surgeon  fish),  372 

Koa,  202,  59,  207,  211,  226 

Curious  'leaves'  of,  211 

(Hawaiian  mahoganv),  194 

False,  198 

Native  use  of,  80 

use  of,  86,  211,  213 

used  in  canoes,  29 

A^arieties  of,  211 

wood.  Varieties  of,  21 1 
Koae   (Tropic  bird),  310,  259 

Use  of  feathers  of,  77 
Koaia,  226 
Koali,  197 
Koali  ai,  197 
Koe  (Marine  worn),  490 
Koebele,  Mr.  A.   (Economic  Entomologist), 

O  C  ^      O  Q  O 

Kohala   Mountains,   Age  shown   })y   erosion 
(Waipio),   154 

plantation,  one  of  the  first,  149 

Promotory,  an  exam]ile  of,  148 

range,   149 

range,  small  cones  in,  149 

Soil  of,  149 

spider,  410 

statue  of  Kamehameha  I.,  44 
Kohola  (Humpback  whale),  302 

Kohola.  A  reef,  a  dry  place:  hence  a  whale 
from  his  spouting  water  like  the  water  on 
the  reef.  The  flesh  of  the  whale  was  for- 
bidden   to   women   under   the   tabu   system. 

Kokio.  The  name  of  a  native  tree  belonging  to 
the  Malvacefv  occurring  on  Molokai  (rare) 
known  as  the  native  red  cotton  owing  to  its 
showv  red  flowers.  llie  bark  was  used  by 
the  natives  as  a   dye  for  fish  nets. 

Kokio,  2S1 

Koko  (plant),  2S3 

(Calabash  net),  68,  76,  59,  61 
crater  from  Koko  HeatI,  128 
Head,  472,  115,  121 

Kokolan,  220,  227 

Kolea.  A  name  applied  to  almost  all  of  the  sev- 
eral species  and  varieties  of  the  genus  Sut- 
tonia  common  on   all   islands. 

Kolea,  226,  324 

Kolea  (Pacific  golden  ]ilover),  310 

Kolealea,  470 

Koloa  maoli   (Hawaiian  <lu(dv),  323 

Koloa,  Spouting  horn  at,   108 

Kolokolo  kuahiwi,  230 

Kolu  (Klu),  205 

-bush  moth,  397 

Uses  of,  205 
Kona  coffee,  279 

thick-bill,  330 

weather,  31 
Konahuanui  (3105  feet),  125,  114 

Plants  from  summit  of,  224 

View    of,   from   01ym]nis   trail,   206 

Konane  was  a  checker-like  game  played  usually 
on  the  flat  surface  of  a  slab  of  sandstone  or 
lava     rock     in     which     a    varying    number    of 


small  depressions  were  dug  out  to  form  the 
stations.  Small  black  and  white  stones  were 
used  for  the  counters  in  the  game  (see  Ha- 
waiian   checkers). 

Kookolau^Kokolau 

Kookoolau=Kokolau 

Koolau  gap  (Maui),  134,  144 

mountains,  21 1 

mountains,  Age  of,  124 

mountains  ,Earlv  appearance  of,  220 

range,  114,  132  ' 

range,  Erosion  of  shown,  112,  130 

range,  mountains  in  the,  112 

range.  Structure  of  the  core  of,  125 

Kopa.  A  shrub  (Kadiia  spp.)  the  fruit  of  which 
is  made   into  beads. 

Kopiko.  Name  of  a  tree  {Straussin  spp.)  the 
wood  of  which  was  used  for  the  Eiia  or 
anvil  in  making  tapa ;  it  is  also  a  good 
firewood. 

Kopiko,  202,  220,  226 

Kou,  198,  .59,  61,  (i3,  201 

Krauss,    Prof.    F.    G.     (Agriculturist),    12, 

276,  281 
Kukailimoku,  the  god  of  war,  52,  77 
Knkai  neenee,  256 
Kukuluaeo  (Hawaiian  stilt),  327 
Kukui  (Candle  nut  tree).  202,  210,  226,  239 

a  recent  arival,  239 

gum,  239 

leaves,  use  of,  65 

nut,  57 

nut  leis,  57 

nuts,  use  of,  62,  71 

Wood  of  the,  239 

Ktimimi,  469 

Ku,  49 

Kua  kuku  (Wooden  tapa  anvil),  64 

Kualoa  headland.  111 

Kuhns  Bros.,  I).  B.  and  J.  M.,  447 

Kuhns,  D.  B.,  12 

Kukaepuaa,  286 

Kumquat  {Citrus  JaiKiuica  Thumb.)  or  kin-kan, 
is  a  native  of  China,  or  Cochin  China,  but  it 
has  long  been  known  in  Hawaii.  The  fruits 
are  small,  round  or  oval,  and  are  orange- 
like in  appearance.  In  America  it  is  com- 
ing to  be  prized  as  a  preserve:  the  sweet 
rind  and  the  pulp  may  be  eaten  raw.  The 
Chinese  make  excellent  preserves  of  the 
fruit.  Only  the  attacks  of  insect  pests  pre- 
vent this  fruit  from  more  general  cultivation 
in  the  islands.  The  rich  green  dense  foliage 
makes  a  truly  ornamental  as  well  as  useful 
tree. 

Kumquat,  265 

Kumu   (Goat-fish),  362,  349,  373 

Kupakala  (Rock  oyster),  456,  446 

Kupaoa.  A  plant  (RniUtirdii  scahra  D.  C.) 
used   to   scent   taiia. 

Kupaoa,  use  of,  71 

Kujiee   (sea  snail  shell), 470 

Kupee,  Wrist  ornament  of,  shells,  470 

Kupijii,  349 

Ku]iikipikio,  Map  showing;,  118 

Kupua.  A  sorcerer:  a  person  of  extraordinary 
powers  of  body  or  mind.  Sorcerers,  w  zards 
and  wit<'hes  are  fre(|uently  spoken  of  in  Ha- 
waiian antiquities  in  their  iaans  and  uieles 
as  things  that  existed  and  were  fully  be- 
lieved  in. 


INDEX. 


561 


KupOllJiOU,   r]49 

Kupukele,  444 
Kusaie  banana,  259 

Kiiiila,  a  fisli  ^od   (-st'    Sliarl;   <:()<1) 


Laau.  A  general  name  for  wliat  yrew  out  of  the 
ground,  liut  often  used  as  the  name  of  medi- 
cine. The  ancient  Hawaiian  medicines  were 
numerous,  and  consisted  mostly  of  mixtures 
of  leaves  of  trees,  bark,  roots,  etc.  Some 
were  excedingly  nauseous,  while  other  were 
very  acrid,  but  the  physicians  dejiended  more 
on  their  enchantments,  their  invocations  to 
the  gods  and  to  the  sacrifices  offered,  than  to 
the  virtue  of  their  medicines  as  such. 

Laau,  221 

Laborers,  Plantation,  274 

Labroid  fishes,  3")9 

Lace-winged  tiy,  Coninion,  424 

Ladder  shell,  470,  464 

Ladybird  beetles,  393,  416 

beetles,  Australian,  384 

Lady-bugs,  41(i 

Lady-fish,  3.54 

Lae,  349,  364 

Laeloa  craters,  Age  of,  124 

Lagoon  on  Tjaysan  Island,  316,  9-5 

Lahua   Island,  88 

La-i  (Lauki),  210 

Laie,   131,  211 

Laka,  Goddess  of  the  hula,  S2 

Lake,  Green,  on  Hawaii,  160 

Lama.  The  name  of  a  forest  tree  (Mnbii  Snndwi- 
cen^is  A. DC.)  common  on  all  the  islands  of 
the  group.  Its  very  hard  wood  was  much 
used  in  building  houses  for  the  gods  and 
always  occurred  as  an  alter  piece  in  the 
worship  of  laka,  the  goddess  of  the  hula. 
The  reddish-yellow  berries  and  thick,  leath- 
ery, dull  green  alternately  arranged  leaves 
are   conspicuous   characters. 

Lamb  tree,  The,  281 

Lainellibranehes.  443 

Laniellicorn  beetles,  417 

I.iam])-shells,  4.s3 

Lamps  [Kukui]  of  stone,  70,  (52 

Lanai.  A  bower,  a  shed,  a  piazza,  a  porch. 
The  term  is  in  very  general  use  in  Hawaii 
being  applied  to  any  form  of  an  oixMi  struc- 
ture  intended  for  shelter. 

Lanai,  13.5 

Dimensions  of,  135 

Highest   point   on,   135 

Island  of,  132 

Ma])  of,  134 

of  palm  leaves,  236 

of  hau,  201 

Position  of,  100 
Lananuu  (see  Oracle) 
Lance-fish,  372 

Lanceolate   (227).      Shaped   like  a   huice. 

Land  belonged  to  the  king.  54 
and  the  king,  55 

fauna.     Isolation     of     graphically     ex- 
plained, 290 


shells  , Color  variation  in,  432 

shells.  Important  families  of.  437 

shells,  Iini)ortant  genera  of,  448 

shells.  Significance  of,  121 

shells,  use  of,  77 

slide  of  1868  ,159 

Sugar,  271 

titles,  55,  56 

tortoise,  (ia]a)>agos,  3(iii 

Various  animals  from.  291 
Landing  a  sea  net,  334 
Landings  (ftrr  Rays,  etc.) 
Lanihuli  peak   (27S1   feet),  112,  125,  114 
Language,  Hawaiian,  Character  of,  41 

The  Hawaiian,  39 

The  Polynesian  ami    Hawaiian,  39 
Lantana,  198,  2n5,  2()9 

blight,  3S5 

bug,  426 

butterflies,  385,  421 

-flv,  419.  427 

gall-fly,  385 

Imported  enimies  of,  384 

insects,  383 

Introduction  of,  383 

leaf-bug,  385 

leaf-minor,  385 

scale,  385 

seed-fly,  383 

plume-moth,  383 
Lantern,  Aristotle  "s,  496 

fishes,  359 

Lay>alapa,  224 

La     Perouse,     Com]ie     de     .lean     Francois 

(Navigator),  97 

La  Platte   tobacco,   192 

Largo  banana,  259 

Larvfe  (299).  The  earlv  stages  in  the  develop- 
ment of  any  animal  in  which  it  is  unlike  the 
parent   in   appearance. 

Lasso  cells,  480 

Last  eruption  on  Maui,  147 

human  sacrifice  (■•<('('  Sacrifice) 

Lateral  band  or  line  (3.51).  Along  the  sides  of 
a  fish  is  a  line  of  peculiar  scales  called  the 
lateral   line. 

Lateral  craters  on   .Maui   ( imlicated),  134 

Latitude  in  the  Pacific,  100 

Latex  defined,  283 


occurs  m 


283 


fresh     water    and     marine 

Total  land,  etc.) 
shells,  431 


fauna     (sec 


]iroducing  trees,  283 
Latin    names,    why    used,    10    (.<<»    '//■>-•'(    No- 
menclature) 
Lauhala,  194,  n9,  204,  211 

fruits,    T'ses   of.   204 

leaf  skirts,  78 

mat,  57 

mats,  how  made,  72 

mat.  Materials  for,  60 

7nat,  Plaiting  of.  60,  84 

nuts,  204 

trees,  150,  190 

use  of,  SI,  2(14.  221 
Lauia,  349 
Lauki  (La-i),  210 
Laujiahoehoe,  Hawaii.   Landing  at.  154 

Ililo  coast  at,  154 


562 


INDEX. 


Lava   around  trees  in    ruiia.  156 

brick,   129 

boulder  on  Hawaii,  160 

column,  height  lifted,  164 

discharge,  1907  flow,  163 

floor  of  Kilauea,  166 

flow,  General  view  of,  162  < 

flows  in  Kilauea,  166,  174,  186 

'  flower  pots, '  Puna,  156 

floW'S,  Eecent,  on  Hawaii,  148 

Flow   structure   of,   186 

flow,  Surface  of,  160 

forms  of  (curious),  186 

mound  in  Kilauea,  186 

'jiillars'  (I'una),  156 

pool  in  Mokuaweoweo,  186 

Rise  and  fall  of,  ]67 

rock  as  building  stone,  129 

soil,   107 

Solidified    (recent),   166 

tree  casts  in  Puna,  162 

tree  moulds   (Puna),  156 

Lavas  of  Hawaii  and  their  Relations.  Under 
the  above  title  Dr.  "\Miitman  Cross  d'scusses 
the  Hawaiian  rocks  in  an  exhaustive  and 
able  paper  (Professional  Paper  88,  U.  S. 
Geol.  Survey,  1915)  to  which  the  technical 
student  of  Hawaiian  lavas  is  referred  for  de- 
tailed information  bearing  on  the  composi- 
tion, cla.ssification  and  theoretic  problems 
involved   in    a   study   of   this   subject. 

Law  of  custom,  55 

Laysan  albatross,  92,  294,  312 

albatross — the  end  of  the  dance,  316 

Bird  life.  Views  of,  310,  316 

canary,  314,  319,  320 

canary  as  cage  bird,  319 

canary  nest  and  eggs,  316 

Discovery  of,  95 

duck,  318 

honey-eater,  314,  320 

rail, '314,  318 
Laysan  Island,  95 
"'  Birds   of,  312 

Description  of,  313 

General  view  on,  92,  316 

Guano  on,  95 

Harbor  at,  92,  95 

Manager's  quarters  at,  92 

Position  of,  88 

Rabbit  on,  293 

Salt-water  lagoon  on,  316 

Struggle  for  existence  on,  313 

Views  on,  92,  294 
Leadw'ort,  254 
Leaf,  A  falling  (palm),  232 

-cutting  bees,  415 

-miners,  423 

-miner  beetle,  419 

-hoppers,  388,  427 

-hopper,  Sugar-cane,  381 

-hopper.  Sugar-cane,  Parasites  of,  382 

rolling  moths,  395 

Leaflets.        One    of    the    divisions    or    blades    of    a 
compound  leaf. 

Leahi  {see  Diamond  Head),  115 

Lealoa,  115 


Leaping  place  of  ghosts   {see  Jumping  off 
]daces) 

oft'  places  for  sj^irits,  53 
Lechoso  {see  Papava) 
Ledyard,  John  (With  Capt.  Cook),  153 
Leechee  {see  Lichi) 
Leeches,  440,  497 
Leeward  chain.  Map  of,  88 

(Midway   and   Ocean   Islands),   Views 
on,  90 

Miscellaneous  views  from,  96 
Leeward  Islands,  93 

Elevations  of,  93 

Formation  of,  93 

Geologic  history  of,  93 

Number  of,  93 
Legend  and  science  agree,  91 

Coming  of  Pele,  89 

of  Haleakala,  139 

of  Naujiaka  flower,  197 

of  Maui  and  the  alae,  326 
Leho,  455,  458 
Leho   (Hump-backed  cowry),  460 

puupuu  (Madagascar  cowry),  470 
Lehua,  101,  21(5 

Ohia,  220 
Lei,  Feather,  57 

ilima,  78 

maile,  78 

or  necklace  of  flowers,  32 

palaoa,  60 
Leis,   77 

Black-eved  Susan,  207 

Feather,  333 

Kukui  nut,  57 

of  cone  shells,  455 

of  dried  fruit,  77 

of  human  hair,  79 

of  nuts  and  seeds,  77 

Seeds  for,  204 

Lelau.  The  name  of  a  native  banana  of  fine 
flavor. 

Lele  (Alter),  259 

Lemon,  263,  264 

scab,  265 

guava,  264,  263 

Sihery,  cause  of,  265 

Water,  268 

(Water)  Purple,  258,  268 

Length,  Width,  Area  and  Population  of  Hawaiian 
Islands  (U.  S.  Census  1910):  HAWAII— 
90  by  74  miles,  area  4015  square  miles, 
population  55,382:  MAUI — 46x30  miles,  area 
728  square  miles,  population  28,625:  OAHU 
— 46x25  miles,  area  598  square  miles,  popu- 
lation 81,993:  KAUAI — 25x22  miles,  area 
547  square  miles,  population  23.952:  MOLO- 
KAI — 21x8  miles,  area  261  square  m  les, 
population  1791:  LANAI — 97  square  miles. 
])opulati(in  131:  Midway  population  35;  total 
population,    191,909. 

Leper  Settlement,  135 
Kalawao,  134 
Kalapapa  Landing  ,134 
View  in,  136 

Leprosy.  This  disease  was  introduced  from  abroad 
prior  to  1853,  probably  about  1840.  The 
policy  of  segregation  was  entered  upon  in 
1863,  the  disease  having  become  widespread 
bv  that  date. 


INDEX. 


563 


Lesser  fjods,  49 
Lettered  coue,  460,  4o.j 
Lice,  400 
Lichee  (ftcr  Lichi) 

Lichen  (226).  Plants  „f  l„\v  .jrder  appfurins  in 
crusts,  scaler  patches  and  l)iishl  ke  to,  „s 
on   trees,   rocks,    the   ground,    etc 

Lichens  are  found  everywhere  in  the  group  on 
?i,  ■■*■  V'^*^**  ^"fl  "!«'  ''are  ground.  Bailev 
(Thruins  Annual,  1887)  records  136  specie.4. 
Ihe  list  could  doubtless  he  extended  bv  care- 
ful study. 

Lichens  in  the  rain  forest,  191 
on  citrus  fruit   trees,   ■'G.') 
Lichi,   2()9 

Licorice,  Indian,   207 

Life   history   of    {see   animal    in    question) 
499  *  ^' 

plant-lice,  391 
Light,  Artificial,  62 

Effect  of,  on  birds,  311 
Lighter  load  of  ouano.  92 
Lightliouses  on  Kauai,  104 
on  Hawaii,  148 
at  Lay  sail,  92 
on  Oalui,  110 
Lilac  M-reath   (Purple  wreath),  248 
Lilikoi  (Purple  water-lemon),  258,  268 
Liliuokalani   (Queen),  48,  3il(l 
Lily,  Palm,  210 

poml   (Ainaliou),  234 
Lime,  129 

Coral  as  source  of,  475 
Limes,  263,  264 
Limestone,  1 1  7,  129 
Limnsa,  436 
Limpets,  462,  466 

Force  necessary  to  dislodge,  467 

LinuK        The    class    name    for    seaweed     (nee    also 
Pumice). 

Limu,  O00-.503 

as  medicinal  plant,  502 

Common  at  Waikiki,  492 

eleele,  oii2 

koha,  214 

kohu,  31)2 

lipeejiee,  502 

oolu,  5(i2 

Linear    (204).       With   parallel   margins:   narrow 
Lip    r^lollusca]     (4.V2).       The    inner   or    the    outer 

side  ot   the  aperture. 
Lipoa,  222 

Lips  of  Hawaiians   (< 'liaracteristic),  38 
Liquid  lava.  Rise  and  fall  of,  167 
Lisiansky  Island,  80,  95 

Bird  ])oachers  on,  95 

Discovery   of,  95 
List  of  Distributors   (scr  Distributors) 
Litchi   (sfr  Lichi) 

Literary  efforts  of  Hawaiian   j.c.ii.lc,  41 
/Jtfinpln/lliiiii   sp.    (fig.    ]),  498 
"Little  Heggar"  sjiatter  coiif,  184,  180 

emerald  shell,  470 

sea  snail,   470 

tuna  or  bonito   (Kawakawal,  366,  .-.(il 
363  I  .  . 

Littoral  flora  defined.  195 


Liver  Jluk.-.  299 

Livestock,  2S7 

Effect  of,  on,  2s7 

in  Hawaii,  282 

when   introduced,  287 

Lizard,  California,  299 

-fish   [Ulae],  350 

-fishes,  359 

Lizards  [Moo],  297,  491 

Change  of  color  of,  297 

Species  of,  297 

Loading  cattle,   282 

guano,  92 

sugar-cane,  278 

Lobed    (197).       Cut    into    small    lobes    or   rounded 
points. 

Lobelia,  212,  224,  228 

Fruit  of  flower  of,  206 

Lobelias,  Common,  on  Oahu,  206 

Genera  and  species  of,  225 

"Kahili,"  224 

Tyjiical,  224 

Lobster,  468 

Hawaiian,  474 

how  caught,  469 

Location  of  Islands  (see  Position  of) 

Lochs,  Pearl   (set-  nJsn  Pearl  Harbor),  115 

Lohiau,  41 

Loin  cloth,  38 

Loli,  493 

kai,  493 

koko,  493 

pua,  493 

Lolo,  359 

Lolo-oau   (Flying  gurnard),  374,  357 

Lomilomi,  use  of,  79 

Long-distance  runners,  83 

-horned  beetles,  388,  395,  417 

-horned  grasshopper,  388,  429 

-legged  flies,  419 

sea   net,  344 

-tongued  bees,  415 

-tailed  CrustEea,  4()() 

-tailed  field  mice,  293 

-tailed  rat,  292 

voyages  by  Hawaiians,  2(i 

voyges,  how  made,  26 

voyages.  Provisions  for,  29,  67 

Longitude  in  the   Pacific.  100 

Loopers,  397 

Lo(piat,  2(i6 

Lotus,  285 

Flower  of,  285 

Loulu.  The  name  of  tlie  native  palm  (Prit- 
ehardia)  of  whicli  ten  si)ecies  are  now  recog- 
nized by  O.  Beccari  as  belonging  to  the  Ha- 
waiian  flora. 

IvOidu  hiwa,  236 

lelo,  23<) 
Louse  (see  Lice),  400 

flies,  421 
Love  birds,  318 

whistle,  83 
Low  bushes  on  (Jcean   Island,  90 

islands  of  the  group,  S9 


564 


INDEX. 


Lower  forest  and  tield  plants  212 

zone,  210 

zoue,  Plants  of,  202,  210 
LoAvland  zone,  195,  2(il 

Plant  life  of  the,  l.s9 
Low-tide  Fishing  for  squid  at,  472 

Hawaiian  reef  at,  472 
Luakini.       A  heiaii   of  the  largest  class. 
Lucerne,  286 
Luc-ina  shell,  456 
Lucunia   {scf  Egg  fruit) 
Lycopersicum   (see  Tomato) 
Lyeopodiacae   (see  Club-mosses) 
Lyric  talent  of  Hawaiians,  42 

M 

Maalaea  Bay,  138 
Mabu  (sec  Lama) 
Mackerel,  361 

shark.  340,  346 
Macadamia   (srr  Queensland  nut) 
MacCaughey,    Prof.    Vauyhan     (Botanist), 
12,  152 

Photographs  by,  14 
Machinery,  Plantation,  274 
Madagascar  cowry  [Leho  puupuu],470,  459 

periwinkle,  250 
Madreporite  explained.  4S7 

Maggot    (405).       The  larva   of  a   fly.   Init  often   ap- 
plied  to   other   worm-like   creatures. 

Maggots,  405,  419 

Mahihi,  344,  354 

Mahimalii  (Common  doljihin),  362 

Mahiole.        A    war    cap:     a    hehnet     (see    plate    6. 

fig.  2), 
Mahiole,  44 
Mahogany,  American,  211 

Hawaiian,  211 
Mahukona  violet,  199 
Makika,  388 
Maia  (Banana),  19D,  257 

(Chinese  banana),  258 
Maiapilo,  192,  199 
Maiden-hair  fern,  223,  419 
Maieli,  230 
Maii'i,  349 

Maika,  game  of   (-n't  Ulu  and  maika) 
Maile,  214,  216,  221 

lei,  78,  216 

lei.  How  made,  216 

Fse  of,  71 
Mairi=Maile 

Major      agricultural      industries      (raising- 
sugar-cane),  274 
Makaloa  mat,  57 

mats,  how  ornamented,  73 
Makapuu  Point,  ](i9,  131 
Makaweli  canon,  107 
Makaweli  valley,  l(i7 
Makiawa     (Haw-aiian    herring),    350,    349, 

358 
Makiki  valley,  117 
Making  fire,  40 

of  lauhala  mats,  72 


stone  adzes,  75 

tapa,  76 
Makua,  358 

station,  Barking   sands  at.   122 
Malabar,  221,  249 
Malay  archipelago,  210,  249 

peninsula,  304 
Male  children,  How  regarded,  46 

Malo.  A  strip  of  tapa  cloth  girded  about  the 
loins  of  men :  in  former  times  the  malo  was 
the  only  dress  worn  by  men  when  at  work 
(see    plate    5,    fig.    1). 

Malo,  David    (Native   Hawaiian   Antiquar- 
ian), 329 
Malo  ,Feather,  57  • 

Tapa,  44 

The,  38 

of  Umi,  44 
Malolo   (Flying  fish),  366,  349,  3-55 
Malpighia   (sec  Barbados  cherry   ) 
Mamake^Mamaki 
Mamake,  212,  217 

Insects  on,  411 
Mamamo,  349 
Mamani,  226 

Use  of  wood  of,  226 

Manianu=Mamano 

Mamero  (*•(('  Papaya) 

Mammalia  (295).  The  highest  group  of  animals 
containing  those  forms  that  suckle  their 
young. 

Mammea   (sec  Mammee  apple) 

Mammee  apple  (MaiiUDen  Americana  Linn.)  or  St. 
Domingo  apricot  is  well  known  in  Hawaii, 
having  doubtless  been  introduced  from  the 
West  Indies  where  it  is  a  native.  The  fruits 
are  3  to  G  inches  in  diameter,  round,  russet- 
colored  or  brown,  with  a  yellow  juicy  pulp 
which  may  be  eaten  raw  without  tJavoring — - 
as  the  taste  does  not  have  to  be  acquired. 
Its  nearest  ally  in  Hawaii  is  the  Garciiiia. 
The  tree,  20  to  40  feet  high,  has  rigid  leath- 
ery leaves. 

Mamo,  332 

Black,  332,  333,  335 

feathers,  use  of,  75 

Oahu,  33.^ 
Mana  flats,  103 

Sands  at,  108 

Mandarin  orange  (Citfas  nohilis  Lour.)  is  some- 
times called  the  kid-glove  orange,  owing  to 
the  ease  with  which  the  ruddy,  orange  yellow, 
loose,  baggy  rind  may  be  removed.  The 
fruits,  smali.  slightly  flattened  and  rough,  are 
seldom  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter. 
The  dense,  low,  thornless  tree  is  a  favorite 
with  the   Chinese. 

Man-eater  shark   [Niuhu],  344,  345 

Maneo  (see  Papaya) 

Mango,  258,  241  " 

Blight  on  the,  242 

Fruit   of,   241 

Fruiting  season  of,  241 

Fungus  disease  of,  242 

Propagation  of,   242 

Species  of,  242 

-thrip,  428 

Varieties  of,  242 

weevel,  395 


1X1)  EX. 


565 


MaiiS"^'*'P"  {(-iiirfiiiiit  s\>\>.) .  ThiM'e  are  aliout 
forty  species  known  from  tropical  Asia  and 
Africa:  two  or  more  occvir,  rarely,  in  Hono- 
lulu gardens.  The  dried  juice  of  various 
si)ecies  forms  the  yellow  resinous  pigment 
and  purgative  drug  known  as  gamboge.  All 
the  known  s))ecies  have  a  yellow  juice,  op- 
I)Osite  coriaceous  leaves  and  ,-i  flesli>  fruit 
with    a   thick   rind. 

Mangosteeii,  246,  L'(i!) 

Maiiieiiie  (Introduced),  uses  of,  liUS,  28G 

Native,  208 

Manila  hemp,  280 

Manini  mango  is  a  small  variety  iiitr()dui-i'<l  liy 
Don  Marin.  ])erhaps  one  liundred  years  ago. 
It  is  said  to  be  the  first  mango  introduced 
into   Hawaii. 

Manini  (Fish),  349,  372 

Mano,  a  shark.  There  are  many  species  of 
sharks,  etc.,  which  Hawaiians  call  by  the 
general  name  mano.  They  were  all  tabu  to 
women  to  be  eaten  only  under  penalty  of 
death. 

Mano  (Hawaiian  cub-shark),  340,  349 

kiliikihi     (]iaininer-liea<l     shark),    340. 
34(i 
Manoa  vallev,  (ioneral  view  of,  270 

Head  of',  206,  270 
Mano  "-war    [Iwa],   310',    312,    314 

Gular  })ouch  of,  310 

Nesting  habits  of,  317 

birds  on  the  nest,  36 
Man-of-war,  Portuguese,  490 
Mantis,  Praying,  429 

-shrimp,  4(iS 

INIantle  [Mollusca]  (4.57).  An  outgrowth  of  the 
dorsal  body  wall. 

Manufacture  of  poi,  6(3 

of  salt,  129 

of  tapa,  09 

of  {see  object  in  question) 
Many  celled  animals,  499 

Mao.       A  kind  of   shrub  (Ahutiloii    in  ra  mi  in   Don.) 

used  in  dying  tapa.  The  plant  is  conunon  in 

low  rocky   districts.  The   name   is   also   given 
to  the  wild  cotton. 

Mao  (Cotton),  203,  281 

Mapele.  Name  of  a  tree  {Ci/rtaiidra  spp.)  form- 
erly much  used  in  building  a  heiau  in  the 
worship  of  the  god  Lono. 

Mapulehu  valley,  133 

Heiau   in.  140 
Map  of  Ford's  Island,  110 

Haleakala,  134 

Hawaii,  148 

Kauai,  104 

Keanakakoi    (showing),   148 

Kilauea,  148 

Kilauea-iki,   148 

Lanai,  134 

lava  flows   (recent)   on  Hawaii,  148 

Leeward  cliaiii,  88 

Maui,  134 

Molokai,  134 

the  Pacific  Islands,  100 

Pacific  Ocean,  100 

Pearl  Harbor,  110 

Pearl  Lochs,  110 

South  Seas,  100 


Maji  sliowiiig    Kupil';ipilu(j,  118 

Topographic,  of  Hawaii,  148 

Topograjiliic   of  Kauai,  104 

To]>()grapiiic  of   M;nii,   134 

Topograjdiic   of  ():iliii,  110 
Margin  shells,  4o2 

Marin,  Don  Francisco  de  Paula  (Early  Horticul- 
t\irist).      Arrived   in    Hawaii    1791,   died   1837. 

Marine  animals,  Miscellaneous,  490 

lii\al\es,  ('oinnu)n,  456 

Marine  gardens.  It  was  not  uncommon  in  old 
Hawaii  for  the  natives  to  have  marine  gar- 
dens, reserved  for  the  growth  of  certain  fa- 
vorite species  of  limu.  Choice  species  were 
occasionally  transplanted  from  one  locality  to 
another  l)y  them.  The  care  of  these  gardens 
as  well  as  the  gathering  of  limu  was  the 
work  of  Hawaiian  women  and  children. 
Limu  was  the  third  most  important  article 
of  diet  in  former  times. 

Marine  plants  and  plant-like  animals,  498 

plants,  Common  at  Waikiki,  492 

worm,   490 
Marl\er   at    Kealakekua    i>a\'    (olcl   copper), 

84 
Alarket-fish,   Choice,  362 

Fish  in  the,  348 
]\rarl\eting.   Suggestions   on,  348 
Markets,  Hawaiian,  74 
Maro  Eeef,  88,  97 
Marquesas  Islands,  189 
Marriage,  42       * 

among  jjersons  of  rank,  45 

Ceremony  of,  42 

how  solemnized,  4.3 

-tie  among  Hawaiians,  43 
Marsh,  Birds  of  the,  32ii 
Martain,  Mr.  279 
Marvel  of  Peru,  254 
Masks,  Gourd,  48 
Mat,  57 

making,  Methoii  of,  84,  72 
Mats,  59 

Lauhala,  72 

made  by  women,  73 

Makaloa,  72 

Niihau,  57,  72 

uses  of,   72 

used  as  sails,  48,  72 
Materials  for  tools,  74 
Maternal  relation.  The  loose,  45 

Ma'u.  The  name  of  a  fern  (Sndlfiriii  pallida 
Hook.  &  .Vrn.)  with  a  trunk  2-3  feet  liigh. 
very  common  about  Kilauea.  It  was  eaten 
in  time  of  scarcity  and  is  the  species  said  by 
some  authorities  to  be  referred  to  in  the  name 
of  the  crater  pit   Hali'nia'uma'ii. 

Maiia.  A  tree  {Xi/losnin  Ilawaiii'nse  Seem.) 
found  in  the  forests  of  Kauai  and  Oahii 
where  it  is  conspicuous  by  reason  of  the  red- 
dish color  of  the  young  leaves.  On  Maui 
and  Hawaii,  etc..  a  second  species  (X.  IIilli>- 
braiulii  Waw.)  occurs  known  by  the  same 
native  name. 

Maui,  -\ge  of,  2;'>7 
amakihi,  332 
Area  of,  237 
a   xolcanic  doublet,  237 
beetle,   I'.iM 

blight  or  Lantaiia  scale,  384,  383 
Canons  on,  138 


566 


INDEX. 


Costal  plain  of,  3  38 

Distances  on   (see  Overland  Distances) 

Districts  on,  134 

Elevations  on,  indicated.  134 

half-bill,  334 

Harbors  and  landin<;s  on,  134 

lao  vallev  on,  134 

Island  of,  132 

Isthmus  of,  134,  131* 

Kanpo  gap,  134 

Koolau  gap,  134 

Landings  and  harbors  on,  134 

Last  eruption  on,  147 

Legend  of,  and  the  alae,  32(3 

Map  of,  134 

-Molokai  channels,  134 

-Molokai-Lanai-Kaalioolawe    group 
shown,  134 

Outline  of,  13S 

parrot-l>ill,  330 

Position  of.  100,  134 

Principal  lateral  craters  on,  indicated, 
134 

Principal  towns  and  villages  on,  134 

Eelief  ma]i  of,  134 

Eoads  on,  134 

Sand  dunes  on,  13il 

Scenery  on  Haleakala,  145 

Secondary  craters  on,  134 

Stages  in  geologic  development  of,  293 

The  'Valley  Isle,'  237 

Topographic  map  of,  134 
Mauna.        A    mountain:    the    inland    region    of    an 

island. 
Mauna  Kea,  144,  149,  1.11 

Algfe  on,  152 

Ascent  of,  151 

Small   cones  on.  151 

Snow  on,  154 

Summit  of,  154,  152 

Summit  of  (near  view),  154 

Position    of   indicated,   148 
Mauna  Loa,  144,  151,  155 

Ascent  of,  155 

Building  of,  UU 

Dates  of  eruptions   -f,  183-188 

Dewev  crater  on,  160,  161 

Eruption   of   1852,   Coan  "s   account   o^', 
157 

Eruption  of  1914,  163 

flow  of  1907,  163 

Flows  on,  151 

History  of  eruptions  of,  155,  183-188 

Lava  discharged, 1907,  163 

Mokuaweoweo,  186 

1905  eruption  on,  162 

Number  of  eru))tions  of,  155 

on  Molokai,  133 

second  largest  active  volcano,  155 

Maxillary    [fish]     (369).       The  .iaw  bone. 

May  beetle,  417 

Mayer,  Dr.  A.  G.  (Zoidogist),  483 

■"May-pops'     (PanKiflora    foetuln    Linn.)     have    long 

"  been  cultivated  as  a  garden  and  veranda  vine 

on     account    of    their    passion-flower    blossoms 

which     are     followed     by     bright     red,     nearly 


gloliular  fruits,  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Children  amuse  themselves  by  popping  the 
green  and  red  seed  pods.  The  fine  green 
leaves  are  three-pointed. 

Meadow  grasshopper,  429 

Meal  worm,  405 

Mealy-bug(s),  391,  427 

-hug  ladybird,  394 

-bug  on  citrus  trees,  265 
Meandering      River      (Hanalei),     Example 

of,  106 
Measure  shell,  470 
Measuring  worms   (Loopers),  397 
Me'e  me'e   (Half-beak),  350 
Medicine,  Hau  used  as,  201 

Hawaiian,  and  botany,  79 

of  the  Hawaiians,  79 

practiced  by  women,  46 
Mediterranean,  "346,  360,  367 

fruit  fly,  386 
Medusa  explained,  480 
Meek,  Capt.  John,  300 
Melania,  436 

Mele,  Instruments  to  accompany,  S3 
Meles,  41 

Type  of  composition  of,  42 
Melting  point  of  lava  (sec  Fusability  of) 
Melon-fly,  387,  419 
Melon,  Musk,  269 

Tree  (sec  Papava) 

Water,   269 

Zapote  {ser  Papava) 
Me 'me'e,  358 
Menehunes,  Work  of,  359 

(.SVC  Fairy  tales) 
Menzie,  Archibald,  153 
Mesh  gauge,  75 
Mesquit,  242 
Metallic  wood-borer  beetle.  417 

Metamorphosis  (4(iH).  The  alternations,  or 
transformation  which  an  insect,  or  more 
generally,  an  animal  undergoes  in  its  de- 
velopment. 

Meter.  The  unit  of  length  of  the  French  meterioal 
system  is  the  meter  (abbreviation  m.)  which 
equals  39.370432  inches.  Tlie  centimeter  is 
the  hundredth  part  of  a  meter  (0.3937 
inch)  ;  hence  one  inch  equals  very  nearly 
2.54  centimeters.  The  millimeter  (mm.)  is 
the  thousandth  part  of  a  meter  and  equals 
very  nearly  1-25  of  an  inch.  One  inch 
equals  25.4  mm.  The  metric  system  is  much 
used  by  the  scientific  men  of  all  countries  as 
an    international   unit   of   measure. 

Method  of  aquatic  photography,  356 
of  gathering  wauke,  59 
of  making  calabashes,  59 

Methods  of  warfare,  47 

Mexican    creeper    or    Mountain    rose,    250, 
248 

Mexican  poppv   fPuakalal,  198 

Mexico,  242,  243,  249,  269,  284,  300,  388 

Mevrick,  E.  (Entomologist),  420 

Mice,  293 

hunted  as  royal  sjiort,  292 

Microlejiidoptera,  422 

Middle-aged  Hawaiian,  68 

Middle  forest  zone,  Plants  of,  220,  222 
Scene  in,  200 
Character  of,  226 


INDEX. 


ofiT 


Mid-rHi     (iMii).        'I'lic    middle    ov    nijiiii     rib    of    ;i 
leaf. 

Midway  Island,  88,  90,  !I4 

Bird  poachers  on,  94 

Bird  ]ioaehers  hut  at,  93 

Cable  station  on,  90 

Discovery  of,  94 

Introduced  birds  on,  320 

Position  of,  94 

Sand  grass  on,  90 

Views  across  lagoon  at,  90 

Views  on,  90 

Vegetation  on,  90 
Migration,  Eeniarkable  record  of  bird,  322 

Migratory.       Said   of  a   species  that  inal^es   regular 
or    periodic    visits    to    the    islands    from    other 
lands. 
Military    organization,    Ancient    Hawaiian, 
51 

reservations  at  Pearl   Harbor,  110 

reservations  on,  110 

strategy,  Hawaiian,  51 
Milk,  Cocoanut  (juice),  235,  236 
Milk-tish   [Awa],  350,  354,  363 
:\Iilkweed  butterfly,  421 
Miller-bird  and  nest,  316 

Laysan,  314,  319 
Milling  sugar-cane,  Process  of,  274 
Millimeter  (sec  Meter) 
Millipode.  398 
Millipeds,  lOS 

Characteristic  odor  of,  408 
Milo,  201,  203 

in  the  native  temples,  203 

Uses  of,  201,  203 

Milu.  The  god  of  the  under  world.  His  abode 
was  that  of  the  deepest  realm  of  misery, 
where  those  who  were  consigned  to  his  care 
must  live  on   lizards  and  butterflies. 

Mimosa  seed,  I^ses  of,  207 
Mina   {see  Mynah   ) 
Mineral  dyes  used,  (i9 
Minnows,  378 

Minor  agricultural,  industries   {xcf  "/•"-"  in- 
dustry in  cjuestion) 

industries.  Cattle  raising,  282 

Fishing,  344 

Eice  growing,  270 
Mint.   198 

Minute  land  shells,  439 
Miocene,  117 
Mirror,  Hawaiian,  62 
Miscellaneous  cultivated  plants,  240 

fishing  scenes,  344 

marine  animals,  490 

views   in   Honolulu   gardens,   246 

views  on  Hawaii,  150 

views   (Hilo  P>ay),  352 

views  on  Kauai,  102 

views  on  Laysan,  92 

\iews  on  Leeward  (liain.  96 

views  on  Molokai,  136,  142,  218 

views  on   Oahu,  270 
Misery,  Abode  of,  50 
Mistletoe,  Hawaiian,  214,  20.',  225 
Mite(s).  400,  409 

Orange,  265 


.Mitie  shell,  470,    151 

Moa  (Chicken),  3(i.S 

Moa  (Cotton  plant),  {nrnr  xn    Mao) 

Moa  (Trunk  fish),  374,  375 

Moano,  373 

.Moanui  valley,  135 

Moaula  falls,"  133 

Middle  falls  of,  136 
Upper  falls  of,  140 
Moepuu   sacrifice    |  Human  |    (-s-rr   Sacrifice) 
Model  of  a  canoe,  57 
Modern  music,  Hawaiian,  42 
Moho  (Hawaiian  rail).  327,  :!33 
Moi   (Fish),  349 

(King),  r^o 
Moiliili,  121 

Moist  woods,  Ferns   in    (Ihiwaii),   190 
Mokihana,  221 

Use  of.  71,  221 
Mokomoko  (Boxing),  whidi  s" 
Mokuaweoweo,  155 

History  of,  155-163 

Lava  pool  in,  186 

Xijjht  view  of,  186 

on  Mauna  Loa,  186 

Vapors  from,  186 
Mole  cricket,  African,  388,  430 
Mollusca  defined,  441 

Ty].es  of,  441 
Molluscoidea,  483 
Mollusks,  Air-breathing,  434 

Living  examples  of  primitive,  467 

Native  methods  of  cooking,  443 
Molokai,  Anchorage  on,  134 

a  volcanic  douV)let.  133 

Bog  flora   on,  218 

(loud  ca]>   over  Kanialo,  142 

deer,  296 

distance  from  Oahu,   132 

Distances  on   (sec  Overland  Distances) 

Dunes  on,  142 

Klevations  on,  indicated,  134 

Kxamples  of  talus  debris  on,  136 

Fossil  root-casts  on.  140 

Great   heiau  on,  140 

Hipuajnia  falls  on,  140 

Island  of,  132 

Lanai,    Kahool;iwe.    stages    in    geologic 
de\elo]itn('nt   of,  290 

-Lanai-Maui-K:ihonl;iwc,  (irouii,  134 

Landings  on.  134 

mamo,  335 

Maji  of,  134 

Miscellaneous   views   on.   142,   136,   218 

Mountain  of  Kamalo,  142 

Northwest  coast  of,  142,  133 

o-o,  330 

Position   (if.  100 

Princ-iiml   \ill;iyes  on,  134 

reef.  l.",5 

reef,   liatlicrinii   c(ir;il   on,  142 

Scener.\'  on.  136.  140 

Trail  on,  218 

Water  falls  on,  140 
:\[onarch  butterfly,  421 
Monev  cowrv,  470,  458 


568 


INDEX. 


Mongoose,  296,  308,  311,  32S,  335,  339 
Monkev-poil,  242 

Size  of,  242 
Moustera,  246,  249 

Curious  fruit  of,  249 
Monterey  cypress,  237 
Montipora,  477 
Monument,  Capt.  Cook  's,84 

erected  by  British  govt.,  84 

in  front  of  the  .Judiciary  bldg.,  44 

Moo.  A  general  name  for  all  kinds  of  lizards: 
hence  Mookaala  a  species  common  about 
rocks  in  dry  regions:  Mookaula  a  sijecies  oc- 
curring  about   dwellings,    etc. 

Moo  (Lizards),  297 

Mookaala    {gei'  Moo) 
Mookaula    (see  Moo) 

Mookini,  Heiau  of,  343 

Mooinunii,  Camp  at,  136 

Cave  dwelling  at,  140 

Dune  erosion  at,  142 

General  view  of,  142 
Moon-flower,  Hawaiian,  202 

-shell,  470,  4(31 
Moorish  idol  [Kihikihi],  370,  361 
Moray  [Puhi],  350,  361 
MoraVs   (Eel-like  fish),  350 
Morning-glory,  Beach,  192,  218 

Five-fingered   [Kooli  ai|,  192 

Island,  197 

leaf-miner,  423 

Medical  use,  liy  natives,  197 

Moon-flower,  202 

Sea,  197 
Morrison,  D.,  32(1 
Mortars,  68,  70,  63 
Moses,  Ernest,  Photographs  by,  14 
Moss  animals,  480 
"Moss"  stone,  129 

Mosses.  In  1877  D.  D.  Baldwin  published  a  list 
of  92  species  of  Hawaiian  mosses.  Other  in- 
vestigators have  added  species  since  bringing 
the  total  up  to  more  than  one  hundred 
species. 

Mosquito  fish,  376,  378,  44(i 

Mosquitoes,  387,  419 

Moth,  Clothes,  405 
Hau,  397 

Humming-bir<l,  398,  399 
-like  flies,  419 
Sphinx,  398 

Moths,  421 

Leaf-rolling,  395 

Mottled  periwinkle  [KolealeaJ,  470 

Mountain  apple,  28,  216,  256 

apple  trees.  Birds  frequent,  257 

bog  flora,  229 

forests.  Birds  of  the,  330,  334,  328 

forest.  Plants  of  the,  214 

house.  Old,  on  Haleakala,  145 

ranges  on  Oahu,  110 

ridges.  Vegetation  of,  218 

rose,  248 

scenery  on  Oahu,  130 

scenery  on  Kauai,  102 

scenery  of  Haleakala,  145 

stream.    Typical    view   along,   200 


trail,  218 

vegetation,  Example  of  on  Oahu,  125 

Mountains:  ON  OAHU — Kaala  (Waianae  Range) 
4030  ft.,  Palikea  (Waianae  Range)  3111  ft., 
Konahuanui  3105  ft.,  Lanihuli  2  775  ft.. 
Tantalus  (Puu  Ohia)  2013  ft.,  Olvmphus 
(Awawaloa)  2447  ft..  Round  Top  (Ualakaa) 
1049  ft..  Punchbowl  (Puowaena)  498  ft., 
Diamond  Head  (Leahi)  761  ft.  ON  HA- 
WAII— Mauna  Kea  13,825  ft.,  Mauna  Loa 
13.675  ft..  Hualalai  8269  ft.,  Kohala  Mts. 
5489  ft..  Kilauea  4000  ft.  ON  MAUI — Hale- 
akala 10,032  ft.,  Puu  Kukui  5788  ft..  Eke 
4500  ft.  ON  KAUAI — Waialeale  5250  ft., 
Hoarv  Head  (Haupu)  2030  ft.,  Kilohana 
Crater  1100  ft.  ON  MOLOKAI — Kamakou 
4958  ft.,  Mauna  Loa  1382  ft..  Olokui  4600 
ft.  OiN  LANAI — Highest  Point  3400  ft. 
ON  KAHOOLAWE — Highest  Point  1472  ft. 
ON  MOLOKINI — Highest  Point  160  ft.  ON 
NIIHAU — Highest  Point   1300  ft. 

Mountains,  Koolau,  211 

Plants  from  the,  218 

Waianae,  211 

Mourning  customs  were  various.  Wailing  was 
always  indulged  in.  Some  knocked  out  one 
or  more  of  their  front  teeth ;  others  cut  their 
hair  in  odd  ways:  some  tattooed  their  ton- 
gues: others  burned  their  bodies  in  differ- 
ent places.  Clothing,  as  well  as  moral  re- 
straint, was  often  discarded:  houses  were 
burned  and  general  anarchy  was  liable  to 
prevail. 

Mourning,  Shells  as  emblems  of,  465 

Mouse,  293 

Mu  (Porgie),  366,  349,  367 

Mud-daubers,  404,  413 

flow  of  1868,  159 
Muir,  P/r.  Fredrick  (Entomologist),  383 
Mulberry,  397 

Black,  267 

food  for,  267 

Paper,  217 

shell,  470,  449 

White,  267 
Mulberries,   266 
Mullet  [Amaama],  362,  359 

Fish  destructive  to,  353 

ponds.  Area  of,  360 

ponds.  Old,  359 

pond,  270,  359 

Snake-head,  377 

substitute  for.  364 

Value  of,  360 
Mumu  (Goat-fish),  366,  373 
Manienie,  when  introduced,  286 

Murder  was  not  uncommon  in  ancient  Hawaii, 
the  object  usually  being  theft.  Professional 
robbers  lurked  along  the  highways.  Many 
of  them  were  expert  in  their  vocation,  en- 
tangling their  victim  with  a  rope  and  leap- 
ing upon  him  so  as  to  break  his  bones.  Mur- 
derers when  apprehended  were  usually  stoned 
to  death. 

Murex,  449 

Muscular  young  Hawaiian,  44 

Mushroom  coral,  488,  477,  479 

Music,  Modern,  42 

Musical  instruments,  82 

Musk-melon,  2(i9 

Mussel,  ('ommon,  443 

Hawaiian  edible,  456 
Mussels,  443 

Goose,  473 


IXDEX. 


569 


39.5 
3()() 


Mutilations   (xrr  Moiiriiiii"  custunis) 

'Arutton'  l.inls,  31:.> 

Muuiiiai,  J].") 

Mynah   (Mina),  24-3,  3()(), 

and  the  native  l)iiils, 

feed  on,  232,  2(iS 

Food  hal)its  of  tlie,  3()G 

IntiodiK'tion  of  the,  306 

Nest  of  eggs  of  the,  30(5 
^Iyoi)oruin    (.srr  Aaka) 
Mytiius,  443 

sliells,  (luster  of,  478 

N 

Naenae,  220,  227 

Naenae  (Surgeon  fish),  370,  372 

Nahawele  (Hawaiian  eililile  mussel)  4o(j 
443 

Naieo  (orror  sice  Naio) 

Naio,  222,  226 

Nakuina,  Mrs.  Emnui  Aletcalf  (Hawaiian 
Scholar  and  Anti(|uarian),   12 

Names    (xrr  Nomen(dature),  318 

Kana  uli  (diviners)  or  soothsayers  were  a  class 
supposed  to  be  able  to  predict  future  events  as 
changes  in  the  weather,  the  death  of  import- 
ant persons,  wars  and  the  like  from  certain 
events,  as  the  api)earance  of  the  skv,  arrival 
ot   certain    fish,   tidal   waves,    etc. 

Napaka  (error  xrr  Naupaka) 
Napali  cliffs,  ]()7 

Nape     (.368).        The    upper    or    back    part    of    the 
neck,    usually    writen    'the    nape   of   the    neck.' 
Najddns,  Hawaiian,  62 
Nai)oopoo,  182 

Narcotic     (207).        Generally     i)roducinK     sleep     or 

stupor,   though  variously  applied. 
Narwhale,  301 
Nassa,  4ol 
Nasturtium,  208 
Naticas.  461 

National  game.  Boxing-  the,  83 
Native  amjdiijiods,  409 

and  introduced   fruits.  258,  "64 
ant,  413 

bat,  295 

birds     (x''r     (■ha])ters     XXTTT,     XXTV 
XXV) 

i-entipeds,  407 

cotton,  199,  203,  281 

cutworm,  396 

dogs,  29.) 

fibre  i>lants,  21  7 

fish  baskets  and  nets,  341 

flora,  192 

fruits,  2')o 

ginger  (  Awapidii  |,  202 

grasses,  286 

houses,  how  used,  39 

in   characteristic    I'luropeaii   dress.   44 

insects,  410 

niilipeds,   40S 

oven,  how  made,  ti6 

palms,  236 

plants,  192,  191 

idants.  ( 'urious,  206 


plants,   Kconoinie  studv  of.  ''83 
poultice,  197 
rat,  291 
Native  (srr  alx,,  llawaiianj    4-^9 
slug,  439 
strawberry,  227 
tobacco,  284 
white  ant,  42.") 

wooils,   Number  of  species  of,  226 
Natural  arch,  Onomea,  150 
bridge  at  Makaha,  222 
bridge,  Haleakala,  146 
bridge  on  Oaliu,  122 
enemies.  Insects  controlled   bv,  :!si 
enemies  of  lantana,  384 
graft  shown,  218 
habitat   of  biids'   nest   fern,  190 
habitat  of  ieie  vines,  190,  200 
history  of  the  Hawaiian   j)eople,  2-5-87 
Naturalist    (.3.35).       Usually  one  who  is  devoted  to 

the  study  of  the  natural  sciences. 
N^ature  's  school  by  the  sea,  429 
N^a  ukewae  (Laysan  albatross),  310 
Naupaka,  202,  220,  19.5,  222 

Curious  flowers  of  the,  197 
Legend  of  the,  flower,  197 

Nauplius  (37.3).  An  early  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  crab-like  animals  in  which  the 
larva  has  .six  legs  and  a   median   eye. 

Naval  battles,  .51 

Navigation  of  ancient    Ilawaiiaiis,  30 

Nawiliwili  Hay,   10.5 

Distance     from      (srr     Overlan.l      Dis- 
tances) 
Near  view  of  llalcinaunian,  166 
Neck  of  Maui,  139 

an  isthmus, 134 
Necker  Island,  88,  96,  97 

Discovery  of,  97 
Necklaces,   77 

of  ivory,  79 

Seeds  for,  204 
"Needle,"  The  in   lao  valley,   138 
Needle-fish  rAliaahaj.  350,  3()3 

Sein,  75 
Needles,  S]);inisli,  196 
Nehe,  199 

Nehu  (Anchovie),  350,  349,  351 
Nemertinea,  497 

Nene   (Hawaiian  goose),  310,  323 
Nerita,  4ii5 
Neritina,  465 

Nerves     |  Hot  |     (21:!).        The    name    aiii)lied    to    the 

ribs  or  veins  of  a  leaf  when  siini)le  or  jiarallel. 
N^erve-winged  insects,  423 
Nesting  habits  of  the  Man-o'-war  binl,  I'.l  7 

(xrr  species  in  (piestion) 
Nestlings   (xrr  species  in   c|uestion) 
Nests,  Bird  (see  species  in  i|uestion) 

Spider,  410 

AVasp,  404 
Net.   Dip   (large).  344 

fishing.  344 

Long  sea.  344,  352 

Sea,  Landing  a.  344 

Throw.  344 


37 


570 


INDEX. 


Nets   [Koko],  68 

Bag,  341 

Dip,  341 

Fish,  73 

Gill,  339 

of  oloua,  73 

Opelu,  341 
Nettle,  Sea,  480 
Newa.  44 

Newell 's  shearwater,  309 
New  industries  (kcc  Industries),  281 

Zealand,  229,  28],  307 
Night  birds,  309 

blooming  Cereus,  246,  254 

fishing,  242 

heron,  Black-crowned,  310,  325 

-mare.  How  interjireted,  49 

mosquito,  3S7 

view  of  Mokuaweoweo,  186 

Xiho.  A  tooth,  especially  a  whale's  tooth:  hence 
Nihopalaoa.  an  ivory  ornament,  worn  pendent 
from  the  neck,  made  from  the  ivory  of  the 
whale  or  walrus.  Orifcinally  this  ornament 
was  worn  onlv  l.v  hifrh  cliiefs  (nee  plate  10, 
fig.   1). 

Nihoa  (Bird  Island),  88,  96,  98 
Position  of,  9S 
Visited  by,  9s 

Niihau,  Description  of,  1"1 
Island,  88 

mats  [makaloa],  57,  72 
mats,  how  ornamented,  731 
Position  of,  100,  101 
shell,  470,  101,  453 

Nitidulid  beetles,  388,  417 

Nitrogen  in  soil,  105 

Niu.  The  name  of  the  cocoanut  tree.  Under 
the  tabu  system  females  were  forbidden  to 
eat  the  nuts  under  penalty  of  death. 

Niu   (sec  also  cocoanut),  2(tl,  23(i 
uses  of  ,236 

Noah's  ark  shell    (Ark  shell),  456 

Nobility  a  powerful  class,  54 

Noetuids,  396 

Nocturnal  (309).  Active  at  night,  appearing  at 
night. 

Noddy  tern,  310,  311,  318 

Nohu"  (Scorpion  fish),  374.  168 

Nohu,  92,  199,  368 

Nohuanu,  229 

Nomenclature.  The  systematic  naming  of  things. 
Scientific  knowledge  is  based  primarily  on 
the  classification  of  facts.  Classification  in 
general  consists  in  observing  objects  and  plac- 
ing those  which  are  alike  in  one  or  more  char- 
acters in  the  same  group  under  a  common 
name.  As  the  study  of  living  objects  has 
advanced,  and  the  number  of  species  been 
increased  through  research,  the  detail  of  pro- 
viding a  separate  and  definite  name  for  each 
living  thing  has  become  an  enormous  task. 
This  labor  is  largely  i)erformed  by  specialists, 
who  working  as  botanists,  zoologists,  ento- 
mologists and  the  like,  are  guided  in  the 
naming  of  objects  in  their  respective  fields,  by 
certain  more  or  less  definite  rules  known  as 
the  rules,  or  canons  of  nomenclature.  By 
these  rules  scientific  or  technical  names  are 
applied  which  are  intended  to  serve  the 
double  purpose  of  providing  a  definite  name 
for  the  animal  or  plant,  and  at  the  same 
time,  one  which  will  indicate  its  relation  to 
other  similar  groups  and   to  still   other  groups 


from  which  it  differs  more  or  less  in  import- 
ant characters.  Natural  classification  at- 
temps  to  indicate  the  relation  of  groups  to 
other  groups  of  varying  degrees  of  similarity. 
In  this  scheme  of  classification  and  nomen- 
clature a  number  of  terms  are  quite  gener- 
ally applied,  in  the  biological  sciences,  with  the 
general  meaning  of  which  every  person  should 
be  acquainted.  The  classification  of  the  do- 
mestic cat  is  a  familiar  example  and  one  that 
serves  well  to  indicate  the  important  points 
in  the  whole  scheme  of  classification  and 
nomenclature  in  force  among  both  botanists 
and  zoologists. 

The  many  varieties  or  breeds  of  domestic  cats  indi- 
cates   the    variation    liable    to    occur    within    a 
given   species.       The   lion   and   the   tiger   differ 
more   widely   in   their  characters   and   for   that 
reason     are     given     different     specific     names, 
but   they,    together    with    the    common    cat    (as 
well     as     numerous     other     species),     are     all 
grouped   together   as   species   belonging  to   one 
GENUS    (Felis).       The  genus  Felis  and  other 
genera,   in   which   are  placed  less  common  cat- 
like    animals,     are     gi-ouped     together     in     a 
larger   group — the   FAMILY    (Felidfe).       This 
important    group,    together    with    the    memljers 
of  the   dog  familv   form   a   still   larger   grouji — 
the    ORDKR     (Carnivora).        These    families, 
as  an  order,   are  included  with   other  orders  to 
foim  a  CLASS  and  so  on.  as  indicated  in  the 
following  diagram: 
Kingdom — Animalia. 
i'hylum — Chorda  t  a. 
Class  Mammalia. 
Order- — Carnivora. 
Family — Felidaj. 
Genus — Felis. 

Species — Felis    doiiiefitiea. 

The  name  of  the  animal  is  generally  understood 
its  generic  name  followed  by  its  specific 
To  this,  under  varying  rules,  is 
added  as  authority  for  the  name,  the 
family  name  of  the  [)erson  first  publishing  an 
accurate  description  of  the  animal  or  plant. 
Variety  names  are  added  under  the  same 
general  rule;  the  names  of  the  sub-species  or 
variety  following  that  of  the  species  as  Asio 
oeripitriniis  f!(nidi:ire)ifii.i  (Blox.).  The  name 
indicating  that  the  Hawaiian  owl  is  a  variety 
of  the  short  eared  owl  of  America  and  that 
it  was  first  described  by  Bloxham.  The 
name  of  the  authority  being  enclosed  in 
parenthesis  (Bloxham) 
student  of  nomenclature, 
been  changed  from  the 
which  Bloxham  referred 
description. 

Non-calcarious  sponges,  500 
Noni,  201,  205 

Distribution   of,  205 

uses  of,  205 
Norfolk   Island  pine,  237 
North  America,  191,  204,  22(5,  346 

coast  of  Molokai.  133 

-east  coast  of  Hawaii,  154 

Pacific  currents,  191,  248 
Norway,  291 

rat.  291 
Nose  flute,  82 

how  played,  82 

player,  40,  76 

of  Hawaiians   (characteristic),  38 


name 
to  be 
name. 
Tisuallv 


indicates.      to      the 

that   the  species  has 

original     genus     to 

it     in    the    original 


Notes,      comments, 

found,  10 
Notochord,  484 
Noxious  animals,  35 
Nuihi,  345 


observatioi  s,      where 


INDEX. 


571 


Niiinber  of  eiiiptioiis  of  .\I;iuii;i   l.cia,  l.lo 

of  illustrations,   7 

of  sjieries  of  paliiis,  232 

of  species  of  (xcc  genus,  family,  class, 
or  order  in  question) 
Nunu  (Trumjiet-fish),  350,  37.j 

Nut(s),  -isr, 

Almond, 24S 

Betel,  23(i 

Candle,  239 

Cocoanut  palm,  236 

grass,   287 

grass  [Kaluha],  196 

Kukui,  how  used,  239 

Lauhala,  204 
Nutting.  Dr.  ( '.  C.  (Zoologist),  479,  480 
Nuuanu   Pali,   125 

valley,  1(19 

valley,  View  in,  112 
Nuumele   (Wild  ijiecac).  212 
Nymph,   Dragon-fly,  436 


Oahu,  Age  of,  117 

A  laboratory  in  vulcanology,  109 

a  volcanic  doublet.  113 

Boys  on,   110 

Breaks  at  Kaena,  122 

("apes  and   j)oints  on,  110 

Cities  on,  110 

College=PUNAHOU   ACADEMY,  246 

('ommon  corals  fiom.  486 

Common  ferns  on,  228 

Common  Lobelias  on,  206 

Coral  reefs  on,  110 

Dimensions  of,  1(19 

Depression  of,  121 

Distances  on,  110 

Distances  on   (src  Overland   Distances) 

Districts  on,  110 

Economic  products  (geologic),  127 

elepaio,  337 

Erosion  on  shown  (Maunawili).  130 

Kstimattd  age  of,  124 

Evidence  of  subsidence  of,  220 

Examples  of  sea  cliff  on,  122 

Field  and  roadside  plants  on,  198 

Field  boulders  on,  130 

Fresh  water  fauna  of,  436 

General  view  of  Koko  Head,  472 

Geologic  history  of,  219,  220,  l'21 

Harbors  on,  110 

llaunama  Bay,  128 

Highest   point   on,    lii9 

Highest  i>oints  on    (indicated),   110 

General  view  on  shore-line,  270 

(Jeologic  objects  of  intei'est  on,   129 

lslan<l,  88,   i(i9 

Islands   \isible  fi-om,    132 

Kahana  Bay.  128 

Kahana    ^"alley    (drowned    valley),    128 

■'Knift'  edge""   ridj^es   on,   130 

ma  mo,  335 

Manoa  valley  on.  270 

Militarv  reservations  on,  110 


112,  116,  122, 


Miscellaneous   \iews   on 
125,  128,  130,  270 

Mountain   si-encry  on,  130 

Mountain  ranges  on,  110 

Natural  bridge  on,  122 

Plantation  scenes  on,  274 

Plants  of  the  mountains  on,  214 

Plants  of  Lower  forest  zone  on,  202 

Plants  of  Middle  forest  zone  on,  220 

Papa  holau  slides  on,  86 

J'osition  of,  100,  110 

Pond  life  on,  436 

Eabbit  Island,  128 

railway,  Exjiosures  on,   132 

railway  on,  110 

Ke-elevation  of,  121 

Reef  on,  at  low  tide,  472 

Rivers  on,  110 

Rivers  on,  100 

Roads  on,  110 

Rocky  shoreline.  130 

sand  dunes  on,  122 

Scenery  on,  270 

Secondary  craters  on  ,110 

Shore-line  of,  109 

Small  tuft'  and  basaltic  craters,  115 

Spirit  leaps  on,  50 

Stages    in     the    geologic     development 
of,  290 

Streams  on,  110 

Surf  at  Waimea.  128 

To]>ogra]ihic  may  of,  110 

Towns  and  villages  on  (ju-incipaO,  110 

Valleys  on,  110 

Water      falls      on      |  \\'aipuhia=Blown 
water],  112 

Wind  blown  sand  on,  122 
Oak,  Australian,  248 

Silk,  248 
Objects  of  geologic  interest  on  (>aliu,  129 

of  recent  manufactiii-e.  Hawaiian.  60 

of  worshiii,  49 

tal)iieil,  47 
(^bser\  atioiis,      notes,      comments,      where 
found,  10 

Obsidian.  I'oiumcmly  calU'ii  Vdlcanic  grliiss,  is  a  vol- 
canic rock,  in  variou.s  conditions  closely  re- 
semblinf;  bottle-glas.s  in  ai)iiearanc('  and  tex- 
ture. It  belongs  to  the  tva<'liytc  frroup  of 
rocks,  but  is  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  islands 
in  the  typical  form.  Specimens  variously 
colored,  as  black,  brown,  greenish  and  bluish- 
white  have  been  found  by  the  author  on  vari 
ous  islands  of  the  group,  Pele's  hair  and 
pumice    (which   see)    are  forms  of  this  rock. 

Occasional  visitor  (Birds).  Said  of  a  species 
that  occurs  in  small  numbers  at  irregular 
intervals. 

( )ccupati()ns  of  Hawaiians.  (i3 

Ocean  boneto  |Aku|,  344,  366,  361 

-borne  plants,  195 

Ocean  Di.stnnces:  HOXOLrLU  to  San  Fran- 
cisco 2100  miles:  San  I>iego.  2'J(iO  miles; 
I'ortlaiHl.  'JMfiO  miles;  Panama.  4720  miles; 
Tahiti.  2440  miles:  .'>.imoa.  2290  miles:  Fiji, 
2700  miles:  .Viickland.  :i,sio  miles:  Sydney, 
4410  miles:  Hongkong.  4920  miles;  Yoko- 
hama, 3400  miles;  (iuam.  ;i;iOO  miles:  Ma- 
nila   via    N.    E.    Cape.    4890    miles:    Victoria. 


B.     C,     2460 
miles. 


miles;     Midwav     Isliind.      1200 


572 


INDEX. 


Islaud,  88,  94 

Islands,  Birds  of,  308 

Island,  Position  of,  94 

Island,  View  on,  90 
Ocherous  ladybird,  394 
Octopus  or  Devil  fish   [Hee],  442,  441 

at  the  Aouariuni.  442 
Odd  fishes.  374 
Odor  of  Hawaiian  l)irds,  I'eeuliar,  331 

of  sandalwood,  221 
Oedemerids,  418 

Oeoe    (Hawaiian   storniv  i)etrel),   323 
Offerings  to  stop  the  1801  flow,  152 

in  time  of  war,  .51 

Peace,  53 
Oha  wai,  212,  214 

uses  of,  22(i 

Ohe,  224,  2(i3,  209 

Ohekapala  (0/ic  =  bamboo  and  kapala  =  to  print). 
A  piece  of  bamboo  carved  for  the  purpose  of 
printing   tapa    (si-e   tapa   making). 

Ohelo  berries,  258,  227,  256 

papa,  255 

Tall,  220 
Ohia,  190,  220,  215,  216,  226,  228 

Ohia  ai.  A  useful  fruit  tree  (Jamhosa  iialaccen- 
sis)  usually  known  as  Euffeiiia  m'llaccensis 
Linn.,  bearing  the  mountain  apple.  The 
wood    was    also    used    in    house    building,    etc. 

Ohia  ai,  216,  256 

ha,  220 

lehua,  220,  209,  215,  216 

wai  {I'lTor  srr  Oha  wai) 

uses  of,  215 
Ohua,  319 

Ohulenui  (old  Tlawaiiati),  60 
Oi,  205 
Oil,  ('ocoanut,  uses  of,  22,  236 

Exile,  252 

Illuminating',  (52 

Kukui  nut,  use  of,  62 

Palm,  237 

Shark,  346 

Whale,  302 

Whale,  yield  of,  303 

Oio  (Bone-fish),  350,  349,  354 

Okelehao.  The  name  given  to  an  intoxicating 
liquor  formerly  distilled  by  natives  and  for- 
eigners from  ki  roots.  Its  manufacture  in 
illicit  stills  continues  in  the  back  c<nintry  sec- 
tions. 

Okolehau,  210 

Okupukupu,  228 

01<1  age  among  Hawaiians,  45 

Hawaiians,  24,  60 

Government  Xursery,  238 

'Stump  leg'  (plover),  322 

-world  limpets,  466 
Olea  (see  Olive) 
Oleander,  252 

])oisonous,  252 

white  scale,  391 

Yellow,  252 

Olena.  The  name  of  a  plant  {Cumnna  lonpa) 
the  root  of  which  was  used  in  dyeing  yellow. 
It    resembles    the    awapuhi,    which    see. 

Olepe  (Tellen  shell),  456,  445 

Olinda  beetle,  394 


Olive  {Olea  Eiintpn  Linn.),  although  seldom  fruit- 
ing in  Hawaii,  the  'oil  tree'  is  nevertheless 
well  established,  and  is  grown  usually  as  an 
ornamental  tree.  The  dull,  whitish  green, 
small,  thick,  lanceolate  opposite  leaves  are 
characteristic  of  this  low-growing  tree.  It 
has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times  in 
Syria  and  Palestine  and  in  remote  antiquity 
was  distributed  throughout  the  whole  Medi- 
terranean region.  In  recent  times  it  has 
been  successfully  planted  in  America,  Aus- 
tralia and  elsewhere.  The  wild  olive  (O. 
Oleaster)  was  once  sacred  to  Pallas  and  its 
leaves  were  used  for  victors'  wreaths  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans — hence  'the  olive 
branch.'  Many  cultivated  varieties  of  O. 
satira   are   recogniezd. 

Olive  shells,  452 

Olivine  (see  Chrysolite) 

sand,  129 
Olohu  stones,  83 
Olokele  eafion,  102,  106,  107 
Olokui,  133 

mountain.  Sea   end  of,  136 
Olomea,  40 
Olona,  202,  67,  217 

board   [laau  kahi  olona], 64 

cord,  64 

cord,  uses  of,  75 

fiber,  How  secured,  217 

how  cleaned,  299 

how  grown,  73 

Method  of  preparing,  64 

Nets  of,  73 

use  of,  73,  77,  79,  81,  203 

Olowalu    valley,    138 

Olympus  trail.  Ferns  along,  206 

Omaka.  The  foreskin  in  males  removed  in  cir- 
cumcision as  formally  practiced  among  the 
Hawaiian.  Also  the  nipple  of  a  female. 
The  surgical  instrument  used  in  circumcision 
was  usually  a  sharp  splinter  of  bamlx)0. 
The  operation  was  resorted  to  chiefly  as  a 
sanitary  measure. 

Omaka  (Wrasse  fish),  366,  349,  359 

Omau  (Hawaiian  thrush),  334 

Omilu  (Cavalla),  362,  349 

Ono,  349 

Onomea,  Arch  at,  150 

gulch,   176 

Ornament  of  braided  hair,  60 

Oo.  An  instrument  anciently  and  in  a  modified 
form  still  used  by  Hawaiians  in  cultivating 
the  ground.  It  was  made  of  hard  wood  as 
alahee,  ulei,  kauila.  uhiuhi,  etc..  and  was 
long  and  flattened  at  one  end  to  form  a 
digger. 

O-o  a-a,  337 

0-0  (Bird),  330,  333 

Featliers  of,  use  of,  77 
Oo  (Digger),  75 
Oopu  (Goby),  374,  349,  357 

how  captured,  357 
Oopuhue,  349,  367 
Oopukai  (Cirrhitoid  fish).  374,  349 
Oopu  kawa  (Porcui)ine  fish),  370,  365 
Opae   (Shrimji),  436 
Opae  (fig.  1),  482 

baskets,  341 
Opakapaka   (Snapper),  362,  349,  364,  371 
0])eapea,  295 


INDEX. 


573 


Opeas,  439 

Opehi.       The    opchi    and    aku    were    two    kinds   of 

fish    that    wpve    sacred    and    tabu    Ijy   turns   for 

six  months  at  a  time.       On  January   i:Uh  each 

year    a    human    sacrifice    was    offered    together 

with    the    fish    aku.        Tlie     Kalioalii,     a    man 

personifyinfc  the   god   of  that   name,    is  sa'd  to 

have    plucked    out    and    ate    the    eye    of    each. 

By    this    ceremony    the    tabu    was    taken    from 

the    aku    and   the   opelu    in    turn    became   tabu 

for   si.x    months. 
Opelu,  349,  363,  3(i4 

nets,  341 

palahu  (Mackerel),  366,  349 
0])ereulate  land  shells,  438 
0])erculum  defined,  413 

False,  439 

from  Vivipanis,  436 

in  Turban  shell,  460 
Opihi,  4(i6 

"Opium"  tree  [Opiuma],  198 
Opu.     A    protuberance    with    an    enclosure    as    the 

belly,   stomach,   bladder,   etc.       The  Hawaiians 

sujiposed     the     seat     of     thought,     intelligence, 

etc.,    also    the    seat    of    moral    power   to    reside 

in    the    small    intestines:    hence    opu    or    naaii 

was  used  bv  them  for  what  we  call  the  heart. 
Opule  (Wrasse  fish),  366,  349,  359 
Oracle    [Lananuu].       A  tall   framework  of  poles  in 

the   temples    shai)ed   like   an    olielisk.       It    was 

four  to  six  feet  square  and  hollow.       In  it  the 

priest    stood    to    get    in    direct    communication 

with   his   god   that   he   might   learn    the   will   of 

the  god  on   important  matters. 
Oral  and  aljoral  view  of  sea-ur(hin,  496 
Orange,  2(33,  2()4 

aphis,  265,  389 

Chinese,   266 

jiroves,  Old,  135 

Introduction  of,  264 

Large  trees  of,  265 

mite,  265 

-red  birds  [Akepa],  333 

Russet,  cause  of,  2(i5 
Orca,  347 

Order  (scr  Nomenclature) 
Oreomystis,  Genus,  331 
Oroan  ]ii]ie  coral,  429 

Oriental  method  of  rice  cultivation,  276 
Origin  of  bird  fauna,  338 

Hawaiian  plants,  193 

the  Hawaiian  race,  26 

the  Polynesian  race,  26 
Ornamental  palms,  236 
Ornaments,  38 

Feather,  75 

Flowers  as,  38 

Human  teeth  as,  70 

Nut  shells  ,ivory.  as,  38 
Oiiiament  shell,  470 
Ornithologist    (329).        One   who    is   devoted   to   the 

study  of  birds. 
Osculum   explaineil,  499 
Osteroaard,  .1.  .M.,  447 
Ou,  331 

use  of  feathers  of,   77 
O-u,  337 

holov.ai,  337 
Outline  of  head  of  Maui  {sec  map  of),  134 
Outfit  for  reef  collecting,  478 
Otaheite   gooseberry    (PIn/lhnithiifi  diKtirlnix.   Miill.) 

Although   extensively   cultivated    in    the   tropics 


for  its  acid  fruits,  which  are  used  for  pickles, 
it  is  rare  in  Hawaiian  gardens.  This  low 
growing  tree  with  large  itinnate  leaves  be- 
l<ings  to  the  very  large  tropical  genus  Phyllan- 
thus,  commonly  reiircsented  in  the  islands  V)y 
the  variegated  Phiillnntlnis  roxen-pictun.  much 
used  as  a  hedge  jjlant.  It  is  a  native  of 
Java.  The  Heshy  green  fruits,  an  inch  \iv 
more  in  diameter,  occur  in  long  clusters. 
A  related  species  with  finely  pinnate  leaves 
(I'lii/llunthux  cmhlica  Linn.)  is  rare  in  Ha- 
waii. A  single  tree  may  be  seen  in  the 
Mausoleum  grounds  in  Nuuanu  Valley.  The 
round  fruits,  %  inch  in  diameter,  are  slightly 
flattened   and   six-striated. 

Ovary  [Hot]  (260).  The  part  of  the  pistil 
which  contains  the  future  seeds. 

Ovate  (203).  Like  the  section  of  an  egg  with 
the   broader   end   of  the   leaf   next    to  the   stem. 

Overland  Distances:  OX  O.VHl' — From  Honolulu 
P.  O.  to  Diamond  Head  .5.9  miles.  Koko  Head 
11.8  m..  Makapuu  14.8  m.,  Waimanalo  (by 
the  Pali)  12  m.,  Pali  6.0  m..  Kaneohe  11.9 
m.,  Waiahole  18.9  m.,  Kahana  26.4  m..  Ka- 
huku  Mill  37.2  m.,  Waialua  28  m..  Ka- 
huku  Ranch  (via  Waialua  39.4.  By  Rail 
from  Honolulu  Depot — To  Puuloa  6.23  m., 
Aiea  9.37  m..  Pearl  Citv  11.76  m..  Wah'awa 
Station  2.5. 20  m..  Ewa  Plantation  Mill  18.2.5 
m..  Waianae  Station  33.30  m..  Kaena  Point 
44.50  m.,  Waialua  station  55.80  m..  Kahuku 
Plantation  69.50  ni.,  Punaluu  80.50  m. 
OX  KAUAI — Nawiliwili:  to  Koloa  11.0  m., 
Hanapepe   20.0   m..   Waiawa    31.5   m..    Xuololo 

44.8  m.,  Hanamaulu  3.3  m..  Wailua  River 
7.7  m.  Kealia  11.9  m.,  Kilauea  23.6  m  , 
Hanalei  31.8  m..  Wainiha  34.8  m.  OX 
MAUI — from  Kahului:  to  Spreckelsville  4.0 
m.,  Paia  P.  O.  7.2  m..  Haiku  11.0  m.,  Huelo 
20.2  m.,  Xahiku  Landing  49.9  m..  Hana 
P.  O.,  55.6  m..  Kipahulu  Mil  66.2 
m..  Wailuku  3.8  m..  Waikapu  5.9  m.. 
Maalaea  10.3  m..  Kihei  12  m..  Makawao  11.6 
m.,  Olinda  18.5  m.,  Haleakala  (crater  edge) 
26.6   m      Haleakala   summit   28.6   m..    Olowalu 

19.9  m.,  Lahaina  Court  House  25.5  m.. 
Waihee  7.3  m..  Kahakuloa  16.3  m..  Xap"'' 
29.8  m.  OX  HAWAII — from  Foreign 
Church  (Kohala)  to  Hamakua  boundary  4.5 
m.,  Kukuihaele  Mill  11.0  m..  Mana  7.7  m., 
Honoipu  7.25  m.,  Mahukona  10.5  m..  Mahu- 
kona  to  Court  House  9.2  m..  Kawaihae  to 
Waimea  Court  House  11.8  m..  :Mana  19.5  m., 
Koliala  Court  House  15.0  m..  Kealaki  kua 
to  Kailua  12.0  m.,  Kiholo  27.6  m.,  Kawaihae 
42.0  m.,  Honaunau  4.0  m..  Hookena  7.7  m., 
Kahuku  Ranch  :!6.5  m..  Volcano  to  Halfway- 
House  i:i  m..  Pahala  2:i  m..  Punaluu  27.6 
m..  Honuapo  32.6  m..  Waiohinu  37.1  m., 
Kahuku  Ranch  43.1  m.  From  Hilo  Court 
House  13  m.,  Pahala  23  m..  Punaluu  27.6 
Road  9  m.,  Pahoa  20.0  m.,  Pohoiki  28  m.. 
Kapoho  32.0  m..  Furneaux's  13.2  m..  Moun- 
tain View  16.8  m.,  Volcano  House  31.0  m. 
OX  MOLOKAI — From  Kaunakakai:  to 
Mevers,  Kalae,  5.0  m..  Kal.nipapa  9.0  m.. 
Kainalo  9.0  m.,  Pukoo  15.ii  m.,  Halawa 
25.0   m. 

Oviparous  fishes,   llxaiui'lc  of.  358 

Ovipositer  (429).  An  organ  by  which  many  in- 
sects    i)lace     their     eggs     in     places     suited     to 

lliciv    (Icvelopincnt. 

Owalii.  227 

"Owl"  fish    I  Moa  1.  375 

Owl,   Hawaiian  short-eared,  336 

Owlet  moths,  396 

Owls,  Sacred.  In  time  of  danger  the  appearance 
of  an  owl  was  regarded  as  a  favorable  omen. 
Kukaualii    w;is    the    god    of    owls. 

Ox  bot-Hy,  421 

Oyster  beds  attacked  by  starfish,  4S9 

culture.   Attempts  at,    ll-'i 

Kxtinct,  444 

Fossil,    115 


574 


INDEX. 


Hawaiian,  456 
Pearl,  456,  4±4 
Eoek,  456,  446 
Saddle,  444,  445 
Oysters,  443,  473 
Califoruia,  445 
Eastern,  445 
True,  444 


Pa   (shell),  444 

kuikiii,  372 

(Pearl  ovster),  456 
Pacific,    191,"  216,    225,    23(),    30(1,    301,    303, 
312,  346 

Coral  reefs  of  the,  477 

golden  plover  [Kolea],  303,  321 

Highest  mountain  in,  147 

Islands,  203,  257,  320 

Islands,  Map  of,  100 

Islanders  (Polynesians),  25 

Ocean  ,95,  99, 'ill,  324 

Ocean,  ('ross  roads  of,  99 

Ocean,  Map  of,  100 

Sphvnx  of  the,  115 

Whaling  in  the,  303 
i'addle  [Hoi], Canoe,  70,  80 
Paddy,  276 

Pahee  was  a  game  in  M'hich  short  Vtlunt  darts  of 
polished  hard  wood  from  two  to  four  feet  in 
length  were  thrown  along  the  ground  be- 
tween two  darts  laid  down  at  a  certain 
distance. 

Pahoehoe  and  a-a  shown,  162 

Examples  of  in  Kilauea,  184 

flows  in  Kilauea,  166 

flows  on  Mauna  Loa,  155 

Pahu.  The  pahu  was  originally  a  hollow  cocoa- 
nut  stem  or  other  tree  with  a  shark  skin 
drawn  over  one  end  and  used  as  a  drum  (see 
plate   11.  fig.   1). 

Pahu  hula,  57 

Paiai,  iM] 

Painted  fish.  359 

Painters'  l)rush  (a  composite),  262 

Painui,  206,  224 

Pakii,  349,  371 

Pakuikui.  347 

Palagonite.  A  volcanic  rock  closely  allied  to 
basalt  having  a  somewhat  vitrous  structure: 
the  craters  of  Diamond  Head,  Punchlx)wl, 
etc.,   are  largely  composed  of  this  rock. 

Palahola.  A  paste  made  from  the  fern  amaumau 
(Sadlerin  c)/atifheoide,i  Kaulf.)  which  was 
used  as  a  gum  in  repairing  tapa. 

Palaoa,  79,  301 

Palai>alai,  221 

Palaui=Palawi 

Palawi,  349 

Pali,  Eruptive  center  beyond,  220 

Height  at  the,  114 

road  (1214  feet),  125 

The,  125,  114 

The,  a  wind  gap,  125 

The,  View  near,  112 

Pallial  line.  The  line  or  mark  made  by  the 
mantle  in  certain  MoUusca  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  shell. 


Palmate    (262).       Said  of  a  leaf  when  the  leaf,   or 
the    divisions    of    the    leaf,    spreads    from    its 
stalk  like  the  open   hand. 
Palm  blossoms,  Bees  feeding  on,  232 

Blue,   237 

Bottle,  240,  237 

Chinese,  237 

Cocoanut,  233 

Date,  234,  238,  246,  264,  236 

Fan,  240,  236 

Japanese,  237 

leaf,  Danger  from  falling,  233 

leaf -roller  parasites,  396 

leaves,  how  used,  235,  236 

leaves.  Scale  on,  384 

lily,  210 

mealy-bug,  391 

oil,  237 

Rhai)is,  240,  237 

Royal,  246,  232 

Sago,  237 

Sugar,  237 

Sunday,   236 

Travelers,  238,  257 

trees  on  ( 'ocoanut   Island,  150 

trees  on  the  sea-shore,  150 

Washington,  246,  237 

"Wee] ling,''  237 

Wine,  246,  237 

Wine,  fruit  and  flowers  of,  246 
Palms,  232 

as  a  domestic  setting,  233 

at  Waikiki,  233 

Cocoanut,  age  of,  233 

Native,  236 

Number  of  species  of,  232 

Ornamental,  236 

The  "].rince  of."  233 
Palm  thatch,  23ti 
Palolo-Manoa  trail.  View  on,  218 

Palolo.  Sticky  mud.  A  liluish-white  clay  of  the 
islands. 

Pamoho^Oku]>ukupu 
Pampanos,  3<i4 
Pampas  grass,  238 
Pandanus,  204,  252 

Aerial  roots  of,  252 

baskets,  20 

distribution  of,  204 

Species  of,  252 

use  of,  62,  si 
Pan-Hawaiian  Island,  290 

Panicles  (227).  A  loose  branching  cluster  of 
flowers. 

Panini,  2(.9 

Pantlieon,  The  Hawaiian,  49 

Papa  hee  malu   (surf  board),  80 

holua,  57,  86 

holau  slides  on  Oahu.  86 

Papa,  wife  of  Wakea.  They  were  regarded  as 
the  founders  of  the  Hawaiian  race. 

Papal  lanai,  469 

Papaia  (.»>rf  Papaya) 

Papain  is  a  ferment  obtained  from  the  half-ripe 
fruit  of  the  papaya.  It  differs  from  i)epsin 
in  that  its  proteolytic  action  goes  on  in  the 
neutral  or  alkaline  solutions.  It  is  also  called 
papayi",    iiai)ayotiii.    and   cari<"an. 


INDEX. 


575 


Papala.  21i 
Pai)aiia,  456,  443 
Papaw,  2(i2 
Pajiaw  (xcr  Papaya) 

Papaya.  The  common  name  for  lioth  the  tree 
and  fruit  of  Carira  Paimiia  is  derived  from 
the  Carab  "'aljabai"  whicli  doubtless  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  -Vmericun  name  i)ai)a,va  since 
the  species  is  known  to  l)e  of  South  .Ameri- 
can or  West  Indian  orijiin.  The  l)apa.va  has 
so  long  been  in  cultivation  in  the  tropics 
that  it  is  known  undt>r  at  least  a  dozen 
common  names,  variously  S|)elled,  some  of 
which  are  used  interchangeably  even  by  the 
same  authors.  Pai)aya  seems  preferable  as 
the  distinctive  Knglish  name,  although  papaia 
is  a  common  spelling.  Other  current  Eng- 
lish names  are  tree-melon,  ])aw](aw  (which 
see),  papaw,  melon  zapote,  lechoso,  maneo, 
and  mamero. 

Papaya  264,  2(52 

Property  of  the  juice  of,  2(53 

Varieties  of,  2<i2 
Paper  iiuilbeny   [WaukeJ,  ()7,  (ji»,  217 

wasps,  404 
Papiopio  (Cavalla),  362,  349 
Papipi.       The  prickly  pear.       Also  called  paniui. 

Para  grass,  286 

rubber,  283 
I'aralysis,  transmitted  liy,  419 
J'arasitic  Hynieno]itera,  412 

plant,  Example  of  a,  204,  22o 

Parasites  (381).  An  animal  that  lives  in  or  on 
or  at  the  expense  or  by  the  exertion  of  an- 
other species. 

Parasites,  Ejig-,  382 

of  the  leaf-hopper,  382 
Parents  and  children,  Eelation  between,  4-1 
Parrot-bill.  Maui.  330 

fish,  3(io 

-fish,  Common    [riiu|.  370 

-fish.  Blue,  36.3 

Parrots,  308 

Parthenojjenesis,  391 

Parthenogenesis  (390).  In  some  animals  in 
which  fertilization  normally  occurs,  the  ova 
may  develop  in  the  absence  of  the  male  ele- 
ment:   hence   virgin    reproduction. 

Partridge,  ('alifornia,  30S 

tun  [Puonionio],  460,  4(il 
Party  visiting  190.>  flow,  162 
Paspalum.  2ns 
Passenger    and    mail    landings     (.s-rr    Pavs, 

etc.) 
Passiflora      (sfr     Mav-pops,      Watei -lenioii, 

etc.) 
Passion  flowers,  2()S 

flower,  Origin  of  name  of.  2(58 

fruit   (Grandilla),  264 
Paste  (.s-fr  Varnishes) 
Pa  'u.   Feather.  57 

hula,    S2 

xMade  of,  38 

The,  3s 

Pan.  I'he  i)rinri[)al  garment  of  a  Hawaiian 
female  in  former  times,  consisting  of  a  num- 
ber of  tapas.  generally  five,  wo\ind  around 
the  waist  and  reaching  about  to  the  knee  (see 
plate   11,   fig.   3). 

I'auohiiaUa,  192 

Paupau   (Cavalla).  362 


Paupilii)ili,196 

Paving  l)locks,  21.") 

Paw])aw  (.s-rr  Papava) 

Pea,  489,  491 

Peace,  How  intn  laimcd,  .'3 

offerings,  .")3 
Pea<dH's,  2()7 

scale,  391 
Pea-fowl,  308 
Peahi,  228 

Peanut,  native  of,  285 
I'eamits,   2S."i 
Pear,  Alligator,  261 

Alligator=Avocado,  258,  261 

]'ri(ddey,  269 

Pears.  Pears  (I'l/nis  cfiiiiiiiunix)  occasionall.v 
fruit  in  the  islands  in  the  higher  altitudes. 
They  are  of  fairly  rajjid  growth  and  i)roduce 
a  fruit  of  good  (niality.  They  thrive  best  at 
from    4()l)()-.')(l()0    feet    nlevation.' 

I'ear,  ya])ota,  266 

Pearl  and  Hermes  Reef.  88,  94 

and  Hermes  Reef.  Seal  on,  96 

(  ity  Peninsula,  110 

<'itv,  IMan  of.  110 

Harbor,  109,  211 

Harbor,  Map  of,  110 

Harbor,  Evidence  of  ele\ation   of,  130 

ll.nrlior.  Fortification  of,  211 

Harbor,  Fossil  shells  at,  130 

Harbor,  Military  reservation  at.  110 

Harbor,  Shark  fishing  off,  344 

Harbor,  Soundings   in,  110 

Lixdis,   Map  of,  110 

Lochs  (><cc  also  Pearl  Harbor),  ll-*.  132 

oyster   [Pa],  456,  444 

shell,  use  of,  77 
Pearls,   444 

Peculiar.       A  species  occurring  only  on  the  i.slands 

of  tile  group    (xee   endemic). 
Pectoral   fins    (347).       Situated   on   the   side  of  the 

body,    usually   just   behiiui    the   head. 

Pedun(de  defined,  473 

Pedunide   (Mollusca),  explained,  44.") 

Peelua,  388 

Pele,  Coming  of  (legend),  S9 

Kai)iolani  breaks  the  si>ell  of.  171 

Ohelo  oti'ering  to,  22.") 

The  Journey  to  visit,  132 
I'elekunu  valley,  133 

valley.  I'.og  flora  at,  218 
Pele's  hair  (.ve   Obsidian) 

hair,   180 

kitidien,  179 

reception  room.   1  79 

rereiifioii   room,   l''lasli  li'jlit  ol',  170 

recejitioii  room,   IJitrance  to.  184 

I'rndcnt    |lt<)ots|     (211).       Hanging  like  the  aerial 
roots  of  a  banian. 

i'emhilum  Peak,  143 

I'eninsula  at  Pearl  (ity.  110 

Pens,  Fish,  341 

T'epeiao  kai   ("Sea  ear"),  fig.   1,  492 

Pepper.  California,  240 

grass,  287 

tree,  24o 


576 


INDEX. 


Perch-like  fishes,  3(i9 
Sea,  366 

Perennial    (205).       Living  on    from    year   to   vear. 
as  distinguished   from   an   annual. 

Perfumes,  Hawaiian,  221 

Periwiiikle(s),  441,  4(34 

Madagascar,  250 

Mottled,  470 
Perkins,   Dr.   R.    C.   L.    (Entomologist,   Xa- 
taralist),  12,  295,  407,  414,  411,  422,  424, 

Perua,  443 
Persons  tabned,  47 
Pern.  254.  2(i(i,  284.  293 

Marvel  of,  254 

Earthquake,  1868,  159 
Pestles,  68 

Stone,  70 
Pests,   Household,  405 

Mongoose,  296 

of  the  banana,  260 

of  citrus  fruits    265 

Pineapple,  261 

Petiolate    (2.54).        Said    of    a    leaf    when    born    on 
its  own  leaf-stalk. 

Petos,  361 

Petrel.  Bonin,  310 

Buhvers,  310 

Dark-rumped  [Uau],  310 

Hawaiian  stormv,  323 
Petrels,  309 
Pheasant,  Chinese,  307 

Japanese,  307 

Bing-neck,  307 

shells,  466 
Pheasants,  307 

Hybrid,  308 
Philippine  Islands,  235,  280 
Philodendron,  234,  240,  249 
Phosphate  of  lime,  95 
Phosphoric  acid  in  soils,  105 
Photographs.  Credit  for,  12,  14 
Phyllauthus,  252 

(see  Otaheite  gooseberry) 

Phylodendron  (error  srr  Philodendron) 

Ph.vlum     (fiee    Nomenclature).        One    of    the    large 
branches  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

Physical   characteristics   of  Hau-aiian   peo- 
ple, 37 
Pia,  284 

Picking  coffee,  270 
Pickle-weed,  192,  199 
Pig  [Puaa],  dishes,  61 

prepared  for  baking,  36 

Dish  of  liake.l,  70 
Pigs,  287 

Food  for,  67 

Wild,  Forest  damaged  by,  287 

introduced,  295 

(■■«■(■  (lUn  Hogs)  introduced,  295 

Wild,  295 
Piiku.       A    drink  made   from   the   leaves,    branches 

and     fruit    of    the    kukui     tree    and     used    for 

medicine. 

Piipii  (Stick-tight  grass),  196,  286 
Pikopiko.        The    name   of   the    ink   or   sepia    in    the 
squid.       When   emitted   it   clouds   the   water    a 
murky   Ijrown,    enabling  the   animal   to   escape. 


sugar-cane,   261 


Pilali.  The  gum  of  the  kukui  tree,  but  also  a 
general  term  for  a  gum. 

Pili,  192,  59,  209,  286 

Pilikai.  The  name  of  a  stout  woodv  climber 
{Arrjyreiu  filia'foUa  Wright)  with  pale  purple 
flowers  the  seeds  of  wliich  were  used  as  a 
cathartic   for  children. 

Pilikoa'a,  354 

Pilikoa    (Cirrhitoid  fish).  374,  354 

Piling,  Worms  from,  490 

'Pillars'  lava   (Puna),  158 

Pill-bug,  398,  408,  409 

Pillow,  Hawaiian,  57,  62 

Pilo,  227 

Pilot-fish,  365 

Pilot  fish  or  Romero,  366,  365 

Pilsbry,   Dr.    Henrv  A.    (C'onchologist),   12 

121,  123,  124,  290,434,  435,  473 
Pinau  (Dragon  fly),  436,  424 
Pinch-bug   (beetle),  417 
Pineapple,  258,  255,  261 

disease   of 

Flowers  of,  261 

mealy-bug,  391 

Propagation  of.  261 

Seasons  for.  261 

Seeds  of,  261 

scale,  384,  391 

Size  of,  261 

Varieties  of,  261 
Pine,  Ground,  214 

Screwy  252 
"Pin-head"  shells,  439 
Pink  shower,  244 

sugar-cane   mealy-bug,   389 

cotton  boll  worm,  399 

Pinnate  [leaves]  (244).  When  the  small  leaflets 
are  arranged  along  the  side  of  a  common 
stem. 

I'intail  duck,  328 

Pioeoe  (Barnacles),  473 

(Hawaiian  ovster),  456,  444 
Pioi,  213 
Pipe-fish,  365 
Pipe,  Hawaiian,  284 
Pipi,  445 

T'ipijii,  436,  442,  444,  470,  79.  465 
Pipul  tree,  283 
Pirate  bird,  318 
Pisa  shells,  450 

Pistil   (216).       The  seed-liearing  organ  nf  a  flower. 
Pit  crater,  Keanakakoi.  186 

of  Halemaumau,  166 

{.sec  Halemaumau),  174 

scale,  391 
Places  (sec  Cities,  etc.) 

tabued,  47 
Plague  carried  by  fleas.  401 

(i'arriers.  Rats  as,  292 

Germ  of,  292 

how  contracted,  292 

organism,  401 
Plain   (Alluvial),  Examples  of.  103 
Plaiting  lauhala  mats,  84 
Planarians,  497 

Plan  map  of  Diamond  Head,  118 
Plant  and  animal  dves.  ()9 


indp:x. 


■)i  I 


Plantain,  iMil 

J^Jantuius,  Cookiii.y,  212,   L^(in 

Plantation,  General  view  of  (siii.'ar),  278 

laborers,  27i 

niaehinery,  274: 

rice,  270  " 

scene,  274 

Sisal,  270 

Traction  en<iiiie  on  a,  274 

Trash  fire  on,  270 
I'laiit    controlled    liv    its    enemies,    Kxainiilc 
of  a,  384 

Juices  use  of  {sec  Ki,  Awapahi,  Ilan) 

lice,  389,  42.-5,  4:27 

lice,  Life  history  of,  391 


life.  Effect  of  agriculture  on 


.'(ill 


life  of  the  hi^h  mountains,  210 

life  of  the  lowlands,  1,S9 

life  of  the  sea-shore,  189 

-like  animals,  498 

parasite   (sec  Dodder,  Mistletoe,  etc.) 

Umbrella.  234 
Planting  and  harvestini;   suyar-cane,   278 

seed  cane,  278 
Plants  and  animals  brouoht  as  baggage,  27 

as  gods,  49 

at  Waikiki,  116 

by  the  sea-shore    [LanhalaJ,  194 

Common  roadside,  198 

cultivated  by  the  natives,  67 

Economic  study  of  native,  283 

Endemic,  191 

Fiber,  69 

Field  and  roadside  (common),  198 

from  the  coral  reef  (Part  one),  468 

from  the  coral  reef  (Part  two),  485 

from  the  mountains  and  the  shore,  218 

from   the  rocky  coast,  192 

from  the  sea-shore,  192 

from  the  shore  to  the  forest,  201 

from  the  summit  of  Konahuinui,  224 

Hedge,  251 

Introduced,   191,  205,  231 

Introduction  of,  283 

Lantana,  si)read  controlled  by,  385 

Marine,  at  Waikiki,  492 

Native,  192 

Native  fiber,  21  7 

Number  of  genera  and  sjiecies  of,    191 

of  the  lower  forest  ami  fields.  212 

of  the  lower  forest  zone,  202 

of  the  middle  forest  zone,  220 

of  the   mountain   forest.  214 

peculiar  to  Hawaii,  193 

Precinctive,   193 

Rare  exotic,  238 

Second  zone  of.  201 

ti'ansjiorteil   by  currents,  191 
Plates  eufiravt'd   by    Hawaiian  (iazctte  Co., 

Ltd.,  Honolulu 
Plates.  List  of,  numerically  arranged, 

SECTION  I— Till-;  HAWAIIAN    PKOPLK. 

1.  Typical  old  Hawaiians  of  today,  24 

2.  Hawaiian    gi-ass    house    with    typical 

setting,   28 

3.  Hawaiian   (diildrcn,  32 


4.  I'rejiaiing    Hawaiian   food,  36 

5.  Hawaiian  home  life,  40 
(i.     Hawaiian  tyjies,  44 

7.     Heiaus.    war    canoes    anc|    a    city    of 

i-efufie,  48 
7.      I>uiial  caves,  war  gods  and  idols,  52 
9.      I.'ortion  of  the  Hawaiian  government 

collei-tion.  57 

10.  Hawaiian  t.Npcs  at  work  and  jday,  63 

11.  l^thnojirajihic    yroujis    in    the    I'ishop 

Museum,  64 

12.  Stone  implenu-nts  and  calabashes,  68 

13.  Objects  of  native  manufacture,  70 

14.  Hawaiian  yirls  at   worl<   and   play.  76 

15.  Hula   dancers,  78 

16.  The  surf -riders,  80 

17.  ^liscellaneous   Hawaiian    pictures,   84 

SECTION  II— THH  GKOLOCV,  (IKOGHA- 

PHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  THK 

HAWAIIAN   ISLANDS. 

18.  Map  of  the  leeward  chain  of  islands 

of   the   Hawaiian   archipelago, 88 

19.  Yiews  on  Midwav  and  Ocean  Islands, 

90 

20.  A'iews  on  Laysan   Island,  92 

21.  Reefs     and     islands     in     the    leeward 

chain,  96 

22.  ^laj)  of  the  liigii  or  inhabited  islands 

of  the  Hawaiian  j:rou]i.  100 

23.  Views  on  Kauai.  102 

24.  Map  of  the  Island  of  Kauai,  104 

25.  Canons  and  valleys  on  Kauai.  106 

26.  Map  of  the  Island  of  Oahu,  110 

27.  View  in  Nuuanu  valley  near  the  I'ali 

showing  the  jieak  of  Lanihuli,  112 

28.  Waikiki    Heach    and    Diamond    Heail, 

116 

29.  Specimens  from   Diamond    Head. 

30.  Scenery  on  Oahu,  122 

31.  Nuuanu  Pali,  125 

32.  Coast  scenes  on  Oahu,  128 

33.  Fornmtions    of    geologic    interest    on 

Oahu.  130 

34.  Map    of     Maui     .-md     the     Islands     of 

Molokai,     Lanai     :ui(l     K;ihoolii\ve. 
134 

35.  Scenes     on      the     wind\\;iril     side     of 

Molokai,  136 

36.  Halawa  valley  on  Molokai,  140 

37.  Lanai  and   Molokai.  142 

38.  The  summit  of  Haleakala.145 

39.  Maj)  of  the   Island  of   Hawaii.  148 
4ii.      \'ic\v   of   the    windward    coast   of    Ha- 
waii, 150 

41.  Shore    and     mountain     \iew     on     Ha- 

waii,  154 

42.  Tree  moulds  in    Puna.  156 

43.  Volcanic   scenery  on   Hawaii,  160 
4).      Yari(uis    Hawaiian    views,  162 
45.      \'i('\\s  of    Kilauea,  166 

Id.      Ill   and  around   Kilauea,  170 

17.      \'iew    of  the  pit  of   Haleuiaumau.  174 

1^.      'ilijects    of   interest    in    the    crater   of 

Kilauea.  185 
19.      X'iews    at     Kilauea    and     .Mokuaweo- 

weo,  186 


578 


INDEX. 


SECTION    n— THE    FLORA    OF    THE 
GEOUP. 

50.  Vegetation   of  the  lower  and   niiddle 

forest,  190 

51.  Common    plants     from     rocky     coast 

and  sandy  shores,  192 

52.  Striking     plants     in     the     Hawaiian 

flora,  194 

53.  Twenty  connnon  weeds,  196 

54.  Common    jilants     of    the    fields    and 

roadside  (Oahii),  198 

55.  Vegetation  in  the  forests,  along  the 

streams  and  the  roadside,  200 

56.  Kukui    and    common    plants    of    the 

lower  forest   (Oahu),  202 

57.  Curious  native  plants,  206 

58.  Plants   of  the   open  fields   and   lower 

forests  on  Oahu,  212 

59.  The    maile    and    its    jdant    associates 

on  Oahu,  214 
(iO.     Plants   on   the    mountains   and   along 
the  shore,  218 

61.  Ohia  and  some  of  its  plant  associates 

on  Oahu,  220 

62.  Plants     from     near     the     summit     of 

Konahuanui,  Oahu,  224 

63.  Common    genera    of    ferns    on    Oahu, 

228 

SECTION   IV— AGRICULTURAL   AND 
HORTICULTURE  IN   HAWAII. 

64.  Views   in   tropical   gardens   in   Hono- 

lulu, 234 

65.  View    in    the    old    (iovernment    Nur- 

sery   showing    a    number    of    rare 

exotic  plants  ,238 
i)C^.     Miscellaneous     group     of     cultivated 

plants,  240 
67.     Various   views   in   Honolulu   gardens, 

246 
6S.     Blossoms    from    a    Honolulu    garden, 

248 

69.  Wild  and  cultivated  fruits,  258 

70.  Hawaiian  fruits,  264 

71.  Minor   agricultural    industries,   270 

72.  The  milling'  of  sujiar-cane,  274 

73.  IManting   and  harvesting   sugar-cane, 

279 

74.  Cattle  raising  in  Hawaii,  282 

75.  Four    stages    in    the    development    of 

the  Hawaiian  archipelago,  290 

SECTION    V— THE    ANIMAL    LIFE    OF 
THE  GROIH'. 

7().     Hawaiian  aquatic   animals,  294 

77.  Whales  and  whaling  scenes,  298 

78.  Oioups    of    Hawaiian     l)irds    in    the 

Bishop  Museum,  310 

79.  Bird  life  on  Laysan,  316 

80.  Hawaiian    liirds    of    various    orders, 

323 

81.  Six   interesting   Hawaiian   birds,   327 

82.  Some    song    birds    of    the    Hawaiian 

islands,  330 

83.  Some   rare   and   extinct   bii'ds   of   the 

mountain   forests,  332 

84.  Six  familiar  mountain  birds,  334 


85.  Common  Hawaiian  birds,  337 

86.  The  sharks  and   rays,  340 

ST.     Fishing  scenes  in  Hawaii,  344 

88.  Eels     and     other     curiously     shaped 

fishes,  350 

89.  Fishing  in  Hilo  Bay,  352 

90.  Fishes  at   the  Aquarium,  356 

91.  ('hoiee  Hawaiian  market  fish,  362 

92.  Curious  and  common  Hawaiian  fishes, 

366 

93.  Parrot     fish,     butterfly     fish,     putfers 

and  their  relatives,  370 

94.  Gobies,  blennies,  frog  fish,  trunk  fish 

and  other  odd  forms,  374 

95.  The  study  of  economic  insects,  380 

96.  Some  economic  insects,  384 

97.  Conspicuous  Hawaiian  insects,  392 

98.  Some  common  insects  and  their  rela- 

tives, 398 

99.  Common    beetles,    bees,    wasps,    flies, 

etc.,  406 
1(10.     Color     varieties     exhibited     by     two 
common  species  of  land  shells,  432 

101.  Fresh  water  fauna  on  Oahu,  436 

102.  Two  mollusks  used  l)v  Hawaiians  as 

food,  442. 
1(13.     Important  genera  of  land  shells,  448 

104.  Common  marine  bivalves,  456 

105.  Some     of     the     larger     common     sea 

shells,  460 

106.  Smaller  common  sea  shells,  470 

107.  The  reef  at  low  tide,  472 

11)8.     Common   crabs  and  barnacles  of  the 

coral  reef,  474 
109.     Collecting  on  a  reef,  478 
no.     Small    crabs    and    crab-like    animals 

from  the  reef,  482 

111.  Common  corals  and  coral  rock,  486 

112.  Corals  and  reef  rock,  488 

113.  Miscellaneous  marine  animals,  490 

114.  Common    marine    plants    at    Waikiki, 

492 

115.  Common     Hawaiian     sjjonges     [Upi], 

494 

116.  Starfish,    sea-urchins    and    sea-cucum- 

bers,  496 

117.  Marine    plants    ami     ]>lant-like     ani- 

mals, 498 
Playing  Puhenehene — a   guessing  game,  76 

the  nose  flute,  76 
Pleetromia     (variously    called     Wiiluhee    or    alahee 

which   .Sf*'). 

Plecyopods,  443 
l^leistoceue,  117 
Pliocene,  115 
Plover,  Golden,  321 

Migration  of,  321 

Pacific    golden,  310 
Plowing  (Sugar  plantation),  278 
Plumeria   (error  sec  Plumieria) 
Plumier,  Charles  (Botanist),  253 
Plumieria,  252 
I'lum,  .lai)anese,  266 

.lava,  268 
Pocillopora,  477 


INDEX. 


579 


Pod  (201).  (lenerally  applied  to  any  sort  of  a 
seed  capsule,  but  more  coi-rectlv  the  pod  of  a 
bean-like   iilaiit. 

Poetry,  Examples  of  llawaiiaii,  41,  42,  4r,[) 
Poets,  Hawaiian,  41 
Poha,  2o7 

Species  of,  257 

Pohaku  The  general  name  for  stone.s,  rocks 
pebbles,  etc.  Large  stones  were  called  pali 
pohaku;  lesser  ones  pohoku  uuku  :  rough 
lava,  aa:  smooth  lava,  pahoehoe;  smaP 
smooth  stones,  iliile,  and  sand,  one. 
Po)iaku  kui  poi,  57 

puna  (Coral  stone),  486,  477 
hookala   (xrr  Grin.jstoiie) 
Pohakupele  (Worm  shell),  460 
Pohuehue,  218,  U)7 
Poi,  <)() 

board,  60,  6(5 

Breadfruit.  241 

dog-,  29.3 

Eating,  76 

Grades  of,  67 

how  eaten,  67 

Keeping  (jualities  of,  (i6 

Manufacture  of,  66 

pounding  (group),  64 

pounding  on  a  double  board   Tpapa  kui 

poi],  36 
pounders  [pohaku  kui  poi|,  57,  68,  (i:; 
pounders  (ring  form),  70 
Poinciana,  243 

named  for,  244 
Poils  of  the,  244 
Yellow,  244 
Poinsett,  Hon.  .1.  R..  249 
Poinsettia,  249 

name<]  for,  249 
Poison  god,  The,  70 

fang  (Cone  shell),  4.").1 
Fish,  34] 
Poisonous  fish,  373,  367 

weed,  341 
Points  and  capes  on  Dalui,  110 
of  interest  on  Oahu,  131 
on  Hawaiii,  148 
Sea  coast  on  Kauai,  104 
(.s-cc  Cajies) 
Polinalina,  199 
Polishing  calabashes,  Method  of.  .39 

stones,    7o 
Polliwog  (Tadj)ole),  299 
Pololia    (Jellyfish),  480 

(Portuguese  man-o 'wai),  490 
Pololo,  199,  204 
Polygamy,  42 

I'olygonium  glabnuimi   Willd.   ( .srr  Kamole) 

Polynesia  ,191,  193,  204.  2lo    21."')    •>2)    -^39 

247,  2:"  -,-,-., 

Polynesian,  29."),  297,  4.12 

and  Hawaiian  language,  39 

race,  Genesis  of,  2.") 
Polynesians,  2o,  216,  23o 

Height  of.  37 
Polyp,  47.') 

<  'olonies  of,  47.") 
Polyzoa,  4S3 
Pomace  fly,  421 


Pomegranates,  269 

Pomelo.  26.') 
Pond,    Pish,   270 

life  on  Oahu.  436 

Mullet.  270 

on  summit  of  Mauna  Kea,  151 
T'onds,   Lotus,  285 

Mullet,  359 

(see  iil.so  mullet  ponds),  36o 

Taro.  270,  63 
I'oiii.  2.")9 
Ponohunuhu,   36.") 
I'ool,  Green,  in  I'una,  160 

Lava  in  Kilauea,  174 

Lava  in  Mokuaweoweo,  186 
I'oopa  'a,  349 
Poou,  359 

Pope,  Prof.  W.  T..   Photographs  bv,   14 
Popoki,  293 

Popolo  (Solanum  itoili/hniiiii  ,Jacq.)  is  well  estab- 
lished in  Hawaii.  Its  small  black  tomato- 
like fruits  and  the  tomato-like  appearance  of 
the  foliage  renders  it  easy  to  identifv.  It 
thrives  on  waste  land,  about  fences,  and  bv 
the  roadside.  The  fruit  and  leaves  were 
much  used  by  the  ancient  Hawaiians  and 
doubtless  possess  certain  medical  properties 
not  appreciated  by  Europeans. 
Popolo,  212 

I'ojijiing  corn  over  heat  cracdvs,  184 
Po]»py  (Mexican  thistle),  198,  204 
Population   and   the   food   supply.    Relation 
of,  45 
of  various  islands  (.s-cr  Length,  etc.) 
Porcupine  fish    [Oojiu   kawa|.  370,  365,  367 
Porgie  [Mu  |.  366,  367 
Porites,  477 

Pork  tabu  to  women   (.srr  Women) 
Porj.oise,  3oo,  347 

Schools  of,  300 
Portrait  of  the  author  (.vrr  Frontispiece) 
Ports  and  landings  on  (.svr  map  of  islands 

in  (]uestion.  ^//.s-o  Bays,  etc.) 
I'ortuguese,  267 

man-o '-war  [Pololia],  490,  4sl 
Portulaca   [Thi],  320 
Position  of  Hawaii,  100 
of  Hoiu)lulu,   110 
of  Hualalai  indicated.  148 
of  Kahoolawe,  100 
of  Kauai,  100 
of  Kilauea   indicated.  148 
of  Lanai.  100 
of  Maui,  100,  134 
of  Mauna   Kea   indicated,   148 
of  Mauna   Loa  indicateil,  148 
of  Molokai,  100 
of  Xiihau,  100 
of  Oahu.  100,  110 
of    Sandwicli     isi.iiids     (.ntc     Hawaiian 

Islands)    100 
of  the    Hawaiian   group.   100 
of  the   Islands,  (Jeographic.  93 
Potash   in   soils,    105 
Potassium,  Presence  of,  117 
I'otatoes,  2S4 

Early   jilaiiting  of,  2H4 
exjiorted   from,  2S4 


580 


INDEX. 


Irish,  2S4 

Sweet,  284 

A'aiieties  of,  2S4 
Pot-holes  at  Diamond  Head.  131 
Pottery  not  made  by  Hawaiians,  59 
Power,  where  held,  54 
Prayer  beads,  207 
Prayers  and  religious  rites,  64 

for  growth  of  crops,  (33 
Praying  mantis,  429 

to  death,  54 

to  death    (A  grou]0.  64 

to  death,  Method  of,  64 
Prawns,  468,  469 
Precinctive  (defined),  193 
Predaceons  beetles,  416 

Predaceous-  (426).  Living  on  prey,  preying  on 
other  animals. 

I'reliminary  to  a  battle,  51 

Preoperele  [fish]  (.355).  A  ridge  usually  oc- 
curring just  forward  of  the  large  bony  flap 
covering  the  gills. 

Preorbital  [fish]  (369).  A  bony  prominence  be- 
fore the  eye. 

Price   of   Natural   History    of   Hawaii    {set 

distributors) 

Prickly  pear  cactus,  2(i9,  269 

Pride  of  India,  211,  244 

of  the  Barbadoes,  244 
Priesthood,  5U 
Priests,  54 

Orders  of,  50 

accompanying  the  army,  53 
Primitive  bowling  alley.  S3 
Principal  Ports   (Hawaiian  Ids.),  100 

towns,  villages,  etc.  (sec  (^'ities,  towns, 
etc.) 
Printed    by,    Natural    History    of    Hawaii, 

Hawaiian  Gazette  Co.,  Ltd.,  Honolulu 
Pritchardia  (sec  Loulu) 

Procumbent  (2.30).  Trailing  or  creeping  on  the 
ground. 

Promontory,  Kohala,  an  e.xani])le  of,  148 

Prostrate  (199).  Lying  flat  on  the  ground:  not 
erect. 

Protection  of  fish,  359 

Protective   coloration.   Lizards   example   of 
297 

Protovertebrata,  484 

Provisions,  30 

for  a  long  voyage,  29 

F'sidiuin   (see  Guava) 

I'TEKiDiuM      AQUiLiNUM      [KilauapueoJ  = 
Pterus  aqulina    [Kilua] 

Pterus      aqulina  =  Pteridium      .\quilixum 
[Kilauapueo] 

Pua.       The  Hawaiian   for  a   flower.       Pnaa.   a  hog. 

Puaiohi,  330 

Puakahala   (Cavalla),  366,  364 

Puakala  (Mexican  pop])y),  198,  204 

Puakeawe,  225 

Pnakeawe  =  Pukeawe.  A       .shrub        {('i/athodes 

tanieiarneia  Cham.)  common  on  the  mountains 
of  the  group  (see  text).  Dr.  PImerson  states 
that  it  was  with  the  smoke  of  this  bush  that 
the  ancient  kapu-chiefs  are  said  to  have 
smudged  themselves  before  mingling  with  the 
people  on  equal  terms.  Cyat.hodes  is  some- 
times made  a  suli-genus  in  the  genus 
,'<ti/l)helin. 


Puala   (Surgeon   fish),  370 

Pualele   (Sow  thistle),  196 

Paulu,  349,  372 

Public  policy,  forwarded  by  marriage,  4.> 

Pudding  stick  tree,   244 

Pu,  449,  452 

leholeho  (Spotted  conch),  470 
Pueo  (Owl),  336 
PuflPers,  365,  367 

Common,  370 

Sharp-nosed,  370 
Puhenehene,  Playing,  76 
Puhi   (Moray),  350,  349,  355 

laumili,  350,  361 

kapa,  361 

kapa   (Moray),  350,  361 

laumili^puhi  laumelo 

uha,  355 

Puhiki'i,   349 

Pukamole^Kamole 

Pukaoaa  point,  143 

Pule,  Ancient,  to  the  corwy,  459 

Puleho,  457 

Pulu.  Any  soft  substance,  as  for  example,  the 
mass  from  which  the  tapa  was  made:  hence 
the  name  of  the  material  that  grows  on  and 
is  collected  from  certain  large  ferns  (Cibotium 
spp. )  and  used  to  some  extent  as  down  for 
pillows,   etc. 

Pulu,  Uses  of,  222,  228 

Pumice  (limu)  is  usually  a  form  of  obsidian 
(which  see)  and  contains  a  large  per  cent 
of  silica.  It  is  usually  the  froth-like  lava 
ejected  from  volcanoes  and  has  a  loose  spongy 
or  cellular  structure  which  is  produced  by 
the  escape  of  gas  or  steam  while  the  lava, 
of  which  it  is  formed,  was  becoming  consoli- 
dated. Light  specimens  will  float  and  are 
carried  far  and  wide  by  the  sea  :  small  pieces 
are  occasionally  picked  up  by  sea  birds, 
especially  the  alljatross.  It  was  much  used 
by  Hawaiians  for  polishing,  and  was  also 
used  in  the  last  stages  of  preparing  a  pig 
for  baking.  Pumice  is  in  reality  porous  vol- 
canic  glass,   the  pores  being  small. 

Pump  drill,  Hawaiian,  75 

Puna^General   name    for   Porites,   486 

Puna,  Green  Lake  in,  160 

Lava  tree  casts  in,  162 

Lava  'tree  moulds,"  156 
Punahou  Academy,  Night-blooming  Cereus 

at,  246,  254 
Punaluu,  Underground  stream  at,  182 
Punchbowl  Hill,  115,  121 

Points  of  interest  at,  129,  130,  131,  132 

Pupa  (385).  The  third  and  usually  the  resting 
stage  of  insects  which  undergo  complete  meta- 
morphosis. 

Puonionio   (Partridge  tun),  460 

Pupu,  449 

alapii.  470 

Chinese,  436 

ole  (Hairy  triton).  460.  450 

moo,  470 " 

('Pur}de  shell"),  460 

puhi    (Sun-dial   shell).   470 
Pupukeawe,  23n 
Purging  Cassia,  244 


INDEX. 


581 


I'lirplc  liiiified  scallop.  456 

shell  |Pu]m],  460 

shell,  Spotteil.  470 

scale,  26~) 

wreath,  250,  248 
Pnipura,  440 

Purslane  [HiiJ,  196,  286,  2S7 
Piisslv,  287 
Puu,  226 

kukui,  13S 

olai   (Sharp-nosed  ]mffVr),  370 

Waawaa,  15-5 
Puuhonua  (City  of  refuge),  48 
Puunene  spider,  410 
Pyramid  shell,  470,  463 
PyriKs  (src  Sand  Pear,  also  Pear) 

Q 

Queen.sliuid  mit  {Mucadnmia  ternifoUa  Miiell). 
More  properly  tlie  Australian  nut  is  a  medium 
sized  tree  producing  a  round  smooth,  shiny 
lirown  nut.  with  a  very  hard  shell.  The 
kernal  resembles  the  Albert  and  may  be  eaten 
raw  or  roasted.  Other  species  of  the  genus 
also  occur  in  Hawaii,  in  most  instances  hav- 
ing been   introduced  by   ilr.    K.    \V.   .Tordan. 

Qnashy-quasher,  252 

Quilted  triton,  460,  4.10 

R 

Eabbit  Islau.l,  128,  293 

Babbits,  293 

Raceme  (248).  A  Hower  cluster  in  which  one- 
stemmed  tlowers  are  arranged  along  the  side 
of  the  main   stem. 

Eacing  in  the  surf.  80 

Eail,  Extinct,  327 

Flightless,  I!  14 

Flightless,  How  killed,  293 

Plightless  Laysan,  318 

Hawaiian,  327 
Eaillardia  {sfc  Kujiaoa) 
Eailroad  ties,  •2\'^ 
Eailway  on  Oahu,  110 

distances  (.S'tv  Overland   Distances) 
Eainbow  Falls   (Hawaii),  160,  176 

Rainfall.  Preci5)itation  in  the  islands  varies 
greatly  from  place  to  place  and  year  to  year. 
At  Honolulu  statistics  (U.  S.  Weather 
Bureau)  gives  the  rainfall  varving  in  ten 
years  from  16.99  (1905)  to  .30.13  (1909) 
inches.  On  Tantalus  (three  miles  distant) 
in  190.5  it  was  99. (i8  inches.  On  Hawaii 
in  Hamakua.  at  120(1  feet  elevation,  it  was 
2f)0.67  inches  (1907).  .\t  Waikea,  in  the 
rainy  Hilo  district  (1907)  it  rained  333 
days:  at  Waianae,  a  dry  district  on  Oahu. 
it   rained  on   60  days. 

Eain  forest,  ('haracteristic  gi'owtii    in,  218 

forest,  Lichens  in  the,  194 

forest,  Ty])ical    view  in,   190 

heiaus,  5() 

heiaus   (-s'^'c  Ijui  o   Loiio) 

tree,  242 
Eanible  in  a    ilnuulniii   (iardcn    (Part   one), 
231 

in  a  Honolulu  (Jarden    (Part  two),  243 
Eaniie,  217 

Eauch   scenes  on    Il;nvaii.  282 
liange,    Koolau.   J  1  1 

AVaianae.  21  1 


Eank  and   hereditary   position,  .")4 

Descent  of,  46 

Marriage  among   jiersons  of,  4.") 

Positions  of,  How  descended,  4o 
Bare  and  extinct  birds.  Some,  332 

exotic    ])lants    ((Jovernmeiit    Nurserv) 
238 

fruits  in   Hawaii,  '!'>'> 

Hawaiian  birds,  333 
Barest  Hawaiian  bird   {('Im  tniilihi ).  335 
Eas]d)erries,  Native,  25() 
Eat,  P.lack,  291 

Brown,  291 

nests,  292 

Long-tailed,  292 

Norway,  291 

Short-tailed,   292 

Tree,  292 
Eats  as  plague  carriers,  292,  4iil 

Grey,   291 

Hawaiian,   291 

Species  of,  292 

Tree,  235 

Rats-foot  {Lj/fdixidiidit  sp.)  is  a  common  moss-like 
plant  common  about  the  outskirts  of  the  for- 
ests where  it  often  forms  thickets  after  the 
manner  of  the  staghorn  fern.  The  two 
species  occurring  here  are  widespread  over 
the   globe. 

Eathburn,    Dr.    ^Iar\-    .1.    (( 'rnstaceoloiist), 
12,  469 

Ratoon  (261).  .\  shoot  or  sprout  coming  up 
from  the  root  of  a  i)laiU  after  it  has  been  cut 
(also  rattoon). 

Eatoons,  Pineajijile,  261 

Eattlebox,   196 

Battle  shells,  449 

Battles   [Uliulil,  70 

Bamboo,  82 

Seed,  82 
Battoon  (see  Batoon) 
Bay,  S]K)tted   stino.  340,  347 

Sting,  340 
Bays,  347 

and  sharks.  340 

Sting,  347 

Eagle,  347 
Baw  fish,  355,  3(55 
Eecruits  for  warfare,  51 
Ked   birds,   Hawaiian.   329 

-bug  familv,  426 

-fish,  354,  371,  373 

-footed  bo.ly,  310,  316 

-rush  flour  i)eetle,  395,  405.  4  In 

sandalwood,  2o3 

-scale,  391 

s]dders,  4iil 

-taile.l   trojiic   bird.  310,  316,  3(1!) 
K'ee<l,    Miss    .Minnie   (.Marine   P.otanist).  502 

-wartder,  <  hinese,  3n,S 

-w.-irliler.   I,ays;in,  319 
Reef  at   Honolulu   llariKU-.  211 

at  low  tid(>,  472 

-building  <'orals.   486,   488,   476 

collecting,   478 

Dowsett.   88,   97 

lisliing,  344 

Miscellaneous  .-uiimals  from  the.  490 


582 


INDEX. 


Maro,  88,  97 

Pearl  and  Hermes,  88,  96,  94 

rock,  488 

Tide  pools  in  the,  472 
Beefs,  Coral,  elevated.  Tin 

Coral,  on  Oahu,  110 

Reflex  action,  Example  of,  346 

Reforesting.  Efforts  have  been,  and  are  being, 
made  to  restore  forests  in  loralities  where 
thev  have  been  depU-ted,  or  have  disappeared. 
Several  of  these  efforts  liave  not  only  re- 
sulted in  great  benefit  to  the  localities,  but 
are  serving  as  object  lessons,  showing  the 
need   of   enclosing   and   defending   the   existing 

forest    areas.       This   work    is   now    carried   on 

under    the    able    direction    of    the     Hawaiian 
Bureau   of   Agrictulture   and   Forestry. 
Retreneration    of    lost    parts,    Examples    of, 

491 
Relief  map  of  Kauai,  104 

map  of  Hawaii,  148 

map  of  Maui,  134 

map  of  Oahu,  110 
Religion  and  tabu.  Relation  of,  47 

of  the  Hawaiians,  47 
Remora,   3(i7 

Reservation,  Hawaiian  Island  Bird,  93 
Resin,  211 
Rhapis  palm,  240 

palm,  peculiarity  of,  237 
Rice,  276 

Area  under  culti\ation,  276 

birds,  277,  304 

birds.  Damage  by,  305 

birds.  Protecting  crop  from,  305 

Diseases  of,  277 

farmer,  Chinese,  282 

fields  in  Waipio  valley,  154 

Harvesting  of,  277 

Hawaiian,  276 

how  planted,  277 

Irrigation  of,  277 

Method  of  cultivation,  276 

mill,  279 

Oriental  method  of  cultivation,  276 

paddy,  276 

Pests  of,  277 

propagation,  276 

related  to,  276 

Thrashing  of,  279 

Varieties  of,  276 

weevel,  395,  405,  418 

Wild,  277 

Yield  of,  276 
Riding  the  surf,  86 
Right  whale,  301 
Ring  form   poi  [louuder,  70 

-necked  pheasant,  307 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  279 
Ripe  rot,  265 

Rise  and  fall  of  lava  column,  164 
River(s)    (■■<(■(■  Streams) 

and   streams   on  Kauai,  104 

Meandering,   Example  of,  106 

Hanalei,  106 
on  Oahu,  110 
view  on  Kauai,  102 
Road,  Fern  stem,  200 
material,  3  29 


Roads  on  Kauai,  104 

on  Hawaii,  148 

on  Maui,  134 

on  Oahu,  110 
Roadside,  Scenes  along  the   (Hawaii),  200 
Robes,  Feather,  75 

of  state,  75 
Rock,  Building,   129 

Coral,  486,   129 

crabs,  474,  469 

lobster,  474,  469 

oyster   [Kujiakala],  456,  446 

urchins,   487 

wasp,  Black,  414 
Rocky  coast.  View  on  a  (Oahu),  122 

coasts.  Plants  from,  192 

Hill,  220 

Hill,  Age  of,  124 

ledge  at  Laysan,  92 

shore-line  (Oahu),  130 

stream,  Tyi)ical,  28 
Rocks   {see  Hawaiian   Igneous  Rocks) 
Romero  (Pilot  fish),  366 
Root-casts  at   Diamond  Heail,  118,  131 

-rot,  265 
Roots,  Curious  lotus,  285 

Fossil,  118 
Rope,  Banana  fiber,  281 

Cocoanut,  23(i 

of  olona,  217 
Ropes  of  ieie,  211 
Ropy  lava  in  Kilauea,  174,  186 

lava  fpahoehoe],  162 
Rosa  de  la  Montana,  248 
Rose  a]>his,  389 

apple,  267 

banana,  259 

-bav,  252 

beetle.  Fuller's,  394 

-laurel,  252 

Mountain,  250,  248 

-scale,  391 

South  sea,  252 

Roselle  {Hibi.scux  Snbdarijfa  Linn.)  Is  widely 
cultivated  in  the  tropics,  including  Hawaii, 
where  its  pleasing  acidulous  rose-red  calyxes 
are  used  for  tarts,  jellies,  etc.  A  cooling 
drink  can  also  be  made  from  them.  The 
l)ark  vields  a  fiber  elsewhere  known  as  roselle- 
hemp."  In  the  West  Indies  the  plant  is 
known  as  Indian  or  redsorrel.  It  is  a  true 
Hilii.icu.s  coming  originally  from  the  East 
Indies. 
Rotary  drill,  how  made,  75 
Round  clam,  445 

-up  on  Hawaii.  282 
Rough  rock  urchin   [Haukeuke],  496 

lava    (a-a),   162 
Royal  Agricultural  Society,  297 

birth,  Drum  used  to  announce,  64 

emblem,  77 

flower,  I  lima  a,  2(»3 

jialm  (.srr  (tiso  palm),  246,  232,  233 

jialm,  246,  232 

palm.  Blossoms  of  the,  232 

palm.  Introduced  from,  232 

sport,  292 

tax,  56 


ixm^x. 


583 


Eubhor,  281 

Assam,  283 

Hawaiian,  283 

Ilevea,  283 

India,  245 

Introduftion  of,  281 

Para,  283 

]iro(iu<'iiij:,  KujiViorbia,  283 

(iroduciiig  trees,  283 
Eunners   (Fish),  365 

Lon<:-  distanoe,  83 
Rush=Hullrush,  198 
Eush  Club,  198 
Eusset  oranges,  c-aiise  of,  265 
Eove  beetles,  41(),  417 


Sacred  banian,  240 

kamani  grove   (Halawa),  140 

Sacrifice,  Human.  While  sacrifice  was  an  im- 
portant part  of  formal  worship  in  old  Ha- 
waii, human  sacrifices  were  offered  only  on 
special  occasions.  It  was,  however,  the  su- 
preme act  of  ancient  worship  in  the  import- 
ant heiaus  of  the  highest  class.  Such  occa- 
sions as  the  launching  of  a  war-canoe,  the 
building  of  a  house  for  a  chief,  the  sickness 
of  a  king  or  queen,  the  securing  of  a  new 
idol,  or  the  burial  of  a  chief,  called  for  a 
human  offering  to  the  appropriate  gods.  The 
victims  were  always  males  and  were  either 
taken  in  war  or  persons  rightly  or  wrongly 
accused  of  violating  some  of  the  innumerable 
tabus.  The  mode  of  securing  the  victim 
was  usually  by  secret  assault,  commonly  by 
a  blow  with  a  dub.  though  other  methods 
were  employed.  The  Mu  was  the  person 
whose  duty  it  was  to  secure  the  required 
sacrifice.  The  dead  body  of  the  person  so 
slain  was  dragged  to  the  heiau  and  laid  on 
the  altar  [lele]  for  sacrifice,  together  with 
hogs,  dogs  and  other  offerings — there  to 
putrify.  It  is  stated  that  as  many  as 
eighty"  persons  were  sometimes  immolated  at 
once." 

The  last  human  sacrifice  in  the  islands  oc- 
curred in  1807.  Queen  Keopuolani  was 
then  dangerously  ill.  The  priest  asserted  that 
her  illness  was  caused  by  the  gods  who  were 
offended  by  certain  men  eating  tabu  cocoa- 
nuts.  Eight  men  were  at  once  seized  by 
the  king's  orders  and  offered  in  the  heiau 
that   then   stood  at  the  foot  of  Diamond   Head. 

Sacrifice  to  Pele.  The  goddess  of  volcanoes 
was  much  feared  on  Hawaii.  When  an 
eruption  took  place  at  Kilauea  it  was  the 
custom  to  make  oft'erings  to  her  of  hogs,  etc., 
which  were  thrown  into  the  liquid  lava. 
Devout  persons  sometimes  gave  the  liodies  of 
their  relatives  to  Pele  by  throwing  them  into 
Kilauea  that  they  might  .join  the  volcanic 
deities  and  in  this  way  befriend  the  family. 
The  ohelo  berries  were  the  iisiial  offering  to 
Pele. 

Sa<blle  oysters,  444 

Sadleria  {sec  I'alahola) 

Sago  palm,  237 

Sailing  vessels,  Fishing  from,  344 

Sahiugoi-c  cane,  273 

Salfemane    {■•«(■    Hawaiian    iginM)iis    i-oclis) 

Salnion,  o~S 

Salt,  129 

Effect  of  on  cane,  271 

from  Salt  Lake,  74 

hake   crater,    115,   132 

Lake  crater,  Age  of,   124 


manufacture,  73 

marsh  beetles,  418 
Samang,  242 

Sanctuaries,   Hawaiian,  51 
Sandalwood,  217 

Hastard,  210,  222,  226 

Bastard   (ficc  Aaka,  also  Naio) 

F.ea(di    fllialiil,   192,   199 

damaged   by  goats,  221 

Discovery  of,  219 

Odor  of,"221 

Eed,  203 

roots  of  used,  221 

uses  of,  219 
Sand  beach,  218 
Sand,  Black,  117 

Building,   129 

-burr,   2S7 

crab,  496 

concretions  at    Diamond    lleail,   131 

dunes  on  Maui,   139 

dunes   on   Oahu,   122,    131 

grass,  90 

hills.  How  formed,  90 

hop])ers,  409,  468 

island,   A'iew   on   a    (Laysan),  294 

island,   N'egetation  on   a,  90 

Olivine,  129 

Sand  pear  (Pi/rus  Sinense  Lindl.)  bears  an  apple- 
like fruit.  2  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  sandy, 
tough,  flesh,  which  has  a  very  fine  flavor 
when  baked.  'i'his  ornamental  tree  is  char- 
acterized by  dark  green.  ai)i)le-shaped  leaves, 
pointed  at  the  tip,  edged  with  fine  teeth  : 
the  flowers  are  large  and  wliite.  Although 
not  common  in  the  islands,  the  sand  pear  is 
well    established. 

Sand  root  casts,  118 
Sanderling,  321,  324 
Standstone,   129 

aeolian,  140 

boulder,  Erosion  of,  136 

eroded  by  sea  waves,  142 

Laminated,  140 

cliffs  at   Moomunii.  140 
Sandwich     Islan<ls,     Position     of     (see    Ha- 
waiian   Islands),  100 
San  Francisco,  Distance  to,  101 

Eoute  from  to  islands,  100 
Sajiodilla,   266 
Sapota  pear,  2(i<i 
Sargassum  s]i,   (fig.   15),  498 
Sassafras,  262 
Sausage-li!<e  loots  of  lotus,  285 

-shajied  animals   (Loli|,  491 

Sausage  tree  (Kii/elia  iiiimata)  is  a  curiosity 
wherever  grown.  It  is  a  large  tree  wilh 
whitish  bark  iind  spreading  branches,  coming 
originally  from  Afri<-a.  Tlie  fruit,  rough  and 
green  in  color,  is  sometimes  two  feet  in 
length  and  hangs  from  a  long  stalk.  It  has 
a  corky  rind,  filli'd  wilh  i)uli>  and  nniucrous 
rounded  seeds.  In  Nubia  this  tree  is  held 
sacred,  and  religious  festivals  are  <-ondvuled 
under  it  l>y  moonlight.  A  few  trees,  doubt- 
less i'.  loduced  by  Dr.  Hillebrand.  may  be 
seen  in  old  gardens:  a  fine  specimen  is  in 
the  g'  "Ur.ds  at  the  Queen's  Hospital  in 
Honolulu. 


Savaii,  center  of  disjiersal, 


.Mi 


584 


INDEX. 


Scab,  Lemon,  2(i.l 
Sead,  Big-eved,  362 
Scale-bugs,  391,  4:^7 

Florida  Red,  384 

insects,  391,  4"_'o 

Lantana,  384 

on  citrus  and  palm  leaves,  384 

Pineapple,  384 

Puri)le,  2(i5 
Scallop,  456,  443,  444,  44-3 

Purple-hinged,  456 
Scarabaeids,  417 
Scavenger  beetles,  Water,  4]() 
Scene  or  Scenery,  Plantation,  274 

in  middle  forest  zone,  200 

Miscellaneous  fishing,  344 

Eanch,  282 

Waipio  falls,  154 

on  Molokai,  140 

on  Hawaii,  150,  156,  170 

Volcanoes  made  (Haleakala),  145 

Whales  and  whaling,  298 

Scented  woods    («<'''   Iliahi,    Naio :    there   are   six   or 
eight  rarer  species  in   the  Hawaiian   flora.) 

Scents  (see  Perfumes),  221 

Scents    for    tapas    were    made    from    the    following 
plants — awapulii.    iliahi.   kupaoa,   maile.   olapa. 
etc. 
Srhlemmer,  Max,  322 
Schooner  Guano  trade,  92 
Science  and  legend  agree,  91 
Scientific  names   {f<rr  Nomencdature) 

names,  arrangement  of,  9 

names,  why  used,  lU 
Scorpion,  398,  407,  4U9 

fishes,  Venon  in,  368 

fish    [Nohuj,  374,  368 
Scorpions,  407 

False,  408 

Large  species  from,  4(i7 
Screw  pine   [LauhalaJ,  190,  194,  221,  252 
Scraping  olona   (Grouj*),  64 
Scrapers  of  bone,  shell  and  wood,  75 

Olona,  73 
Sea-anemonie,  490,  473,  475,  476 

bass.  Characteristic  of  (sec  Snappers), 
368,  369 

-beach,  Halawa  valley,  140 

-beaver   (Heart  urchin),  493 

Birds  of  the,  308 

biril  squa])s,  311 

biscuit,  487 

caves  at  Black  Point,  131 

cliff.  Example  of  Oahu,  122 

cliffs  on  Hawaii,  154 

-cucumber  lLoli|,  496,  4S.-;.  491 

devil,  347,  369 

"ear"'  [Pepeiau],  (fig.  1),  492 

egg  or  Sea-urchin  [Wana],  496,  487 

end  of  Olokuai  mountain,  136 

erosion.  Example  of,  142 

Erosion  by  the   (Sandstone),  142 

-fans,  479 

fights   (.sfr  Naval  battles) 

formed  (ditt's  on  Hawaii,  150 

hares,  467 


"hedge-hog,''  485 

-horse,  350,  365 

Island  cotton,  281 

-money,  481 

morning-glory,  197 

-moss  as  perfume,  222 

-moss.  Common,  at  Waikiki,  492 

mushroom,  479 

perch    [Aholehole],   366 

-pens,  475,  479 

-plumes,  479 

robin  (Gounard),  357 

shells.  Common,  460 

-shore  at  Wailau  valley,  136 

-shore,  Plants  by  the   (Lauhala),  194 

-shore.  Crab  fauna  of  the,  474 

-shore.  Palm  trees  on  the,  150 

-shore,   Plants  from,  192,  218,  189,  201 

-shore,  Shells  from  the  (Part  one),  440 

-shore.  Shells  from  (Part  two),  453 

slugs,  467 

-slug,  Dye  from,  69 

snakes,  299 

snail  shell   [Kupee],  470,  465 

snail.  Little,  470 

-snai)i)ers,  367 

-squirt,  490,  484 

turtles   [Honu],  294,  299 

turtle.  Barnacles  on,  475 

-urchins,  496,  485 

-urchin.  Dye  from,  69 

-urchin.    Heart,   478 

-urchin.  Masticating  organ  of,  496 

-urchin.  Test  of  a,  496 

Various  aninmls  from,  291 

worms,  497 
Seaweed,  500 

How  to  collect,  500 
Seal,  303 

Hawaiian,  294 

on  l*earl  and  Hermes  Eeef,  96 
Sealskin,  304 
Second  i»lant  zone,  201 
Secondary  craters  in  Haleakala,  145 

craters  on  Hawaii   (indicated),  148 

craters  on  Kauai,  104 

craters  on  Maui,  134 

craters  on  Oahu,  110 

craters     (Oahu),    Time    of    formation, 
220 

volcanic  cones  on  Kauai,  105 
Section  I,   page   25;   II,   89;   IH,   189;   IV, 

231;  V,  291 
Securing  fish  1)ait,  343 
Sedge   (199).       A  grass-like  plant  belonging  to  the 

large  genus  Carex.      More  generally  the  name 

is   applied   to  the  whole  family  Cyperacece. 

Sedge,  192,  198 

Seed  cane.  Planting,  278 

rattles,  82 
Seeds  for  leis,  207 

Lotus  as  food,  285 
Sein  needle,  75 
Seins,  339 

damaged  l)y,  353 

of  olona,  217 


INDEX. 


585 


Senna,  250 

Sensiti\i'  plant,  i'n? 

Separation  ainonj;   Ilawaiians,  4~y 

of  the  Hawaiian   Islands,  290 

Serricorne  beetles,  417 

Serriere,  Dr.,  2U7 

Sessile  [Bot].  Leaves  witliout  any  foot-stalk;  the 
leaf  joined  to  the  branch  withont  a  foot-stalk. 

Sessile  barnacles,  473 

Sex  relations  among  Hawaiians,  42 

relations,  Influence  of  foreigners  on,  42 
Shaddock,  265 

Shade  in  Jlonohilu  streets,  232 
Shark,  Blue,  340 

Dog,  340 

Fish  attached  to,  368 

fislieinian,  Kaniehanieha  T,  a  great,  343 

fisliing,  344 

fishing  in  ancient  times,  343 

fishing  in  modern  times,  343 

Shark  gods.  There  were  a  number  of  shark  gods 
usually  worshipped  by  fishermen.  Their 
small  heiaus  were  numerous  and  still  stand 
on  almost  every  important  headland  through- 
out the  group.  They  were  often  called 
Kuula,  the  name  of  an  important  fish  god, 
and  in  them  the  shark  gods  were  worshiped. 
When  Kuula  would  not  give  the  people  lish 
they  prayed  to  Hina,  his  wife,  to  intercede 
for  them. 

god,  Eespect  for  the,  346 

Hammer-head,  340,  346 

'holes,'  346 

-hook    {sec  Kiholo),  343 

Mackerel,  340,  346 

Man-eater,  344 

oil,  346 

pens,  341 

skin,  use  of,  82,  34() 

Snaring,  346 

stew.  Story  of  a,  345 

stories,  345 

tabu  to  women,  346 

teeth,  346 

teeth,  uses  of,  74,  81 

Thrasher,  340 
Sharks  and  rays,  340 

Bones  of  extinct,  345 

Man-eater,  345 

Species  of  Hawaiian,  343 

teeth  sword,  81 

Tiger,  345 

teeth,  use  of,  62 
Sharpening  stones,  75 

Sharp-nosed   ]iuf[er    [I'uu   obii],  370,   3(i7 
Shearwater,  309,  31S 

('hristinas  Island,  310 

Wedge-tailed,  310,  316 
"She  dragon"  tree,  21  I 
Sheet  flow  structni-e  sliown  on  Molokai,  140 

la\a   fiows,   Kxamjiles  of,  122 
Sheep,  287 

-head  maggot  fly,  387 

introduceil,  295 

-maggot  fiv,  387,  419 
Shell,  Ark,  456 

Augur,  460 

Banner,  470 


bracelets,  465 

Bubble,  470 

Dove,  470 

Kuiima,  470 

Fish-basket,  470,  242 

Harp,  460 

Ham,  456 

Hawaii  toji,  460 

Heart,  456 

Hermit,  460 

Horn,  470 

Horse-hoof,  470 

liunting,  437 

Jingle,  456 

Ladder,  470 

Little   •■inerald,   470 

Lucinsi,   456 

Measure,  470 

Mitre,  470 

Mottled  periwinkle,  470 

.Mnllierry,  470 

Moon,  470 

Niihau,  470 

OrnatiKMif,  470 

Pyramid,  470 

Sea  snail,  470 

Slipper,  470 

Spindle,  460 

Spotted   i)urple,   470 

Stair-case=Sun-dial  shell,  470 

Sun-dial,  470 

Tankard,  470 

Telleii,    456 

Top,   470 

Turban,  460 

Umbrella,  460 

Violet  snail,  470 

Worm,  460 

Zebra  dove,  470 
Shells  as  curiosities,  441 

as  emblems  of  mourning,  4()5 

Brackish  water,  439 

Carnivorous,   447 

Common  sea,  46u 

cooked  in  an  imii,  4()5 

Land,  Distribution  of  exidaint'il.  290 

Fresh   water,  431 

Fresh   water,  of  Oahu,  436 

from  the  sea-shore   (Part  one),  440 

from  the  sea-shore  (Part  two),  453 

for  an  aquarium.    117 

Herbivorous,   447 

Land,  431 

Lanil  .Important  genera  of,  448 

Pleasure^  iii  collecting,  440 
Slii'ltcri'd  shore  line,   Kxample  of,  116 
She-oak,  237 

Shielils,  Spears  used  as,  79 
Sliiji,   Full-rigged  whale,  298 

worm,  490 
Shoal,  French    Frigates,   88,   96.  97 

Frost,  97 

Oambier,  94 
Shoab.  Islands,  etc,  Map  of,  88 


38 


586 


INDEX. 


Shore  birds  Group  of,  310 

Birds  of  the,  320 

crabs,  How  to  identify,  471 

plants,  192 

views  on  Oahu,  128 

-line,  Embayed,  270 

-line,  Haniakua,  150 

-line  (sheltered).  Example  of,  116 

-line.  Trees  on,  150 

scene  on  Kauai,  102 
Short-horned  grasshopi)er,  38.^,  429 

-tailed  Crustacea,  4(39 

-tailed  rat,  292 
Shoveler  duck,  328 
Shrimp,  436,  376 

as  bait,  343 

baskets,  341 

Fresh  water,  440 

Shrimps,  468 

Shrub    (195).        A    woody    plant   living   from    year 
to  year  and  of  considerable  size. 

Shrubs  and  vines,  248 

Siberia,  296 

Sicyos  {see  Kupala) 

Sida,  Common,  196 

Side  trips  from  Kilauea,  181 

Sideroxylon  (see  Ala  a) 

Silk  culture,  399 

oak,  248 
Silkworm,  397 

food  of,  267 
Silversword  [Ahinahina],  206,  146,  227,  229 

Green,  229 
Silver  wattle,  248 
Silverfish,  403,  430 
Silvery  lemon.  Cause,  26.5 
Singing,  Hawaiian,  42 
Single-celled  animals.  499 
Single  <'anoes,  80 
Sisal,  280 

Curious  blossoms  of,  280 

Gathering,  270 

nlantation,  270 

weevel,  39.') 

when  introduced,  280 
Skates,  347 
Skeleton,  Coral,  47.') 

Whale  (in  Bishoj)  Museum),  298 
Skeletons  of  sponges,  500 
Skin  beetle,  417 
Skinks,  296,  297 
Skirt  [Pa-u],  57 

Ki  leaf,  78 

Lauhala  leaf,  78 
Skip-jacks    [Aku],  344 

beetle.  417 

Catching,  344 
Skylarks,  143,  307 

Introduced,  307 

Song  of  the,  307 
Slater  or  ])ill-bug,  398 
Slaves,  how  used,  343 
Sled   [papa  holua],  57 
'Sleeping'  trees,  242 
Slides,  Papa  holau,  86 
Sliding  game   (.srp  'Summer  tobogganing') 


Slings  used  in  warfare,  81 
Slip-noose,  a  weapon,  81 
Slipper  shells,  462 
Slips,  Pineapple,  261 
Slop  bowl,  70 

basins,  61 

jars,  63 
Slug(s),  439,  441 

Black,  439 

Sea,  467 
Small  cones  in  Kohala  range,  149 

cones  on  Hualalai,  152 

cones  on  Mauna  Kea,  1.31 

crabs  and  crab-like  animals,  482 

craters  on  Haleakala,  143 

farming  industries,  270 

farming,  taro  growing,  270 

farming,  rice  jdantation,  270 

industries,  taro  growing,  270 

industries,    cattle   raising,   282 

periwinkle,  470 
Smilax,  Native,  213 

Smith,  Prof.  Jared  G.   (Agriculturist),  284 
Smoke  from  trash-fire,  270 
Smooth   (Roi)y)   lava   |  Pahoehoe],  162 
Snail  (s),  Chinese,  436 

Edible,  438 

Tree,  431 

Sea,  465 

Violet,  470,  463 
Snake-head  cowry,  470,  458 

mullet,  377 
Snakes,  No,  in  Hawaii,  299 

Sea,  299 
Snaring  fish,  242 

shark,  346 
Snapper  [Opakapaka],  362,  369 

bug,  417 
Snout  beetles,  418,  419 

Eose,  394 

Snow.  On  the  hiKh  mountains  of  Hawaii  and 
Maui  snow  falls  in  winter,  descending  in 
some  cases  to  the  upper  forest  belt.  Frost 
rarely  occurs   in   winter  below   4000   feet. 

Snow  on  Hawaiian  mountains,  151 

on  Mauna  Kea,  154 
Soap  plant,  Hawaiian,  204 
Social  wasps,  414 
Soils  of  Kohala,  149 

Plant  food  in,  105 

Sugar-cane,  273 
Solanum  (ser  Popolo) 
Soles,  371 
Solidifie(i  dunes,  Erosion  of,  142 

lava  (Recent),  166 
Solitary  bees,  415 

wasj)s,  414 
Song  birds  of  Hawaii,  Some,  330 

of  birds  (.src  species  in  question) 
Songs,  Hawaiian,  41 
Soothsayers  (sec  Nana  uli) 
Sooty  mould  on  lemons,  265 

tern,  310,  312 

with  eggs,,  316 
Sorcerer,  64 
Sorcery,  (!ods  of  {sfr  I'li) 


INDKX. 


587 


Sorghum,  28;) 
Rorosis   (ilofiiipil),  2*11 
Souiiiliiiys   ill    I'earl    II:iiliur,   110 
Sources  of  the  flojii,   MM 

The  author's,   1  1 
Sour  sop,  2(50 
South  America,  191,  24S.  249,  2(3S,  383 

J'acifu-,  235,  26(),  271,  444 

sea  rose,  252 

Seas,  Map  of,  100 
Sow-hufi,  436,  408 

thistle   [Pualele],  196 
Spalding,  Irwin  (('olkn-tor  of  Mollusca),  12 
Spanish,  268 

jasmine,  250 

needles,  196,  227 
Span-worms  (Loopers),  397 
Sparrow,  English,  304 

Chinese,  304 

Sparrows.  Albinism  nmoiiK  the  Rnglish  sparrows 
is  quite  common.  Occasionally  birds  that 
are  almost   white  will   be   seen    in    Honolulu. 

Spathe  (249).  A  bract  which,  with  others, 
wraps  the   unfolding  flower. 

■  Spatter  cone,  180 

at  Kilauea,  179 
how  formed   (shown),  184 
"Little  Beggar,"  The,  184 
near  Halemaumau,  184 
Spatulate    (2.)1).       Shape  like  a  sp<ion.   or  spatula: 
the  broad   end   at   the  outer   end  of   the  leaf. 

Spear   [Newa],  44 

practice,  84 

throwing,  83 
Si)earing  fish,  341 
Spears,  57,  79,  215 

used  as  shields,  79 
Si)ecial  taxes,  56 

Specialization  among  Hawaiian  liirds,  338 
S{>ecific  characters  (srf  species  in  question) 
Species  {xcc  Nomenclature) 

of  fish.  Number  of,  351 

of  native  woods,  Numlier  of,  226 

of,  Numl)er  (scr  genus,  family  or  order 
of  question) 

of  j)lants,  Numbers  of,  191 

of  rats,  292 

Specimen  of  a  blow  hole,  184 

Sj)erm  whale,  298,  301 

.Sphagnum  (2'29).  Any  of  the  jjeat  or  bog 
mo.sses,  hence  api)lied  to   a  niossgrowu   bog. 

Sphinx    or    Humming-bird    moth,    398,    399, 

421 

of  the    I'acilic.    1  l.'> 
Spider (s).  409 

as  household  pets,  41  o 

House-,  409 

Red,  401 

shell,  457 

Spike  [Bot]  (208).  Flower  clusters  in  which 
the  sessile  flowers  are  arrangi'd  similarly  to 
tliose  in  a  raceme. 

Spine  [Bot]  (20.5).  Hardened  branches  or  tips 
of  stems   called   spines   or   thorns. 

Spimile  shell,  460,  450 

S[)ineles3  raspberry,  256 


Spiney-rayed  fishes  (355).  Fishes  with  one  or 
more  hard  rays  or  spines  in  some  of  the 
fins. 

Spiney  ro(dv   shells,  449 

Spiral  shells.  Class  of,  441 

sun-dial  shell,  463 

Si)ire  (K5I).  The  turns  of  a  shell  forming  the 
ai)ex  and  including  all  l)Ut  the  last  or  largest 
turn. 

Si)irit  as  '  a  d()ul)le, '  49 
Spirits,   Abode  of  the.  49 

rctuiiicd   tu   the   body,  49 
Spittoons,  70 
Spoiidias  {sec  Hog  j)]um) 
Sponge  culture,  499 

Substance  of,  500 
S])onges,  499 

Common  Hawaiian,  494 

inliabited  Ijy,  499 

of  commerce,  500 

resemble  plants,  499 
Si)ort,  Koyal,  292 

Shark  fishing  as,  344 

Shooting  tlving-fish,  355 
Sports,  83 

Si)ear  throwing,  84 
Si)otted  augur  shell,  455 

conch  [Pu  leholeho],  470,  457 

cone  shell,  45 

deer,  296 

purple  shell,  470 

sting  ray   [HihimauiiJ.  340,  347 
Spouting  horn,  118 

liorn  at  P.lack    I'oint,  i:'.l 
Springtails,  430 
Springs  (see  Fresli  water  si>rings) 

Fresh  water  ,in  the  sea,  127 
Sjirouting-leaf    plant,   254 
Spurge,  Garden,  196 
Squabs,  Sea  bird,  31 1 
Square-headed  grasshoppers,  429 
Squid   ((^ctoi)us),  472,  302 

-hook.  Cowry  shell  as  bait   on,  458 

Dye  from,  (59 

fishing,  at  low  tide,  472 

-hook  sinkers,  68 

ink    {kcc  Pikojdko) 

spawn   {scf  Alaalahee) 

spear,  472,  341 
Squirrel-fish,  371 

I  r-u|,  362 

I  Alaihil,  366 
Squirt,  Sea,  490,    bS4 
Stag  beetle,  417 
Stable-fly,  387.  419 

Stages  in  geologic  dexelopmont  ot'  ll.awaii, 
•      290 

in  geologic  development   of   Kauai.  290 

in  geologic  development  of  Maui,  290 

in  geologic  dexelojunent  of  Oahu,  290 

Stag-horn  fern.  .\  name  usually  a|)i>lied  to  cer- 
tain introduced  species  of  the  genus  I'lahi- 
ri'riiiiii  comuninly  grown  in  baskets;  so-called 
because  the  fronds  are  forked  like  a  stag's 
horn.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  native 
ferns. 

Staghorn  fern   |  riulu'|.  194,  228,  223,  253 

Stair-. -ase  shell   (Sun-dial  shell).  470,   )ii4 


588 


INDEX. 


Stalactite  caves,  179 

Stalagmites,  179 

Stalked  barnacles,  4(i.'-!,  473 

corals,  479 
Stamens    (216).        Slender    knobbed    stalks    within 

the  circle  of  petals  of  a   flower. 
St.  Andrew's  Cathedral  built  of,   129 
Star    apple    {ChrDxophiilbim    cariifo    Linn.).        The 
tree    is    a    native    of    the    West    Indies,    bnt    is 
quite   common    in   Hawaii,    having   been    intro- 
duced at  an   early  date.      It  may  be  identified 
by    its    leaves    which    are    a    handsome    green, 
with    the    under    surface     dull     golden.        The 
tree    20   to   30   feet   tall,   l)ears   abundant   sym- 
metrical   fruits,    larger    than    a    peach,    which 
varv    in    color   from    white   to   purple,    as   does 
also   the   flesh.       The   fruit    is   delicious,    if   al- 
lowed  to   ripen    thoroughly,    and   when    cut    in 
cross-section  shows  a  star-shaped  core,  whence 
the    common    name.        There    is    also    a    white 
variety  which   bears  larger  fruit   that   are  pale 
green  "  flushed   with   purple. 
Starch,  produced  from,  284 
Starfish  [Pea],  496,  485,  487 
Arm  of  a,  496 
Brittle,  496 
Station  on  Midway  Island,  90 
Steam  brick,  129 

cloud  over  Halemauman,  166 
cracks  at  Kilauea,  177 
Steamship  lines  to  Hawaii,  100 
Steel-blue  ladybird,  394 
Steering  a  course  by  the  stars,  30 
Ste.ineger,     Dr.     L.      (Herpetologist,     Bio- 
logist), 297 
Stephanotis,  248 
Stick-tight  grass  [PiipiiJ,  196 
Stilt,  Hawaiian,  310,  327,  325 
Sting  ray,  340,  34/ 
Stinging  cells  (delly  fish),  480 

Hymenoptera,  412 
Stock  food,  Algaroba  beans  as,  243 
Stokes   ,-Tohn    F.    G.    (Polynesian    Ethnolo- 
gist), 291 
Photographs  by,  14 
Stone  adz,  74 

age,  Ancient  Hawaii  in,  74 
bone  and  wood,  uses  of,  75 
carvings  in  caves,  129 
carving  tools,  74 
cups,    68 
files,  75 
hammers,   75 
house,  58 
idols,  49 

lmi>lements  of,  74 
implements,   Orou[i    of,   68 
lamps,  70,  ti2 
lilies,  497 
mortar,  70,  63 
'moss,'  129 
pestle,  70 
poi  pounders,  63 
tools,  used  in  house  building,  58 
Stones.  Polishing,  75 
Sharjiening,  75 
Uses  of,  63 
Stony  corals,  476 
Stormy  petrel,  Hawaiian,  3n4 
Strand  plants,  195 


Street  tree,  Monkey-pod  not  suited  as,  242 
Streets,   Trees  in  Honolulu,  232 
Striking  plants  in  the  Hawaiian  flora,  194 
Striped  fish  (Squirrel  fish),  372 
Striped  surgeon  fish   [Manini],  362 
Stripping  and  cutting  sufzar-cane,  278 
Stream,  Wailua,  102 
Streams  and  rivers  on  Kauai,  104 
Animals  of  the,  on  Oahu.  436 
Birds  of  the,  320 

on   (.sTf  Map  of  island  in  question) 
Vegetation  along  the,  200 
Strenuous  dragon-fly,  424 
Strongholds  in  warfare,  51 
Strong's  Island,  Cocoanut  trees  from,  92 
Struggle    for    existence    among   Hawaiians, 
45 
on  Lavsan,  313 
'Stump  leg,'  Old  (Plover),  322 
Styphelia  (sec  Puakeawe) 
Suli-aerial  erosion.  Example  of,  136,  131 
Sulimarine  base  of  the  grouji,  123 

gardens,  476 
Submergence     in     Hawaiian     Islands     (^-ft' 

Depths   of   Inter-Island   Channels) 
Subsidence,  Biologic  evidence  of,  124 

Evidence  of  on  Oahu  (Embayed  shore- 
line), 270 
of  the  Hawaiian  group  shown.  290 
of  Oahu,  Evidence  of,'  220 
Subterranean  water,  127 
Suckers    [Bot].       Plants  coining  up  from  branches 

or  roots  under  ground. 
Suckers,  Pineapple,  261 
Sucking-fish,  367 
Sugar  (.s-rt-  alsa  sugar-cane),  271 
apple  (sec  Sweet  sop) 
Grades  of,  275 
industry,  271 
Manufacture  of,  273,  275 
mill.  Views  of,  274 
palm,  237 

plantation.  General  view  of,  278 
Process  of  producing,  275 
Sugar  production  (1912)  was  1.20.5.165.000 
pounds.  valued  at  $49,961,509.00.  and 
1.7.34,.318  gallons  of  molas.ses.  valued  at 
$72  241  00,  making  the  total  sugar  produc- 
tion valued  at  $50,038,750.00.  The  1913 
crop  was  546,798  tons. 

Raw,  275 
Eefining  of,  276 
Sack  of   (weight),  275 
when  first  ma<le,  273 
Sugar-cane,  67 

Age  of  maturity,  273 
Annual  yield  of,  271 
aphis,  389 
Area  for,  271 
borer,  380,  383 
Cultivation  of,  273 
Cutting  and  stripping,  278 
Diagram  of.  Mill  process,  274 
Factors  in   jiroduetion  of,  271 
Gathering,  274 
Harvesting,  274,  273 
in  blossom,  278 


INDEX. 


r)89 


insects,  3S8 

liitrodiu'tioii  of,  I'Tl 

1 1  riiiJitioii  of,  L'7I! 

HauliiiK.  274 

leaf-hoiipor,  u>l ,   1:^7 

leaf-roller,  388,  395 

leaves,  59 

mealy-hiifi',  3.'S9 

Millin«i  of,  27o 

Piueaiijile  disease  of,  :J<)1 

l)lant,  Description  of,  "273 

Planting  and  harvestinji,  278 

Projtagation  of,  L'73 

related  to,  -To 

Scenes  on  a,   Plantation,  274 

soils,   273 

Striiijiinii   of,   1273 

Unloading,  278 

Use  of,  79 

Varieties  of,  273 

yield,  how  increased,  273 

Yield  per  acre,  271,  3S9  {see  al.^n  Snuar 
production ) 

where  cultivated,  271 

Work  of,  borer,  380 
Sulphur  bank  at   Kilauea,  170,   1,7 

fumes,  Effect  of  on  vegetation,  170 
Summer  [Kau]   {see  Hoilo) 

tobojjganing,  86 
Summit  of  Mauna  Kea,  15-4 
8un-dial  shell   |  Pupu  ]>uhi],  -470,  463 
Sun-fish,  377 
Surf  bathiiry,  80 

aloni>  the  coast,  Kaena  Point,  122 

board   [pajia  hee  nalu],  80,  si; 

board,  Shajie  and  si/e  of,  80 

board,  Standin<i  erect  on  the,  sii 

canoeino',  80 

near  Waimea  Pay,  128 
Surface  of  a  lava  flow.  160 
Surgeon  fish   [Puala],  370,  372 

Stripe.l.  362 
Surmullets,  372 

[Weke  ulaj,  362,  366 
Surinam  cherry,  2(37  ' 
Suttonia   (-vfr  Kolea) 

Swezey,  Prof.  Otto  H.   (Economic  and  sys- 
tematic entomologist),   12.  -111.   414 
Sylvan    (210).       Pcrtainini;  to  ilic  woiids  iir  forest. 
Syr|)hus  flies,  41!l 
Syruji,  Sugar-cane.  27-") 
Sweejjing.  76 
Sweet-potato.   Iii7 

horn-woini,   399,   421 
I'rojiayation  of,  2S4 
wecN'il  iif.    1 1  *^ 
Sweet-jiotatoes,  ()7,  284 

grown  by  Ilawaiians,  284 
Varieties  of,   199.  284 
Sweet  scented  b;inaiia,  2")9 

sop,   2<i(i 
Swimming  b(dls,  480 
Swine,  2n7 

Swordfish    I  A  "u  1.366,  373 
Sword  of  shark   teeth:  si 


Taliii   ami    rcliLiion,   relation   of,  47 

and  the  kahunas,  4(i 

colors,   73 

Fishermen  's,  73 

ground.  48 

K(digious  auil   politiial   nature  of,  46 

Rigorous  nature  of,  47 

Siiarks  were,  346 

The,  46 

The  foundation  of.  46 

wheie  practiced,  46 
Tabued   jiersons,  ])laces,  objects,  47 
T.-ibus,  Fishing,  399 

for  women,  46 

N'ature  of,  4() 
Tadpoles,  299,  440 

Transformation  of,  299 
Tahiti,   260,   262,   263 

a])ple  [Wi|,  264,  2(i6 
Tails  of  lizards,  Curious  facts  about.  297 
Tallow  (.srf  Hides),  287 
Talus  debris  on  Molokai,  136 
Tamarind,  245 

butter,  245 

Prink  from,  24." 

Wood  of,  24.-) 
Tan  bark,  213 
Tangs,  372 

Tankard  shell,  470,  4.1ii 
Tanna  cane,  273 
Tantalus,  115,  220 

Age  of,  124 

Ash  eruption  from.   121 

Tapa     \-i('<'     filso     Kapa  I .        'I'lic     foUnwint 

))lants  wci-c  used  in  the  niaiuifactnrc  of  tapa 
oi-  liaik  cloth  :  Akala.  ban.  niaaloa.  mainake. 
<iIona,  ))oulu.  waiikc.  and  later  tlii"  introduced 
inullicrry. 

Tapa,  57 

'rai)a  beaters  (ie  kuku)  were  made  witli  various 
more  or  less  complicated  designs  on  their  four 
faces  to  t'roduce  watermark  designs  on  the 
finished  cloth.  The  designs  were  designated 
liy  nann's:  as  many  as  fifty  designs  are 
known. 

Tapa  beater,  70,  215 
colors   of,   69 
common   in    Polynesia.  71 
how   long  worn,  3s 
liow  ])rinted,  71 
Labor  employed  in  makino.  71 
maker  gods,  71 
making,  76 
making  a  fiiu'  art.  71 
making  (tirouji),  64 
Manufacture  of,  69 
Materials  for  making.  64 
:\Iethoii  of  dying,  69 
;N[etho.l   of  making,  64 
no  longer  luiide,  72 
patterns  and   designs,   71 
I 'erf  limes   for.   71 
jilants,  21  7 
rejiairing  of,  69 
Use   of   old.   62 
Water  proof.  71 


native 


590 


INDEX. 


Tapas,  57 


Tape  worms  {Cfsfciidra)  of  many  species  occur  in 
Hawaii.  Almost  all  species  of  domestic  ani- 
mals are  aitectecl  more  or  less  by  these  para- 
sites which  live  in  the  adult  stage  in  the 
alimentary  canal.  Oogs,  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  aiid  even  men  have  one  or  more 
species  peculiar  to  each ;  in  fact,  a  large  ma- 
jority of  vertebrate  animals  are  subject  to 
tape'  worms.  These  parasites  are  peculiar 
in  that  they  have  no  mouth  nor  alimentary 
canal,  absorbing  their  nourishment  from  that 
intended  for  the  host. 
Taro  and  its  uses,  65 

Cooked,  flavor  of,  6(i 

Descriiition  of  plant,  (iti 

Dry-land,  22.5 

flowers  cooked,  67 

Flower  of  the,  M 

growing,  (io 

Irrigation  of,  270 

leaves  cooked.  67 

plant,  Descrii)tion  of,  l^o 

Period  of  growth  of,  65 

ponds,  28,  63 

ponds,  how  made,  63 

roots,  60 

stems  cooked,  (i7 
\'arieties  of,  65 
Tarpons,  364 
Tassels,  Sugar-cane  field  in,  278 

Tattooing  was  practiced  in  ancient  times  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  The  acrid  poisonous  juice  of 
Ilieo  (Pluinba<j()  Zci/lrnidica) ,  a  small  shrul) 
occurring  on  the  lowlands,  was  used  to  pro- 
duce black  tattoo-marks.  The  acrid  juice  of 
Sisyrinchiitni  acre,  from  the  high  mountains 
of  Hawaii  and  Maui,  produced  a  blue  tattoo- 
mark.  Contact  with  sailors,  soon  after  the 
discoverv  of  the  group,  tended  to  stimulate 
the  art  of  tattooing.  During  the  early  whal- 
ing davs  tattooing  the  body  became  very 
common  with  the  result  that  almost  every 
old  Hawaiian  sailor  of  that  period  was 
marked  with  the  conventional  designs  used 
by  sea-faring  men.  The  practice  was  not 
regarded  at  any  time  as  a  religious  ceremony 
(as  in  certain  Polynesian  islands),  but  simply 
as  a  matter  of  personal  fancy  or  sometimes 
as  a  token  of  affection  or  as  an  indication 
of  bereavement. 

Tatooing,  Purpose  of,  38 

Tattler,  Wandering,  310,  323,  321,  324 

Tatuing  (Tatooing),  38 

Taxes,  56 

by  custom,  56 

in  olona  .217 

])ayal)le  in,  56 

Special,  5(i 
Tea  pest,  Maui  blight  the,  385 
Tears,  ,Tob 's,  198 

Technical  terms,  where  explained,  9 
Tellen  shell  [Olepe],  456 
Temples  [Heiaus],  27,  5(i 

Forms  of,  50 

of  refuge,  51 

Templeton,  W.  A.,  378 

Temperature.  The  highest  shade  temperature  (U. 
S.  Weather  Bureau  in  Honolulu)  in  ten 
years  has  been  86°  Fahr.  The  lowest  56°. 
"Occasionally  on  the  lowlands  a  temperature 
as  high  as  90°  and  as  low  as  52°  occurs, 
but  these  extremes  are  rare  indeed.  Tem- 
perature decreases  about  1°  for  each  320 
feet  of  ascent   in   the  mountains. 


Temperature  in  Hawaii,  33 
Ten-spotted  ladybird,  393 
Tent  shell,  446  ' 

Tentacle.       Slender   elongated    appendages   used   as 
organs  of  touch. 

Terebra,  455 

shells  used  for,  455 
Termites,  402,  424 
Tern(s),  311,  314,  318 

Grev-backed,  310 

Hawaiian.  310,  316,  323 

Noddv,  310 

Sootv,  310,  316 

White,  310,  318 
Terraces   (xci'  Taro  ponds) 
Territorial  Entomologist,  Study  of  the,  380 
Tertiary,  117,  121,  220 
Test  of  sea-urchin,  496 
Tetraplasandra  {■'<(•('  Ohe) 
Texas,  378 

Text,  Arrangement  of,  explained,  10 
Thaanum,  Mr.  D.   (Conchologist),  447,  452, 

453,  454 
Thatch,  Grasses  used  for,  286 

Theft.  Thieving  was  a  widespread  habit  among 
the  Hawaiian  people  at  the  time  of  their 
first  contact  with  Europeans.  Within  a  few 
years  after  the  arrival  of  the  missionaries 
conditions  had  so  changed,  however,  that 
valuables  might  be  left  unprotected  without 
loss. 
The  inhabited  islands,  100 
'The   Palms,'   1013  Punahou  St.,  Honolulu, 

13 
Theobroma  {see  Chocolate) 
Thetis.  T".  S.  Revenue  ditter 
Thick-bill,  Kona,  330 
Thimble  berry,  258 
Thistle.  Mexican,  204 

Sow,  196 
Thrasher  shark,  340 
Thread-fin,  364 

fish  [Ulua  kihikihi],  366 
--waisted  wasps,  404,  413 
Thrips,  427 

Thorax    (409).       In    insects   that   part   of  the  bodv 
situated   between    the   head    and   the   abdomen. 
Thorns    (203).       (See  spines.) 
Thorny   amaranth,   196 
Thousand-legged  worms,  408 
Thrum,    Thomas    G.     (Historian     and    Ha- 
waiian Authority),  12 
Thrum,  D.  F.,  Photograi>hs  by.  14 
Thrum's  Annual,  12,  155 
Thrush  [Oman],  334 
Chinese,  308 
Hawaiian,  334,  331 
-like  bird,  Kauai,  330 
Thunil>ergia,  250 
Thwing,  Eev.   K.  W.,  433 
Ti  (srr  aim  Ki),  210 
uses  of,  210,  324 
Ticks,  400,  409 
Tidal  wave  of  1868,  159 
Tide  pools  in  the  reef,  488 
Tiger  cowry,  459 

sharks,  345 
Tilden,  Miss  .1.  E.   (Marine  Botanist),  402 


95,  304 


INDEX. 


')01 


Tillering'  plant.  Rice  an  exani])le  of,  277 
Time    of    foi'iiiatioii    of    secondary    craters 

(Oahu),  220 
Tinder,  Fire  from,  ()2 
Title  page,  7 
Titular  deities.  4!t 
Toad,  American,  384,  2ii7 
Tobacco,  283 

Early  introduction  of,  284 

Hawaiian,  2.^4 

La   Platte,  192 

leaf-beetle,  395 

leaf -miner,  423 

native  of,  284 
Toboggan  slide  at  Keauhou,  182 

Tomato.  The  tomato  (Lycopersicum  esculentitni 
Mill.)  is  a  race  that  has  been  developed 
during  200  years  of  cultivation.  It  is  closely 
related  to  the  potato  and  the  two  can  be 
grafted  on  each  other  with  ease,  although 
they  will  not  cross.  They  thrive  in  Hawaii 
and  are  perannual.  Species  and  varieties 
have  been  introduced  that  have  run  wild, 
among  them  the  current  tomato  (L.  piiiipi- 
neUifoUuni  Dunal.),  a  weak  idant  with  small 
leaves  and  small  currant-like  red  berries. 
The  cherrie  (L.  e.  var.  cera-siforme  Hort. ) 
or  grape  tomato  with  its  small  red  and  yellow 
fruits  is  common  and  the  fruits  are  some- 
times   used    for    preserves    and    pickles. 

Tomato-fly  (Melon  fly),  387 
Tools,  Hawaiian,  74 
Toiiograjihic   map  of  Hawaii,  148 

Kauai,   104 

Maui,  134 

Oahu,  110 
Tojiography  of  Hawaiian  Islands,  £9-188 
Toji-minnows,  378 

-shell,  470,  466 

Top  spinning  was  a  favorite  game  with  Hawaiian 
children.  The  top  was  made  of  little  gourds 
called  hu. 

Torch  fishing,  242 

Torches,  uses  of,  311 

Torinia,  463 

Tor{iedo  bug,  402 

shell   (Spindle  shells),  450 
Tortoise,  Land   ((!ala})agos),  300 
Tortoise  shell,  299 

fish  hooks,  242 

scraper   [Uhi  kahi  olona  kuakonu],  64 

i:fse  of,  73 
Total  Inhabitants  (.scf  Length,  Area,  Popu- 
lation, etc.) 

Total  Insect  Fauna.  Pr.  Perkins  estimates  that 
the  total  insect  fauna  iirevious  to  man's  inter- 
ference with  nature  in  Hawaii  may  have 
yielded  ,"),7H()  species.  Of  this  nuinlx'r  some- 
lliiuK  over  one-half  the  species  have  been 
collected  and  described.  The  total  known 
fauna  (191:!)  is  about  ;?,.S2.'>.  About  1,.500 
of  this  number  are  not  regarded  as  belonging 
to    the    natural    fauna. 

Total  land,  fresh  water  and  marine  fauna  of  Ha- 
waii has  never  V)een  estimated.  K.xcludiiiK 
.  I'ratnzoa,  but  including  native  and  introduced 
species  from  I'uritrs  to  man.  there  would 
probably   be   at   least    12.(100    species. 

Towns   (-sTf  C'ities,  etc.) 

aiiij    \illages   on    {xrt    Map  of  island   in 
(piestion,  dlxo  (itics,  towns,  etc.) 
Trade  in  sandalwood,  219 

winds,  31 


Traditions   of   the   oiigiii    and    migration    of 

1  lawaiians,  26 
Trail,    (rest    of    the    Wailau-Mapulahu,   218 

11).  Flaleakala,  134 

I'ololo,   View   from.  218 
Transformation   of  tadpoles,  299 
'' Transition  ■  ■  burial,  52 
Traps,  Fish,  70,  341 

Lobster,  469 
Tiash   fire.  Smoke  from,  270 

files,  275 
Traveler's  i)alni,  238,  257 

tree,   257 
Tree  casts.   Lava,   in    Tuna,   162 

cotton,  2.S1 

fern  [HeiiJ,  190,  194,  222,  223,  253 

-hoi)])ers,  427 

melon   {Kcr  I'apaya) 

moulds,   is] 

moulds  in   I'una,  156 

on  the  shore-line,  150 

rats,  235,  292 

snail,  attache<l  to  a   leaf,  223 

snail.   Singing   td'  explained,   430 

Travelers,  238 

snails,  431 

snails,  Imnortant  genera  of,  448 
Triassic,  204 

Trigger  fish,  370,  373,  375 
Trignometric  station  on  Midway.  A,  90 
Triton,  Hairy,  460 

Quilted,' 460 

shells  used  for,  450 

trumpet,  449 
Tritons,  449 
Trochus,  4()3 
Tro])ical  almond,  245 

America  (.s-rr  American  continent) 

fruits  in  Hawaii,  255 

{jardens.  Views  in,  234 

industries     {xcc    Sugar,     Eice,     Coffee, 
etc.) 
Tropics,  Symbols  of  the,  231 
Trout,  37S 
Trojdc    bir.l    |  l\oae|,   310 

on  the  nest,  316. 

Red-tailed,  nest  of,  316 
Trojdc    Birds,   309 

Tse  of  feathers  of,  309 
True  wasps,  414 

bugs,  389,  402,  425 
Trumpet  cr(M>per,  24S 

lish   I  XuiiuJ,  350,  375 

Trunk  fish   [Moa],  374,  375* 

Trusses  (247.)  A  compact  terminal  flower  clus- 
ter of  any  kind. 

Tryon,  (!.   \V.    ( Concdiologist),  4ii4 

Tube  dwelling  bristle-worms  (Serpula),  460 

nosed  swimmers,  312 

Tubes,  Worm.  499 

Tuber  (197).  .\ny  thickened  portion  of  the  root 
provided   with   buds    (eyes),   as  a   potato. 

Tuff  Fine  volc.-inic  i)roducts,  as  volcanic  ash, 
that  has  become  coherent,  as  by  cementa- 
tion is  called  tulT.  sometimes  tufa,  though  the 
latter    term    is    more    properly    applied    to    cal- 


592 


INDEX. 


carious  materials  of  a  similar  nature.  In 
Hawaiian  geologic  literature  both  terms  have 
been   used   in   describing  tuff  cones. 

Tuff  cone,  Diamond  Head  a,  80 

cone,  Sea  erosion  of,  128 

cones,  Small,  115 

craters  (Oahu),  Time  of  eruption,  121 
Tumble-buo-  (beetle),  417 
Tuna,  Little,  366,  SHI 
Tunicates,  484 

('ommon,  490,  4>>4 
Tunnels,  Water  su]iplv,  1'27 
Tun,  Partridge,  460 

shells,  459 
Turban  shell,  460,  466 
Turkey  louse,  4(l() 

Wild,  295 
Turkeys,  287,  308 

Turnstone  [Akekeke],  310,  221.  224 
Turret  shells,  451 
Turtle-dove,  Chinese,  305 
Turtle.  Green,  294,  300 

Hawks'  bill,  300 

spear,  341 

Sea,  294,  299 

Sea  eggs  of,  300 

Fish  attached  to,  368 

Method  of  capture,  294 

on  shore.  294 

Twining  (vine)  Ascending  by  coiling  about  some 
other   object   for  stipport. 

Two  mollusks  used  as  foo'l,  442 

Two-winged  insects,  43  9 

Types  of  mollusca,  441 

Typical  beach  view  on  a  sand  island,  96 

Hawaiian  children,  32 

flies,  419 

growth  of  staghorn  fern,  194 

lobelia,  224 

native  house  of  old  Hawaii,  28 

native  village  (Halawa),  140 

scene  along  a  mountain  stream.  200 

view  in  a  rain  forest,  190 

u 

Uala.  284 
Uau,  310 
rhi,  202,  213 

Uses  of,  213 
Uhu  (Parrot  fish),  370,  349,  365 

uliuli,  365 
Uki,  202 
ITkikiki,    369 
Ukiuki,  58 

Uku  (Snaiij.er),  362,  349,  371 
Uku   (Plant),  202 
Ukulele  (Flea),  401 

(a  modern  musi<-al  instrument).  78 

Ula,  468 

Ulaaihawane,  330 

Ulaapapa,  469 

Ulae  [Lizard-fish],  380,  349,  359 

Ulaula   (Snapper),  362,  349,  371 

Ulehihi,  213 

Uli.  The  chief  god  of  sorcerers  was  I'li.  although 
this  class  worshiped  numerous  other  deities. 
The    class    of    lesser    demons    were    chieflv    fe- 


males, as  the  reptile  goddess  [Kiha-wahine], 
the  goddess  Hiiaka,  etc.  Certain  shark  gods 
were   also   worshiped   by   sorcerers. 

Ulili,  A  bamboo  fiute  {■•<'■(■  plate  5,  fig.  1) 

(Wandering  tattler),  310 
Uliuli  hula  (rattles),  70 
Ulu   (Breadfruit),  258,  264,  239.  241 

Native  use  of.  80 

plones,  83 
Ulua  (Cavalla),  362,  349,  364 

kihikihi   (Thread  fish),  366,  349.  364 
Uluhe  (Staghorn  fern),  194,  228,  223 

launui,  228 

L'lukaka:=Ulu 

Ulumaika,   57 

Uluna  (a  pillow).  They  were  made  of  lauhala 
or   of   very   light    wood   as   wiliwili,    etc. 

Uluna,  57 

Ulra  sp.   (fig.  4),  492 

Umbrella  shell    [Opihi  kapuailio].  460,  467 

plant,  234 

tree,  244 

Umbillical  cord.  The  ctitting  of  the  umbillical 
cord  was  attended  by  important  religious 
ceremony. 

Umbilicus  defined,  462 

Umeke.  A  calabash  usuall.v  used  to  contain  poi 
and     then     called     umekepoi 

Umeke  (xi'c  ulso  calabash),  57,  59 

Umekes   (bowls),  57,  70 

in  nets  [Koko],  57 

Umoki.  The  stopple  for  a  water  gourd.  The 
shell  of  one  of  the  marine  Terebra  spp.  was 
commonly   used   as   a    stopple. 

Unaoa.  The  barnacles  found  clinging  to  the 
hulls   of   vessels. 

Underground  water,  127 

Undershrubs,    Characteristic,    (Middle    for- 
est),  200 
Unicorn  fish,  372 

Unisexual  [Bot.]  (217).  Flowers  having  either 
stamens  or  pistils  only. 

United  States,  242,  259,  262,  276,  2S4,  36:i 

Exjdoring  expedition,  477 

Fish  Commission,  351 
Univalve  explained,  447 
Unloading  sugar-cane,  278 
Unukane  (Wedge-tailed  shearwater),  327 
Upena  hehe,  341 

kuu  (Long  sea  net),  344 

poo,  341 

pua,  341 

uhu,  341 
L^pi  (sponge),  (''ommon,  494 
Upland  cotton,  281 

ranch  on  Hawaii,  282 
Upper  falls  of  Moaula,  140 

forest  zone,  227 
Urchin  (Sea-urchin),  496,  487 

Heart,  496 

Eough-rock.  496 
U.     S.     Ex])eriment     Station     (see    Hawaii 

Agricultural  Kxp.  Station) 
U-u  (Squirrel-fish),  362,  349.  371 
Uulai,  T^se  of,  215 

Uuna.       The   shell    of    a    tnrtoise. 
Uwekahuna,  184,  1  s3 


INDEX. 


59;i 


"  Nacatioii    lsl;iii,|,'-  Tin-    (  Molokai ),   140 
\all(\v(s),  on  Kauai,   104 

oil   Hawaii,  148 

Isle,  The,  Maiii,  l';)7 

on  Oaliii,  110 

J'rincipal,  on    Maui.   134 
Value  of  suoai-  crop  (sn   Su.^ar  produrtioii  ) 

\':ilv..      U4.->).         On,,     of     t\u;     two     slii'lls     ,,r     :iiiv 
ilaiii  lilvr    .•iniiMMl. 

\'ancouver,   (Jeorf^e    ( Xavi-^atoi),    l.");;,    L>lt) 

2(j3,  2()7,  289,  29o 
A'apors  from   TlaliMuauniau,   166 

from    Mokuawoewoc,   186 
Variation.  Color,  in   Ian. I  shells,  432 
\':iri;iti()ii    (4^^).       J)ei);irtun-   from   the   normal. 
Variation,  Examjile  of  (shells),  435 

of  flora,  193 

Plant,  Causes  of,  193 

Shells,  Exam] lie  of,  433 
Varieties  (see  Xomenclatiire) 

Color,   433 

Various  animals  from  laml  and  sea,  291 

Varnishes,  gums,  paste,  etc.  Tlie  natives  made 
varnish  of  kukui  bark,  Vianana  buds  and  ki 
leaves;  jiaste  of  ania'uniau:  sums  of  the 
l)readfriiit  ,iuice. 

Vauuhan,      Dr.      T.      Waylaml      (Ceoioyist, 
Zoologist),  477 

Vein     [Bot.]     (215).        The    small    bran.hinK    ribs 

forming  the  framework   of   the  leaf. 
View(s)  ac-ross  Hanauma  Hay,  128 

in  a  forest  .jungle,  200 

in  an  ohia  forest,  200 

in  Honolulu  gardens,  240 

Government  Xuiserv,  238 

in  Kilauea,  174,  184 

in  Leper  Settlement,  136 

in  Nuuanu  valley,  112 

in  Olokele  cation,  106 

in  the  forests,  200 

in  the  Koolau  range,  112 

in  Tropical  gardens,  234 

in  Waiinea  cailoii,  106 

near  the  Pali,  112 

of   Halemaumau,  166 

of  Honolulu  acptarinm,  356 

of  Lanihuli  peak,  112 

on  Ocean   Island,  90 

showing  hog  flora,  218 
A'egetal)le  flies,  421 

fly  (Melon  fly),  387 

Vegetable  ()ils.  Wre.stlers  used  the  oil  from 
kukui  nuts  to  ni.-dvc  their  limbs  supile  ami 
render  the  body  slipperx.        (Siw  Oil.) 

Vegetation   along  the  streams,  200 
at  Kilauea,  166 

in  a   wet  forest   (figs,  l',  3),  190,  200 
in    Kilau(>a,  170 
ill   Kilauea-iki.  170 
in   the  forests,  200 
on  Hawaii,  156,  160 
on  Konohuinui.  224 
on  Midway,  90 
on  mountain  ridges,  218 
Sulphur  fumes,  elVei-t  on,  170 


Ventral    fins    (:JG8).       Fins  on   tln>   ventral   side   of 
the    body   corresponding   to   the   hind    limbs   in 

othi'i-  animals. 

Venus  clam,  456,  44() 

Verbena,  205 

Vermifuge,  Papaya  seeds  as,  263 

Vartebrates    (299).       The   great    group   of   animals 

Iirovided   with   a  jointed  spinal   column. 
A'ertical    section    through     Diamond     Ilea.! 

118 
Vessels,  Birds  following,  :;  1  2 
Villages  iin<l  towns  on  Kauai,  104 

and    towns,    rrincijial,    on    Hawaii,    148 
Typical   ,on   Kaiuii,  102 
(.s-rr  ( 'ities,  etc.) 
A'inca,  2()7,  250,  254 
Vine(s),  and   shrubs,  i:4S 
Bird-claw,  250,  248 
Festooning,  234 
Fire-criicker,  250,  248 
Fruiting,   248 

"Museum  "=Bird-clavv  vine,  250 
"Stick  tight  "=P)ird-cla\v  vine,  250 
Vinegar-fly,  421 
Violet  aphis,  o89 
Chinese,  248 
Mahukona,  199 
Xati\e,  L'29 
siuiil,  470,  4(i:! 
Viridonia,  332 

Viscid  (217).  Sticky.  Having  a  irlutinous  sur- 
face. 

X'olcaiiic  lionibs.  Masses  of  lava  lliai  have  solidi- 
fied into  more  or  less  rounded  masses  in  the 
ciater  and  are  hurled  out  as  lioinhx.  .Speci- 
mens occur  at  various  jilaces  in  the  group,  as 
Palolo   crater,    Haleakala,    etc. 

Volcanic  craters,  Active,  lui 
craters,   Kxtinct,   l(il 
glass  {><(■<■  Obsidian) 
islands,  The,  lOl 
sand,   117 
Volcano    House,   distance   from,   to   import- 
ant  points   (.S77'  Overland    Distances) 
House,  Elevation  at,  166,   1(55 
House,  Fern  jungle  at,  194 
House,  Firei)lace  in,  184 
Hous(>,    Halematimau    from    the,    166 
House,  Stagliorn   fern   near,  194 
-made  scenery  (Haleakala).  145 
-made  scenerv  on  Hawaii,  162,  156.  160, 
166,  170,   174 
Volcanoes  on    l!;iwaii  indicatcil,  148 
Work  of  ll;iwaii  "s,  HilJ 

\dracious  (lUil).  Taking  food  in  large  quanti- 
ties. 

\'owels.   I  i;i\\  aiian,  :!!• 

\"ows  were  usu.illy  ma<le  and  kept  by  Ha- 
waiians — through  fear  of  their  gods.  A  vow 
once  made  Wiis  regarded  as  a  very  sacred 
engagemeiu. 

N'lilcaiiology,    O.-iliu    a    laboratoiv    in,    lfl9 

w 

Wall.  .\  canoe.  The  ancient  Hawaiian  canoes 
were  dug  out  of  a  single  koa  log.  .Vmong 
the  spiM-itic  names  were  waa  kaukiihi=a 
single  canoe:  waa  kaulua-a  double  canoe; 
waa  pelelua=a   blunt  catu>e. 


594 


INDEX. 


"Waa   (outrigger  canoe),  80 
Wad  cutting  bee,  415 
Wahiawa,   114,  132 

l>lain,  how  formed,  220 

Wahine  noho  niauna,  228 

\V;ii.  A  general  name  for  that  which  is  liquid; 
fresh  water  as  distinguished  from  salt  water 
(kai).      A  word  with  many  compounds. 

Waiahole  tunnel,  127 

WaiaJae  Bay,  211 

Bay,  Fresh  water  springs  at,  131 

Waialeale  mountain,  103 

Waialna  Bay,  211 

Waialua  orange  {Citrus  Aurantium  sinensis 
Engler).  This  is  the  common  sweet  orange 
of  wide  cultivation.  It  is  known  as  the 
'native  orange.'  though  it  was  doubtless  intro- 
duced  by   Vancouver.. 

Waianae  mountains,  122,  211 

mountains.  Age  of,  124,  213 

mountains.  Early  ajjpearance  of,  220 

range,  132 

range.  Erosion  of,  122 

range,  Gneral  view  of,  122 
Waihee  valley,  138 
Waikiki,  Animals  to  be  collected  at,  116 

beach,  80,  116 

Common  alga-  at,  492 

Common  marine  plants  at,  492 

Common  sea  mo.'^s  at,  492 

Coral  reef  at,  131 

Diamond  Head  from,  116 

Palms  at,  233 

Plants  at,  116 

Surf  at,  80 

Wailau  valley,  133 
sea-shore  at,  136 

Wailua  Falls,  102 

stream,  102 

valley (  Kauai),  107 
Wailupe  valley,  129 
Waimanu  valley.  149 
Waimea  Bay,  (")ahu.  Surf  at,  128,  211 

canon,  106,  107 

on  Hawaii,  149 
Wainiha  valley,  107 
Wai])io  valley,  154,  149 

valley.  Erosion  of,  154 

evidence  of  a  drowned  valley,  154 

General  view  of.  154 

Eice  fields  in,  154 

Scenery  of,  154 

Water  "fall  in,  154 

Waipuhea  (Blown  water)  falls,  112  * 

Waistban.l,  57 

Wakea,  .50 

Walahee  (xfc  Alahee) 

Waldron's  ledge  at  Kilauea,  170,  179 

Wallace,  Alfred  Russel   (Evolutionist),  94 

Walled  enclosure  (Mullet  ponds)   ,270 

Walls  of  Kilauea  (shown),  184 

Walsingham   (Lord),  420,  422,  423 

Walu,  349 

Wana,  487 

Wandering  tattler  [Ulili],  310,  323,  321 


Warble-fly,  387 
War  canoe,  48 

councils,  50 

Intiuence  of,  34 

War  months.  The  five  months  following  Janu- 
ary [kaelo]  were  war  months.  During  the 
remainder  of  the  year  there  could  be  no  war. 

'Warfare,  50 

at  certain  seasons,  79 

Canoes  used  in,  51 

Captives  in,  53 

Fatality  from,  53 

Implements  of,  79 

Method  of,  84,  47 

Peace  after,  53 

Eecruits  for,  51 

The  challenge  in,  53 

The  dead  in,  disposition  of,  53 

Termination  of,  54 

Use  of  forts  in,  51 

Use  of  idols  in,  53 

Women's  jiart  in,  51 
Wargods,  52,   77 

gods  kept  l)y  ]>riests,  54 
Warren,  J.  T.,  Photographs  by,  14 
Warrior,  Hawaiian,  44,  51 
Washington,     Dr.     H.     S.     (sfr     Hawaiian 
Igneous  Eocks) 

palm.  246,  237 
Wasps,  4(14,  412 

Common,  406 

Digger,  413 

Experiments  with,  415 

Keys  to  species  of,  414 

nests  made  of,  404 
Water  beetles,  436,  416 

bottles,  Stoppers  for,  (51 

Buffalo,   282 

cress,  208 

fall  in  Waijiio  vallev,  154 

falls  [Akaka]  (500  ft.)  on  Hawaii,  162 

falls  along  the  coast   (Hawaii),  154 

falls  on  Kauai,  102 

falls  on  Molokai,  140 

falls  on  Oahu  [Waipuhia^  Blown 
water],  an  intermittent  fall  near  the 
Pali,  112 

falls  (.STC  name  of  falls  in  cjuestion) 

-glass  for  collecting,  478,  476 

-lemon,   268 

-lemon,  Purple,  258,  268 

-melon,  269 

-nut  (Kcr  Chinese  Horned-nut),  285 

-proof  tapas,  71 

scavenger  beetles,  416 

supply  tunnels,  127 
Waterboatman,  436,  42(i 
Wattle,  248 

Black,  248 

Silver,  248 
Wauke,  69,  217 
Wauki   {rrrar  sn    Wauke) 
Wawae  iole,  214 
Wax  plant,  248 
Weathering,  E.\'am))les  of,  Molokai,  136 

Example  of  (The  Pali),  125 


INDEX. 


5!35 


Weaver  birds,  277,  3(l4 

Wedfie  work,  done  by  guava,  '2(V,', 

-tailed   shearwater,  310,   316,  327,   31:.', 
313 
Weed,  Janiestowii,   287 

Jimson   (.lainestowii  weed),  198 

Poisonous,  341 
Weeds,  2S(i 

Coiiiiiion.  196 
"Weeping"'  jialni,  237 
Weevils,  395,  405,  418 
Woke,  373 

ula   [Surmullet],  362,  373,  349 

ulaula  (Surmullet),  366 

Well.       The    name   given    to    the    curiou.s    woi  in  like 
Holothui-ian   at    Pearl   City,    Kaneohe,   etc. 

Welling  of  liquid  lava,  1(58 

Wells  (.sTf  Artesan  wells),  127 

Well  to-do,  Houses  of  the,  58 

West    Indies,   211,   232,   244,   252,   2(i2,   2(i(i, 

296 
Wet  forest,  Vec-etation  in   (figs.  2,  3),  190, 

200 
Wlinle,  A  race  for  a,  298 
Arctic  right,  301 
Boat  fast  to  a,  298 
Whalebone,  Sdl 
(■a])ture  of,  303 
Humpback,  30] 
in  the  Bishop  Museum,  302 
ivory,  302 

ivorv,  use  of,   79,  302, 
'Killer,'  346 
-lice,  468 
oil,  302 
Right,  301 
Sperm,  298,  301 
Whaleboat,  298 
Whalebone,   Yield  of,  303 

whale,  301 
Whales,  301 

and  whaling  scenes,  298 
attach  bv  Orea,  347 
food  of,  301,  302 
Size  of,  301 
'  Soundings  '  of,  303 
teeth,  use  of,  82 
Whaling  industry,  301,  303 
Whalesliiii,  Full-rigged,  298 

stripjiing  off  "  blubber, ' "  298 
Whelks,  441,  450 
When  introduced   (•■<"•  sjiecii's  in  (iiu'stion), 

296 
Whetstones   |  jiohdUu   h(iol<;ila  |,   75 

(sec  (Jrindstone) 
White  ants,  402,  424,  425 
ant,  Hawaiian,  425 
-breased    albatross,   312 
cabbage    butterfly,    422 
mice,  293 
mulberry,  267 
potatoes,  284 
rats,  293 

-tailed  tropic  Idrd,  309 
tern,  310,  318 
Wi  (Shell),  470,  466 
Wi  (Fruit),  264,  266 


Wicker-work    basket    |  llanai    pnepoe|.  57 

for  helmets,  77 
Wiile  ranging  shore  forms,   l!i5 
Widtli    of  rliaiini'ls    i  >■"     intiT  island    <'han- 
ncls) 

of  various  islancis   ( v    Length,  etc.) 
Wild  bananas.  190 

cats   (Introduced),  293 

euphorl)iit,    196 

fowl,  3<IS 

fruits,   258 

geese   (foreign),  328 

geranium,  2S7 

goats,  Damage  by,  221 

Ipecac  [  Xuumele  I,  212 

rice,  277 

strawberry,  255 
Wilder,  Williani  (Collector  of  Mollusca),  1: 
Wiliwili,  194,  203,  210,  395 

Native  use  of,  80,  204 

The  so-called,  203 

wood,  use  of,  86 
Wilkinson,  .lohn,  279 
Wikstroemia  (.s-rr-  Akai) 
Williams,  .Tames  J.,   Photogra|>hs  by,  14 
Wind  blown  sand  on  Oahu,  122 

Erosion  l)y    (sandstoiu>),  142 

gap.  The  I'ali,  example  of,  125 
Winds,  Trade,  31 
Windward  Islands,  93 

side  of  Oahu,  131 
Window  flies,  419 
Wine-jar  shells,  459 
Wine  palm,  246,  237 
Wiugles  bird-lice,  430 

bird.  So-called,  31  s,  333 
Winter   {sec  Hoi'.o) 
AVinter  visitors  (ducks),  32S 
Wire  grass  (Dog's  tail),  196 

-worm,  399,  417 
Woman,  Status  of,  46 
Women,  Certain  duties  of,  46 

Medicine  pra<-ticed   by,  46 

in  times  of  war.  51 

Special  tabus  for,  4<i 

dress.  The  llawaiiiin,  38 

work.  Mat  making,  73 
Wood,  bone  and  stone,  uses  of,  75 

-borer  beetles,  417,  418 

cabinet,   213,   245 

Imideiuents  of,  74 

of  tamarinii,  how  use. I,  245 

sorrel,   ^'ellow,  196 
Wootlen  calabashes  |rmeke|.57 

idol,  52,  70,  19 

image.  70 

tapa  anvil.  64 
Wood-louse,  4iis 
Wood-peckers.        There      Ipeing     no      ntitive 

peckers   their   intru(hiction   has   been    rejieated- 

ly  urped  to  cope   with   the   koa   tree  l)orer  and 

other      insects      in.inri(>iis      to      the      Hawaiian 

forest. 
Work  of  Hawaii's  volcanoes,  l(i3 

sugar-cane  borer,  380 
Worm,  Hlack  cut,  422 

Book,  418 


.d 


596 


INDEX. 


Cabbage,  399 

Flat,  i90 

-like   animal,   4S4 

-like  sea-ciu-unilier,  -195 

Marine,  490 

shells,  4()2 

shell   [Pohokui)ele],  460 

Ship,  490 

Sweet-patoto  horn-,  399 

tubes,  499 
Worms,  491 

Bristle,  497 

Cabbage,  422 

Flat,  497 

Sea,  497 

Tape-  (see  Tape-worm) 

Thousand-legged,  408 
Worship,  Idol,  49 

Objects  of,  49 
"Wreath,  Purple,  24s 
Wrasse-fishes,  366,  370,  359, 

[Hilu  lauwili|,  370 

[Omaka],  366 

[Opule],  366 
Wravs,   Batavian   cane,  2/3 
Wreath,  Purple,  250,  248 
Wrestling,  S3 
Wrigglers   (defined),  419 


305 


X 


Xylosnia  {src  Maua) 


Yam(s)   [Hoi],  67,  213 
uses  of,  213 


Yellow  canaries,  320 

Biguonia    (Bird-claw   vine),  250 

dragon-fly,  424 

fever  spread  by,  387 

-head    [On],  337 

-headed  ou,  331 

jackets,  404,  414 

oleander,  252 

Otaheite  cane,  273 

]ioinciana,  244 

-shouldered  ladybird,  393 

-tufted  honey-eater,  330 

wood-sorrel,  196 
Yield  i)er  acre  of  sugar-cane,  271 
Yokohama,  Route  from  to  Hawaii,  100 
Young,  Care  of   {■'■icr  species  in  question) 

Hawaiian,  80,  84 

Laysan  all)atross,  316 
Yosemite,  lao  eompaied  with,  138 


Zamia,  sp.,  246 

Zebra  dove  shell,  453 
dove  shell,  470 

Zizyphus  (sec  Jujubi) 

Zones,  Floral,  195 
Lowland,  195 
Lowland,  201 
Lower  forest  ,210 
Middle  forest,  222 
Upper  forest,  227 
Second  plant,  201 

Zoophytes,  480 


i  !'  '2'JI''i'*iiff '''*"•*  lit  if  ISr-: 


'mUUi 


Hi 


'<n\ 


'atSiitit  ititiittttit: 

[f||j|J?5  ?""='"" 


liiHiflllHJ 


North  Carolina  State  University  Libraries 

?I1u!?al"h^sToRY  of  HAWAII  BEING  AN  ACCOUNT  OF 


mjim "' 

miin 


S02775498  R 


^immmm 


-.SI,  J  t  Jt  3t  JtS^JtJt: 


jll  ummijlllllimiinji 


t!  I:  r 

'''lili'''''liliHli!iijH^ 
illiiiiiHiiiJIIiiiliiilJiilil 


5!SlHf> 


e  )c  ;  :  :  r ; : ;  t ;  :  •  ; ; 


fl    iffllll 


,JI|!  f|if(||||||f 

iiH|i|j|il||il  lliliji 


wmMmmmMm 


;? ; 3  f  ? : 


mm 


iiii 


^li 


iWmi 


H 


5  n  i  !  i  !  t  !  i  :  )  1 ;  ;  :  t 


mm 


